ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

eskulu.com
SUMMARISED ECZ GEOGRAPHY NOTES FOR WEATHERING AND
MASS WEIGHTING ETC. (2218)

ECZ GEOGRAPHY NOTES WITH

eskulu.com 1
ESKULU ZM 6/12/18
EXAMPLES AND EXERCISES
 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

CONTENTS
4. WEATHERING AND MASS WASTING ..........................................................................................................................3
WEATHERING ............................................................................................................................................................3
Factors Affecting the Rate of Weathering .................................................................................................................3
Geology: ................................................................................................................................................................3
Vegetation: ...........................................................................................................................................................3
Climate: .................................................................................................................................................................3
Relief: ....................................................................................................................................................................4
Aspect: ..................................................................................................................................................................4
Humans: ................................................................................................................................................................4
Physical Weathering .............................................................................................................................................4
Frost Action (Freeze-Thaw): ..................................................................................................................................4
Exfoliation: ............................................................................................................................................................5
Alternate Wetting and Drying: ..............................................................................................................................5
Unloading: .............................................................................................................................................................6
Granular Disintegration: .......................................................................................................................................6
Block Disintegration: .............................................................................................................................................6
CHEMICAL WEATHERING ..........................................................................................................................................7
Hydration: .............................................................................................................................................................7
Carbonation: .........................................................................................................................................................7
Hydrolysis: .............................................................................................................................................................9
Solution: ................................................................................................................................................................9
BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING ........................................................................................................................................9
MASS WASTING (MOVEMENT) ...............................................................................................................................10
Causes of Mass Movement .....................................................................................................................................10
SOIL CREEP ..............................................................................................................................................................10
Solifluction/Sludging ...............................................................................................................................................11
EARTH FLOW ...........................................................................................................................................................11
Landslides............................................................................................................................................................12
Mudflows ............................................................................................................................................................12
Avalanches ..........................................................................................................................................................12
Rock falls .............................................................................................................................................................13

eskulu.com 2
 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

4. WEATHERING AND MASS WASTING

WEATHERING

The Earth’s surface undergoes changes that are caused by internal and external forces.

Weathering is the gradual disintegration of rocks by atmospheric forces. The active wearing
away of the Earth’s surface is called erosion. The weathering away of the Earth’s surface causes
a general lowering and levelling of the surface which is known as denudation.

There are three types of weathering namely;

a) Physical or Mechanical – this is the breakdown of rocks caused by physical processes with
no change in their chemical make-up.
b) Chemical – this is the breakdown of rocks caused by a change in their chemical make-up.
c) Biological or Organic – this is when flora and fauna breakdown the rock e.g growing root
systems or burrowing animals.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE OF WEATHERING

Geology:
The type of rock is extremely important in affecting rates of weathering. Rocks with cracks are
more likely to experience increased rates of physical and chemical weathering. Cracks allow
water to get into the rocks. Soft rocks are much more vulnerable to weathering than strong
rocks. The chemical composition of rocks is also important.

Vegetation:
Areas of land that have vegetation are more likely to experience rapid biological weathering.
This is done by plant roots widening cracks that appear in rocks. Decaying vegetation releases
organic chemicals which facilitate both physical and chemical weathering.

Climate:
It is very important because hot temperatures increase the rates of chemical reaction,
therefore increasing chemical weathering. Areas with high diurnal temperature changes will see
an increase in some physical weathering. Wet areas are more prone to chemical weathering.
Wet and warm areas are likely to have an increase in the amount of vegetation, increasing
biological weathering.

eskulu.com 3
 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

Relief:
A steep relief can increase some forms of physical weathering, but can slow chemical
weathering. Most forms of chemical weathering need rain to be stationary but steep slopes
encourage fast surface run-off. However, a steep slope will cause weathered rocks to fall away
quicker exposing fresh rock beneath to be weathered.

Aspect:
This is a direction a slope is facing. The direction it faces can affect the amount of sunshine it
receives. If a slope is facing the sun, it might have more vegetation growing on it increasing
biological weathering. If it is not facing the sun, it might have less vegetation, increasing the
rates of chemical and physical weathering.

Humans:
They can influence rates of weathering in many ways; they can add chemicals to water courses,
they can deforest or forest areas, they can introduce animals or remove animals.

Physical Weathering
Takes place in various ways (processes) such as frost action, exfoliation and block disintegration
as well as alternate heating and drying.

Frost Action (Freeze-Thaw):

It occurs when rainwater percolates into rock crevices and pores. When it freezes, it expands
and exerts great pressure on the rock hence extending the crevices or cracks. When water
melts, its volume decreases hence more water collects into the crack. When it freezes again, it
exerts even greater pressure which finally breaks the rock into angular pieces along the lines of
weakness. This is referred to as frost shattering or freeze thaw. The pieces of fragments may
then be deposited as scree at the foot of a slope. It is most effective where the temperature
fluctuates around 0℃.

eskulu.com 4
 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

Exfoliation:
This occurs in rocks that are bad conductors of heat. The top layers are more heated than inner
ones. Differences in temperature in the surface layers and underlying rock, causes internal
strains in the rock, forcing top layers to peel off or shell off in onion layers. This results in
formation of exfoliation domes.

Alternate Wetting and Drying:

Some rocks absorb a certain amount of water which cause them to swell. When rocks dry out,
the outer surface of rocks shrink. The alternate wetting and drying weakens rocks such that
they begin to crack. This type of weathering is common along coastal areas where rocks are
alternately wetted and dried by the rise and fall of the tide. It can also be found in hot deserts
where rocks dry up very quickly after being wetted by brief desert storms.

eskulu.com 5
 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

Unloading:
This is the removal of great weights of rock that live on the surface. This may happen through
rising temperatures that melt ice sheets, erosion by wind, water or tectonic uplift. The
processes releases pressure on the underlying rock and causes them to expand upward and
crack at the surface. As a result, greater rocks are exposed to mechanical and chemical
weathering through denudation. As denudation continues, the rock expands further resulting in
large sheets of rock to split away from the main body. This process is called sheeting.

Granular Disintegration:
is caused by temperature changes. For example, in semi arid and arid deserts, there is a marked
diurnal range of temperature due to direct heating by the sun during the day and rapid
radiation at night. These changes affect rocks which have varied mineral composition resulting
into different rates of expansion and contraction. This also leads to grain by grain break up of
rocks.

Block Disintegration:
it also occurs due to to temperature changes which cause alternate heating and cooling of rock
layers. Surface layers are heated and expand during the day, but contract during the night as
they cool down during the night as they cool down during the night due to a rapid fall in
temperature. This alternate expansion and contraction exerts pressure on the rock which leads
to development of cracks. Continuation of expansion and contraction leads to shattering of
rocks into large-rectangular blocks. This is common in well jointed rocks.

eskulu.com 6
 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Chemical weathering is the decomposition and crumbling of rocks due to change or alternation
in their chemical composition. It is caused by chemical reactions between minerals in rocks,
gases in the air, water and weak acids. Chemical weathering is common in high humid areas
with high rainfall and temperatures.

Chemical weathering takes place under various processes such as oxidation, hydration,
solution, hydrolysis and carbonation.

Under oxidation, rock minerals react with oxygen to form new but weak mineral oxides or
hydroxides. Oxygen changes the structure of rocks making them weak and easy to breakup or
disintegrate. Oxidation is common in rocks with iron, manganese and sulphur. When oxidised,
iron in rocks changes to ferrous oxide and into ferric oxide. Ferric oxide, which is reddish brown
in colour, is soft, unstable and easily crumbles.
(2Fe + O2 → FeO and 4FeO + O2 → FeO3)

Hydration:
Some minerals in rocks have the ability to take in water, expand and exert pressure on the rock.
Pressure is exerted on the rock due to formation of bulky compounds after intake of water.
These rock minerals are called hygroscopic. When pressure is exerted, the rock disintegrates.
Calcium sulphate, haematite, feldspar and mica rocks weather down in this manner. Calcium
sulphate (anhydrous) reacts with water to form gypsum.
(CaSO4 + 2H2O → CaSO4.2H2O)

Carbonation:
It occurs when carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rain water to form a weak carbonic acid
(CO2 + H2O → H2CO3). The solvent action of carbonic acid reacts with calcacerous rocks such
as chalk, limestone and corals and turns them into an unstable form until the rock crumbles.

eskulu.com 7
 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

Carbonation is responsible for extensive weathering in Limestone areas known as dissolution.

When limestone reacts with carbonic acid, calcium bicarbonate which is soluble in water and
washed away, is formed. This leads to development of deep narrow grooves called grikes which
are separated by clints.

eskulu.com 8
 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

Hydrolysis:
It involves the reaction of water with some minerals in rocks. It weakens the entire rock so that
it disintegrates or decomposes. Hydrolysis mainly affects granite which contain feldspar, quartz
and mica. Granite rocks rich in feldspar react with H+ in water to produce clay mineral (kaolin),
potassium oxide and silica. Kaolin absorbs water resulting into the swelling and splitting of the
rock.

Hydrolysis causes some rocks to decay to as much as 100m below the surface especially in
warm humid climates.

Solution:
It affects rocks with minerals that are soluble in water like gypsum (calcium sulphate), rock salt
(sodium chloride), limestone and olivine. When minerals dissolve in water, the rocks
disintegrate and are carried away in solution.
The process of solution is important because:
i.) It is part of an important condition for the chemical process.
ii.) Dissolved substances tend to ionise and so can react or combine with other elements. This
activates weathering processes.
iii.) Highly soluble substances are rapidly removed so the chemical situation in the soil is
altered.

BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
This is the breakdown of rocks by flora and fauna. It is also known as organic weathering. It
takes place through action of plants, animals and people.

Below are descriptions of biological weathering;

a) Tree roots invade crevices and joints on rocks as they grow, they exert pressure on the rock
forcing the cracks to expand. This results into blocks of a rock breaking off (the wedging
mechanism of plant roots).
b) Widening cracks by roots allows water and air to enter into the rocks, hence accelerating
chemical weathering.
c) Plants like lichens and mosses grow on rock surfaces hence retain moisture on the rock. This
facilitates chemical weathering.
d) When algae, lichens and mosses die, they release organic acids which speed up chemical
weathering once dissolved in water.
e) Rabbits, moles, worms, termites and squirrels break down rocks into smaller pieces as they
burrow.
f) Large herds of hooved animals pound rock surfaces causing disintegration of rocks.
g) Soil organisms churn rock materials in the soil exposing rock particles to water and air for
further weathering.
eskulu.com 9
 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

h) Animals secrete urine which has chemical substances that facilitate chemical weathering.
i) People enhance rock disintegration through activities like;
i.) Quarrying.
ii.) Mining.
iii.) Agriculture.
iv.) Construction.
v.) Deforestation.
j) Industries emit chemical substances and carbon dioxide which facilitate the formation of
carbonic acid on mixing with rain water. This encourages chemical weathering.

MASS WASTING (MOVEMENT)

Mass movement often called mass wasting, is the down slope movement of a mass of surface
materials such as soil, rock and/or mud. Thus, mass movement occurs along hill sites and
mountains (or slopes) due to the influence of gravity and can happen very slowly or very
quickly depending on slope, weight of weathered materials or debris and lubricants e.g water.

CAUSES OF MASS MOVEMENT

Mass Movement can occur due to a variety of reasons. The most basic reason is the slope or
angle of repose of a hill side. If the angle is overly steep, gravity will pull the material downward
causing a mass movement.

Earthquakes are also a common cause of mass movement. As the ground shakes due to the
energy released through seismic waves, parts of the hill side or mountain can come loose and
move downslope.

Lack of vegetation can also contribute to mass movement. Vegetation helps to hold soil in
place which prevents it from moving. When the vegetation that holds the soil is removed, the
ability for the soil to hold together is lost and rolled downhill.

An overabundance of water will also make the soil very mobile. Water actually lubricates the
soil and contributes additional weight which helps the material to move downslope.

The type of rock and dip present in an area can also lead to mass movement. Regardless of the
cause of downward movement, the ultimate control of mass movement is gravity.

SOIL CREEP
This is a type of slow mass movement which occurs on almost all slopes but at different rates.
The movement is almost unnoticed and takes place on very gentle slopes. It can be triggered by
freeze-thaw, wind, surface run-off, ploughing, grazing animals, burrowing animals, plant
growth.

eskulu.com 10
 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

Indicators of soil creep include; tilted fence posts, bent and broken walls, bent tree trunks and
inclined utility poles.

SOLIFLUCTION/SLUDGING
This is a slow, gentle and continuous downhill flow of water saturated surface soil and
weathered rock debris over an underlying perma-frost sub-soil. It is common in high latitude
areas.

EARTH FLOW
This is a type of rapid mass movement and occurs suddenly. Earth flow is common in humid
areas with hillsides that have a thick cover of debris. It involves downward movement of fine-
grained material like clay and silt as a viscous fluid. It is triggered by under-cutting at the base of
the slope through human activities e.g constructing a road or railway line or due to too much
water in the soil.

eskulu.com 11
 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

Landslides
This is another type of rapid movement of a large mass of rocks. It is triggered by melting ice,
water, snow or earth movements and is common in mountainous areas. Sliding is facilitated by
water which lubricates the sliding surface.

Mudflows
There are also known as soilflows and result from sudden heavy rains leading to absorption of
large amounts of water by soil and rock particles to form semi-liquid mud.

It is also a type of rapid movement and is common in volcanic areas, semi-arid and arid areas
which have little or no vegetation cover but experience heavy and sporadic rainfall.

Avalanches
This is the downward sliding and falling of a large mixture of rock, regolith and ice along a steep
mountain slope. The material slides down at a very high velocity.

It is caused by the thawing action of ice which lubricates weathered rocks and large ice blocks
making them slide downhill over hardened ice masses as avalanches.

Avalanches can also be triggered by other loads such as skiers, snowmobilers, animals or
explosives. Seismic activities may also trigger avalanches. Large avalanches have the capability
to entrain ice, rocks, trees and other materials on the slope.

Avalanches like other rapid slope movements are a natural hazard to life and property as they
travel at high speeds.
eskulu.com 12
 ESKULU.COM STUDY ONLINE. NOTES. PAST PAPERS WITH ANSWERS.

Rock falls
This is the free fall of rocks of any size down a steep slope or cliff. This may occur as a result of
the freeze thaw process, loosening action of plant roots and influence of gravitational fall.

If rainfall continues for a long time, the broken pieces of rock collect at the bottom of a slope in
mounds called talus.

eskulu.com 13