Introduction

to
Railroad
Signaling
 Table of Contents

Table of Contents................................................................................................. 1
Chapter 1 - History and Purpose of Railroad Signaling.................................................. 3
1.1 Operational Requirements ............................................................................... 3
1.2 Train Braking Characteristics ......................................................................... 4
1.3 Time Separation................................................................................................ 4
1.4 Train Orders ...................................................................................................... 5
1.5 Manual Block .................................................................................................... 6
1.6 Automatic Block .............................................................................................. 10
Chapter 2 – Concept of Track Circuits ........................................................................... 11
2.1 Mechanical Track Structure .......................................................................... 11
2.2 Closed Loop Principle..................................................................................... 12
Chapter 3 – Basic Block Signals..................................................................................... 13
3.1 Types of Signals ............................................................................................... 13
3.2 Signal Drawing Symbols................................................................................. 18
3.3 Signal Structures............................................................................................. 19
3.4 Signal Aspects and Indications ...................................................................... 23
3.5 Information Flow Between Signals................................................................ 24
Chapter 4 – Basic Interlockings...................................................................................... 26
4.1 Purpose and General Concept of an Interlocking ....................................... 26
4.2 Track Components.......................................................................................... 26
4.3 Track Orientation........................................................................................... 28
4.4 Types of Operation ......................................................................................... 30
4.5 Other Track Components .............................................................................. 33
4.6 Signals .............................................................................................................. 39
4.7 Signal Aspects and Indications ...................................................................... 41
4.8 Safety-Critical Requirement .......................................................................... 45
4.9 Locking and Check Functions ....................................................................... 46
4.10 Drawing Symbols ............................................................................................ 47
Chapter 5 – Introduction to Railway Signal Equipment ................................................ 48
5.1 Relays ............................................................................................................... 48

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 5.2 Shelf Relays...................................................................................................... 51
5.3 Plug-In Relays ................................................................................................. 52
5.4 Batteries ........................................................................................................... 53
5.5 Battery Chargers ............................................................................................. 56
5.6 Lighting Transformers ................................................................................... 58
5.7 Lightning Arresters......................................................................................... 59
5.8 Terminals and Resistors ................................................................................. 60
5.9 Signals .............................................................................................................. 61
5.10 Searchlight Signal ........................................................................................... 65
5.11 Position Light and Color Position Light Signals .......................................... 66
5.12 Signal Mounting .............................................................................................. 67
5.13 LED Signal....................................................................................................... 68
5.14 Housings ........................................................................................................... 68
5.15 Grade Crossing Warning Devices ................................................................. 73
5.16 Wire and Cable................................................................................................ 78
Chapter 6 – Power Sources and Distribution ................................................................. 80
6.1 AC Feed and Distribution .............................................................................. 80
6.2 Alternative Energy Sources............................................................................ 81
Chapter 7 – Basic Electricity and Ohm’s Law................................................................ 84
7.1 Basic Electricity and Ohms Law ................................................................... 84
7.2 AC vs. DC Voltage .......................................................................................... 84
7.3 Sine Wave Rectification.................................................................................. 86
7.4 Circuits and DC Current Flow...................................................................... 88
7.5 Ohm’s Law....................................................................................................... 90
7.6 Power................................................................................................................ 97
7.7 Circuits and AC Current Flow...................................................................... 98
7.8 Inductors .......................................................................................................... 98
7.9 Capacitors ...................................................................................................... 100
7.10 Ohm’s Law Worksheet................................................................................. 101
7.11 Ohm’s Law Worksheet - Ans wers ............................................................... 108
Table of Illustrations...................................................................................................... 114

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Chapter 1 - History and Purpose of Railroad Signaling

1.1 Operational Requirements

As soon as the early railroads found themselves with more than one train
operating in a given area, the need for some form of management over the movement of
trains became apparent. Trains offered much faster transportation than had been
available by any other means, and the pressures were generated from every direction to
take advantage of this capability to the greatest extent possible.

Photo 1.1.1 - Train Collision

Of course, having multiple trains in operation at increasing speeds created a

natural basis for collisions between trains. There needed to be ways to protect against
such disasters without unduly restraining the ability of the railroads to meet the rapidly
growing expectations of the public for this dramatic new means of transporting both
people and goods across the country at unheard-of rates of speed.

This balancing act between safety and expediting traffic was a slow, painful
process. There were no models to follow. Every step had to be invented from scratch.
Many of these inventions failed for one reason or another, while others succeeded and led
to further advances. It was truly a trial-and-error process, and the errors were often
deadly to train crews, passengers, and the general public. In the modern era, we think in
terms of capacity enhancement, increasing efficiency of movements, and improved asset
utilization. In the early days, the questions revolved more around “How can I get this
train from A to Z without spilling it all over the landscape and killing people?”

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1.2 Train Braking Characteristics

One of the underlying reasons why train movement needed special management is
the physics of braking and stopping a train. Three factors join forces to make trains a
prime candidate for accidents, in the absence of some means to manage the process. One
factor is the constraints placed on movement by the track. Unlike automobiles and
trucks, or even the horse-drawn wagons of the early railroad era, a train cannot veer
sideways to avoid hitting something in its path. It follows the rails, whether there is an
obstruction or not. The second factor is the large momentum resulting from having a
long string of cars, or even a short one, stretched out behind the locomotive. Simple laws
of physics dictate that, as the mass of the moving object increases, it packs more energy,
and becomes harder to stop, slow, or change course. The third factor is the adhesion, or
relative lack of it, between smooth steel wheels and the smooth steel rails they run on.
Rubber tires on concrete have very good adhesion, which results in an ability to
accelerate or stop a road vehicle in relatively short time and distance.

The end result, in an automobile, is that you can quite easily come to a stop from
a speed of 60 mph in less that 6 seconds on dry pavement. That is a deceleration rate of
greater than 10 miles per hour per second (mph/s) and results in a total stopping distance
of a little more than 300 feet. A modern transit train with disk brakes and electric control
of those brakes has a typical deceleration rate of 2 mph/s. A heavy freight train comes
closer to a rate of 0.5 mph/s, often requiring more than 2 miles to stop from a speed of 50
to 70 mph.

Comparing the train with the automobile, we drive our cars with the understanding
that if we see an obstruction in the road, we can either go around it or stop short of it.
Control of the vehicle can take place within the visual range of the driver. With a train,
this is very seldom the case. Except at very low speeds, the assumption is that the
engineer cannot stop the train within the range of vision. This situation is compounded in
the case of two trains moving toward each other on the same track. In this case, even if a
train could be stopped short of a stationary object within the range of vision, a train
moving toward you is not stationary and the distance to collision shrinks at the closure
speed between the two trains.

1.3 Time Separation

The earliest method used to manage railroad traffic was a time separation scheme.
Schedules were established and printed timetables were distributed as the guideline for
train operation. Trains were expected to arrive and depart certain points according to the
timetable. The schedules allowed for some margin of error, but adherence to the
schedule was an absolute must. A train would run at full speed, confident that it was still
30 minutes or an hour behind the train ahead. Or, if two opposing trains were to meet at
a passing siding, the timetable showed that and assumed that both would be on their
scheduled time.

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 Needless to say, this system led to some disasters. Breakdowns were common. If
a train had to make an unscheduled stop for any reason, there was a good chance of a
rear-end collision. There was no inherent way to inform the following train if something
happened contrary to plan. The same problem impacted the opposing trains meeting at a
passing siding. If one of the trains was delayed, the other was stuck waiting for the
opposing train indefinitely. If the on-time train would leave the siding on schedule,
instead of waiting for the delayed train, you had a sure formula for a head-on collision. If
it waited, the wait could delay movement for hours. In short, the timetable method of
operation was too inflexible, with no fault tolerance, and fell far short of both the goals of
safety and of keeping traffic moving.

1.4 Train Orders

Invention of the telegraph opened up new possibilities for adding an element of

flexibility to a published timetable of operation, and led to the introduction of train
orders to supplement timetable operation. Dozens of special forms of train orders were
created to handle a wide variety of special situations. Trains were assigned a class in the
timetable, and in potential conflicting situations, preference was given to the superior
train. Superiority could be inferred by class or by direction.

Train orders were written documents following one of the many prescribed forms,
or in some cases were strictly free form. Orders were issued by a dispatcher with
operating authority over the division, and communicated to one or more operators at
individual stations or towers along the line. The operators would write down the
instructions, filling in the blanks on the proper form, and each one would then read it
back to the dispatcher, spelling out all critical details for clarity. When approved by the
dispatcher, the operators would take the written order and physically deliver it to the
crews of the affected trains as the trains passed the operator’s location.

Typical train orders would define meet locations, hold times, limits of authority,
and various other special instructions. A train order was required to authorize any train
movement in the areas designated as train order territory. A simple meet order might say
something like “No. 15 meet No. 12 at A, No. 8 at C”. Reference to the timetable would
indicate which train takes the siding at each meet point, based on superiority. Other train
orders would specify which train takes the siding or which one holds the main track. If
conditions changed, a new order could be written that annulled the prior order and
replaced it, or in some cases new orders could amend an existing order.

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 Photo 1.4.1 - Train Order

1.5 Manual Block

Manual block operation was the next improvement to come along, especially in
areas where the amount of traffic exceeded the capacity of a train order system to
function efficiently. In manual block operation, the line was divided into sections called
blocks and the boundary between two adjacent blocks was staffed with a person called a
block operator. Block operators had to communicate with adjacent operators and with
the division dispatcher to agree on how to handle the traffic. Rules required that a train
could be authorized to enter a block under certain conditions, and responsibility for
assuring those conditions and for communicating authority to the train crews was the job
of the block operator.

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 Block Station

A B C

Block Block

Figure 1.5.1 - Manual Block Operation

Photo 1.5.2 - Block Stations

In short, dialog between the adjacent block operators, originally by telegraph and
later by telephone, established whether and when authority could be granted for a train to
use the block. Once this was determined, the authority was conveyed to a train crew by

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means of some form of visible signal near the track, rather then by written instructions as
in the case of a train order.

Many different means were used to accomplish this visible signal. One of the
early ones was something similar to a flagpole next to the block operator’s shanty or
station. A large round object resembling a big beach ball was tied to a rope and could be
raised to the top of the pole or lowered by the operator. If the block was clear and the
train had authority to proceed, the ball was raised to the top of the pole. Being visible for
quite some distance, the engineer could see the ball high in the air and know that he could
keep moving without slowing down. If the ball was not at the top of the pole, the train
had to stop for further instructions. This was the source of the old slang term highball
referring to full speed ahead.

Another early form of signal was a large brightly painted board situated on a pole
next to the track, mounted on a horizontal pivot. The operator could move the board to a
vertical position on the pivot to signal that the train could proceed. If the train was
required to stop, the board was rotated to a horizontal position that extended partway
across the track as a visual barrier. If the train did not stop, it would hit the board and
break it off, which would be evidence that the train violated the signal. The impact of
hitting and smashing the board was also supposed to alarm the crew in case they had been
inattentive. This device was called a smashboard. The rotating board concept was later
modified into what we came to call the semaphore signal, some of which are still in use
today.

Photo 1.5.3 - Modern Smashboard (Railroad Crossing Gate)

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 Photo 1.5.4 - Titling Target Signal

Photo 1.5.5 - Semaphore

Although manual block operation provided superior protection for train

movements in heavier traffic areas, it was also very labor intensive, since there had to be
a block operator at each block boundary. Heavy traffic implies frequent trains, and
frequent trains implied shorter blocks to allow them to run closer together. Shorter

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blocks required more block operators, and the cost of running such a system could easily
become prohibitive. Being totally dependent on the operators and their record keeping
and discipline, it was also subject to human error and many disastrous accidents resulted
from errors in communication, misunderstanding, or mental lapses on the part of the
block operators.

1.6 Automatic Block

Many of the shortcomings of a manual block system were overcome with

development of the automatic block concept, which was introduced in the late nineteenth
century. Automatic block followed naturally from the invention of the track circuit in
1872. Track circuit theory will be discussed in the next chapter, but for the moment we
will define it simply as an electrical detection scheme that automatically can detect the
presence of a train or any part of a train in a given segment of track between two
boundary points. Given this new tool to detect the presence of a train automatically,
independent of human eyes, railroad innovators soon figured out how to connect the
automatic detection device directly to a signal that could display the detection results
directly to approaching trains, with no operators in the loop.

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 Chapter 2 – Concept of Track Circuits

2.1 Mechanical Track Structure

A railroad track consists of two steel rails attached by spikes or other fasteners to
cross-members called ties (or sleepers in Europe), and laid on the ground with lots of
small stones called ballast, packed around the ties to hold them in place. Where pieces of
rail meet end-to-end, the ends are fastened together either by welding or by the use of a
pair of steel joint bars, one on each side of the rail. These joint bars are bolted together
through holes in the rail. In most main line areas today, rail is welded into very long
strings as one continuous piece of steel. This is called continuous welded rail sometimes
abbreviated as CWR. Branch lines, short lines and low speed sidings generally still use
jointed rail in which the rail itself is supplied in short lengths, commonly 39 feet. It is
spliced together using the rail joints described above.

Photo 2.1.1 - Track Components

A track circuit is a simple means used for over 100 years to automatically detect a
train in a section of track. The concept of a track circuit is the use of the two rails as
conductors to complete an electrical circuit. There is an energy source or feed at one end
of a section of track, and a device to detect or receive that energy at the opposite end of
the same section. Under most conditions the limits of the section of track involved in a
track circuit are defined by placing a special electrically insulated rail joint in both rails at
both ends of the section. This defines a single track circuit. Feed wires and receive wires
are then connected to the rail close to the ends to obtain the maximum benefit of the
continuity check provided by the circuit. If the track is comprised of jointed rail rather
than CWR, a short length of wire called a track bond must electrically bypass each bolted

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joint. The mechanical connection formed with the bolts and joint bars do not form a
reliable electrical connection between the rails.

Photo 2.1.2 - Track Bond

2.2 Closed Loop Principle

Energy supplied from the feed end is detected at the receive end and keeps the
receiver energized, unless something happens to break the current flow to the receiver.
This break in current flow could be caused by a break in a wire somewhere in the circuit,
a broken rail, a loss of power, failure of the source or receive device, or the presence of a
train. The train wheels and axles form a short circuit, which absorbs most of the energy
from the feed and allows the receiver to become de-energized. This arrangement,
illustrated in Figure 2.2.1, forms a continuous closed loop in which any interruption
results in a safer condition. Any failure causes the same effect as the presence of a train:
the receiver becomes de-energized. This is known as the closed loop principle, which
forms the foundation of all the fail-safe design practices used in signaling.

Feed Receive

Figure 2.2.1 - Closed Loop Principle

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 Chapter 3 – Basic Block Signals

3.1 Types of Signals

Photo Courtesy of Dave Cohen

Photo 3.1.1 - Signals As Seen By The Train Engineer

Because of inertia and relatively poor braking ability of a moving train, a train is
usually unable to stop within the range of the driver’s vision. This fact creates a need for
signals to provide the driver with information not obtainable by looking down the track.
Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 3.1.2 - Semaphore Signals

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 In the late 19th century, after a long series of ingenious and rather bizarre
contraptions, the industry settled on a signal concept called semaphores. Although few
of these remain today, they once formed the basis for much of the signal design and
terminology currently in use. The semaphore concept and some of its direct derivations
is illustrated in Figure 3.1.3. A semaphore is a mechanically operated arm that can be
rotated into one of several different positions. Information is conveyed by the position of
the arm. In general, the vertical position implies clear track ahead, the horizontal position
implies a need to stop, and a diagonal implies caution, or to anticipate that the next signal
may be at the stop position.

These examples illustrate upper quadrant semaphore signals. Another design that
was relatively common was lower quadrant semaphores, where the arm tilted downward
from the horizontal or stop position to indicate a caution or proceed. While the upper
quadrant models relied on gravity acting on the arm to drop it to the most restrictive state
(the stop indication), the lower quadrant models used a counterweight that
overcompensated for the weight of the arm itself. Thus the gravity effect on the
counterweight was sufficient to pull the arm up to the horizontal position, indicating stop.

Figure 3.1.3 -Various Common Signal Types

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 The earliest semaphores were mechanical and were operated by a long wire
starting at the signal, running down the pole and through a long series of pulleys along
the track until reaching the signalman’s control room. Here a big mechanical lever
allowed him to pull the wire and move the semaphore to the proceed indication.
Releasing the lever or breaking the pull wire would allow gravity to return the semaphore
arm to the most restrictive state. Later semaphores were equipped with electric motors
and gearing in the signal assembly itself, allowing the arm to be raised or lowered
electrically from a considerable distance much more reliably than could be done with the
wire pull method.

Semaphores, mounted on tall poles next to the track, allowed good daylight
visibility by the locomotive operator, however, visibility at night was a serious problem.
To compensate for this, a portion of the semaphore arm close to the pivot point was
equipped with colored lenses mounted in round openings. A single lamp (early designs
used oil lamps) was placed behind the arm so that each arm position would place a
different colored lens in front of the lamp. At night, when the arm was difficult to see,
light from the lamp would pass through one of the colored lenses; the resulting color
indicated the arm position. Green was used for the vertical position (clear), amber or
yellow for the diagonal (caution), and red for the horizontal (stop).

When the electric lamp was invented, it was used in place of the oil lamp and
night visibility of the semaphore became much improved. As electric lamps and optics
were improved, the colored lights became more visible from a greater distance than the
semaphore arm itself, even in daylight. New signals were developed using lights without
arms, becoming known as color light signals. The result was improved communications
and big savings in maintenance and mechanical problems. Modern color light signals
consist of separate lamp chambers, each with its own optics and color filter to display one
of the three basic instructions—clear, caution, or stop.
Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 3.1.4 - Colorlight Signals

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 Several railroads rejected the idea of relying strictly on colored lights to display
signal information and devised a form of semaphore with no moving parts. The new
design became known as the position light signal. It was constructed of a series of white
or yellowish lamps arranged in a circle with one in the center, lighted in patterns of three
that resulted in a vertical line, a diagonal line, or a horizontal line—an image much like
semaphores. Thousands of these are still in use today on several eastern railroads.

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 3.1.5 - Position Light Signal

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 3.1.6 - Searchlight Signal

Another variation of the original semaphore design was called the searchlight
signal, (see Figure 3.1.6). A searchlight is a miniature semaphore mechanism without the
arm. It has one lamp in an enclosed housing with powerful optics, leading to a single
opening. Between the lamp and the external lenses is a moving vane that contains three
small colored filters. The vane rotates on an axis that puts one of the three color filters
between the lamp and the optics. Voltage applied to a coil in the mechanism causes the
vane to rotate one direction to display yellow and the opposite direction to display green.

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 This is accomplished by reversing the polarity of the applied voltage. With no
voltage applied, the vane will return to center by gravity, aided by an internal weight, to
represent red. The result is a highly visible and compact signal, but it is still subject to
mechanical failure. Today, few railroads install new searchlight signals, and some roads
are in the process of phasing them out completely.

Figure 3.1.7 - Searchlight Signal Operation

The last design, devised and used only by the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad, is the
color-position light signal, depicted in Figure 3.1.8. As the name implies, the signal uses
the standard colors, but each color is presented using two separate lamps arranged in a
vertical, diagonal or horizontal row depending on the lamps lighted.

Figure 3.1.8 - Color Position Light Signal Operation

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 Photos Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 3.1.9 - Color Position Light Signal

3.2 Signal Drawing Symbols

Even though the majority of signals currently in use in North America are the
color-light type, drawing symbols generally still rely on the semaphore arm positions to
illustrate signal status. This is because hand drawn semaphore symbols eliminate the
need to convey instructions in color. The same symbols apply, regardless of the actual
type of signal used, since there is a consistent relationship between the colors and the arm
positions. The symbols shown in Figure 3.2.1 represent the accepted drawing symbols.
Each design shows the location and status of any kind of signal. When it is not necessary
to show what color combinations a signal may display, the common drawing symbol
choice is the circle on a base (1). It represents the presence of a signal, but does not
indicate what type of signal it is or what colors it is equipped to display.

1 2 3 4 5

Figure 3.2.1 - Signal Drawing Symbols

When it is necessary to indicate what colors a particular signal can display, stick
symbols are used. The symbol shown in (2) can display any of the three standard
colors. Symbol (3) is equipped for red and green only, while symbol (4) only shows

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red and yellow. Symbol (5) has all three colors, plus the ability to display a flashing
yellow.

Applying these symbols to a track plan requires laying them on their side since
track is usually shown as a horizontal line. Figure 3.2.2 shows both types of symbols
applied to a section of track. Symbols shown above the track are signals viewed by a
train moving from the right to the left. This is represented by the orientation of the
symbol; a person looking in the direction of travel would see the symbols right side up,
while a person looking in the opposite direction would see them upside down. Symbols
shown below the track are signals viewed by a train moving from left to right.

Figure 3.2.2 - Signal Symbols Applied To A Track Plan

In the past, a common practice was to show signals to the right of the track to
which they applied. This was logical because for many years the requirement was to
physically install signals on the right side of the track. This requirement no longer exists,
so in modern practice the only clear indication of the applicable direction of a signal is its
orientation on a track plan and cannot be inferred from placement to the left or right. Left
or right side placement on the plan generally corresponds to the physical installation in
the field, which is determined by visibility, clearances, accessibility, and other factors.

3.3 Signal Structures

Most signals are installed alongside or over the track at a height that puts them at
or above eye level for the locomotive engineer. A typical installation on single track
where there is only one signal involved will find the signal mounted at the top of a pole
or mast approximately 15 to 20 feet tall. The signal will face oncoming traffic down the
track, and the mast will be equipped with a ladder on the back side, leading to a small
platform located just below the signal itself allowing for maintenance access. In some
cases, where the track is signaled for traffic in both directions, there may be two signals
that are mounted on the same mast -- one facing in each direction down the track.

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In this case, one signal would be on the right side as seen by approaching trains, and the
other (for the opposite direction) would be on the left side.

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 3.3.1 - Back To Back Signals

In double track areas, where a signal must be provided for each track, two
separate masts are generally provided, located on opposite sides of the right-of-way.
Trains moving on the right hand track will read the signal on the right side, and trains
moving on the left hand track will read the signal to the left of the left hand track.
Signals cannot be placed in the space between the two tracks due to physical clearance
restrictions.

For many years, federal regulations required that signals be installed to the right
of the track centerline, due to visibility restrictions from the right side of the locomotive
cab. This is no longer the case, and the installation of signals was greatly simplified by
this change. You will still find many installations dating back to that earlier time, which
led to the creation of some interesting looking structures.
Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 3.3.2 - Bracket Mast Signal.

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 One of these is called a bracket mast. A single large post was installed to the
right of a double track line, but at the top of the large post was a platform extending side-
to-side which, in turn, supported two short masts about 5 feet apart. Each short mast
supported the signal for one track.

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 3.3.3 - Cantilever Signals

Another structure that has been used for supporting signals where several tracks
are involved is the cantilever structure. This uses a supporting mast outside the track area
with a horizontal structure extending across the track to support the necessary signals.
This maintains them in the proper position relative to the track to which they pertain.
Servicing of the signals is generally done from a platform built into the horizontal portion
of the structure, which can be reached by a ladder mounted to the mast portion.
Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 3.3.4 - Signal Bridge

Where more tracks are involved or the distances make a cantilever structure
impractical, a signal bridge is sometimes used. As the name implies, a signal bridge is a

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structure extending across the tracks and supported at both ends. Signals are mounted on
one or both sides of the bridge and positioned properly with respect to the track that each
one pertains to. The bridge deck generally provides a service platform for maintaining
the signals, and a ladder is installed at one end of the bridge to reach the deck from the
ground.

Photo Courtesy Of James Mitchell

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 3.3.5 - Dwarf Signals

In yard and terminal areas, and on sidings where train moves are quite slow,
signals may be mounted at ground level, attached directly to a buried foundation. These
are called dwarf signals, as contrasted to the high signals, which are any of those
mounted on poles, cantilevers, or bridges. Dwarf signals are accessed from the ground
for maintenance work.

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3.4 Signal Aspects and Indications

Information represented by signals is described in terms of aspects and

indications. An aspect is the color or position of the lights. Each aspect has a name and a
definition. The definition is referred to as the indication. The application of these terms
can sometimes be confusing and overlap one another. Here are some of the basic
definitions:

• Aspect Color: Green

Aspect Symbol Position: Vertical row
Aspect Name: Clear
Indication: Proceed at maximum authorized speed

• Aspect Color: Yellow

Aspect Symbol Position: Diagonal row
Aspect Name: Approach
Indication: Proceed; prepare to stop at next signal

• Aspect Color: Flashing yellow

Aspect Symbol Position: Flashing diagonal row
Aspect Name: Advance Approach
Indication: Proceed; prepare to stop at second signal ahead

• Aspect Color: Red

Aspect Symbol Position: Horizontal row
Aspect Name: Stop
Indication: Stop

In many situations, signals are built with more than one lamp group so that
combinations of colors may be displayed, for example, green over red, yellow over green,
or red over flashing green. Each of those examples, are aspects used for special
applications. In many cases, the same combinations mean different things on different
railroads. Some of the more complex aspects will be discussed in our study of
interlockings. For now, the four listed above will adequately illustrate basic block
signals.

Where there is more than one lamp group, allowing several colors to be displayed
at the same time, each individual lamp group is often referred to as one arm of the signal.
Clearly this term relates back to the semaphore, where a single semaphore arm could be
in any of two or three positions. When the semaphore arm is replaced with a group of
colored lights, in which only one of the group is lit at any one time, that group
corresponds to an equivalent semaphore arm. Arms or lamp groups are sometimes called
heads or units as well. You may hear references to a 3-arm signal, or to the upper head
or lower head of a 2-arm signal, etc.

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 Other terminology is worth mentioning. Every signal has a most restrictive
aspect and a least restrictive aspect, with several other aspect terms between these two
extremes. An imprecise order can be assumed between these extremes based on speed
restrictions imposed by an aspect. Aspects allowing higher speeds are termed more
favorable, better or improved. Those allowing lower speeds are termed more restrictive
or downgraded. When an aspect improves to a state better than most restrictive, the
signal is sometimes said to be cleared.

3.5 Information Flow Between Signals

The operation described above clearly requires some means for communication
between signals, so that the proper sequences of aspects can be displayed for following
moves and traffic direction can be managed for opposing moves. The original method of
performing this communication was the use of wires strung along the track on poles,
linking one signal to the next. A number of different schemes were used, depending in
part on the type of operation desired and on individual railroad standard practice. While
the wire link method works reasonably well, maintenance cost is quite high and reliability
becomes a problem whenever the area is hit with severe storms, falling trees, ice and
snow, floods, etc. Theft of the wire and vandalism are common problems in metropolitan
areas.

Photo 3.5.1 - Pole Line

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 Coded track circuit technology has become a widely accepted alternative to the
wire links between signals, and many railroads are replacing old pole lines at the rate of
several hundred miles every year. The later generations of solid-state, coded track
circuits also offer many other features that contribute to lower maintenance costs and
improved reliability and performance compared to the old conventional pole lines. This
equipment replaces both the original track circuits and the pole lines, and most of the
relays used for logic and control at the signal locations.

Photo 3.5.2 - Electronic Coded Track Circuit Equipment

At the time of this writing, there is some testing of spread spectrum radio data
links for this application. However, the feasibility of this is not yet proven on a
widespread basis. The radio link and its associated I/O would replace the pole line and
possibly some of the relays at a signal location, but would leave the original track circuits
intact.

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 Chapter 4 – Basic Interlockings

4.1 Purpose and General Concept of an Interlocking

Interlockings are mechanical or electrical schemes for overriding human actions

to provide safe train operation at certain points on a railroad. They are used at locations
where a potential conflict exists between two or more alternate routes on the same or
different railroads. Their primary purpose is to protect trains from each other at points
where their routes might conflict, such as railroad grade crossings (one track directly
crosses another) and main line track switches. They are not needed in yards, low traffic
branch lines or any other place where train speeds over alternate routes are slow.

Photo Courtesy of Dave Cohen

Photo 4.1.1 - Complicated Interlocking

4.2 Track Components

The track components of most concern are the switches (sometimes called turnouts) that
route a train from one track to another (see Figure 4.2.1). The key elements of a track
switch are the switch point rails, which are anchored at one end (the heel) and move at
the other end (the points). Point rails are tapered to a very thin edge at the point end to
allow them to be moved against the edge of a regular rail to divert a passing wheel
smoothly onto the point rail. In typical American railroad practice, the two points are
connected together at the moving end by a series of rods that maintain the proper spacing
between the points. Lateral movement of the points result in one point or the other being
pressed firmly against its associated stock rail, which does not move. When one point is

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against the stock rail, the other point maintains a gap of approximately 5 inches between
it and its stock rail.

Point Heel Stock Rail Guard Rail Frog

Normal Route

Reverse
Stock Rail Route
Normal Position Guard Rail
Right-Hand Switch
Figure 4.2.1 - Parts of a Track Switch

Photo 4.2.2 - Power Switch Points And Rods

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 4.2.3 - Switch Frog

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 The other end of the switch contains the frog, where the two inside rails must
cross each other. In most switches, the frog is a solid steel casting of the proper shape. It
provides a guided pathway for the wheel flange to pass through a gap across the other rail
with a minimum of bump. In very high speed service, or where conditions demand a
particularly smooth transition, a moveable point frog is used in which moving parts are
used to eliminate the gap altogether.

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 4.2.4 - Moveable Point Frog

4.3 Track Orientation

If a train movement over a switch is in the direction such that the train approaches
the points first, it is called a facing point move. If the movement is in the opposite
direction, approaching the frog end first, it is called a trailing point move.

Most switches have a straight route and a diverging route. Standard terminology
calls the straight route the normal route and the diverging route the reverse route. Even
in switches where both routes are curved, a normal and reverse position must be assigned
for control purposes.

Facing Point
Move Right-Hand Switch Right-Hand Switch
In Normal Position In Reverse Position

Trailing Point Left-Hand Switch Left-Hand Switch

Move In Normal Position In Reverse Position

Figure 4.3.1 - Switch Orientation

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 If the switch is oriented so that a diverging move causes the train to divert to the
right, the switch is called a right-hand switch. Conversely, a left-hand switch diverts
traffic to the left when in the diverging or reverse position. In certain rare situations, a
switch is designed which is completely symmetrical and provides an identical diversion
to the left or to the right. This is called an equilateral switch. It does not really have an
obvious “diverging” side but must still have defined normal and reverse positions for
purposes of control nomenclature.

Figure 4.3.2 - Switch Size

The diverging route at a switch includes a curvature between the point and the
frog, and the curve crosses through the frog at some small angle to the normal route.
This angle can vary depending how the switch is used. Obviously, the sharper the angle,
the slower a passing train must travel to get around it safely. Switch curvature is
measured in terms of the tangent of the angle at the frog. The resulting number is
sometimes referred to as the switch size. Smaller numbers are sharper angles. See
Figure 4.3.2. A number 8 switch has a deflection of 1 in 8 (1 inch of deflection ‘D’
occurs in 8 inches of travel ‘T’).

This is about as severe as you will find in normal practice and would be used for
slow speed switching only. Main line switches to be used by through trains are generally
a number 16 or a number 20. Special track work for use with really high-speed trains
may have switches of number 40 or higher. Since safe speed over a switch depends on
switch size (angle), this becomes a factor that must be included in interlocking logic.

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 Figure 4.3.3 - Crossover Consisting Of Two Switches

A very common configuration is two switches or turnouts that work together as a

pair, with their reverse legs connected frog-to-frog. The most common application for
this is between two parallel tracks, allowing a train to cross over from one track to the
other. The pair of switches is called a crossover (see Figure 4.3.3). Although there are
two separate switch machines, the two are controlled from a single request so they will
both be driven to the normal position or the reverse position at the same time. Because of
their orientation, there would never be a reason to have them be in opposite positions.

4.4 Types of Operation

A track switch can be configured to operate by hand from a mechanical device

called a switch stand. This is used in yards, on industrial tracks, and on some main line
switches that lead to industrial tracks. These switches are typically not part of an
interlocking. However, some hand-operated switches are used in circumstances where
they need more security against unauthorized use than a simple padlock that is accessible
at any time to train crewmembers with keys. In these cases, a device called an electric
switch lock may accompany the switch stand. The electric lock provides a solid
mechanical locking mechanism to secure the handle of the switch stand and requires an
electrical release to operate a solenoid to open the lock. Electrically locked switches are
sometimes used in interlockings.

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 Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 4.4.1 - Hand Throw
Switch Stand

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 4.4.2 - Electric Lock

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 At interlockings, where the primary use of the switch is through-trains in main
line service, most switches are power operated by either electric motors, or in some rare
cases, electro pneumatic or hydraulic mechanisms. The mechanism that performs this job
is called a switch machine (U.S. term) or point machine (European term). The moving
parts inside the switch machine are connected to the switch by several steel rods, each of
which has a particular purpose.

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 4.4.3 - Power Switch Machine

The primary function of the switch machine is to move the switch points. This
involves a motor, some gearing, a clutch, and a throw bar connected to the switch point
assembly by means of a throw rod. Another function of switch machines involves
contacts that check for proper positioning of the points (using a point detector rod to the
switch point assembly).

Since a track switch has the ability to route a train in alternate directions or to
derail the train if the point rails is not firmly closed against the stock rail; switch points
must be locked in place. There is a mechanical interlock built into each switch machine

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that physically prevents the points from moving until the switch machine operates. One
of the rods between the machine and the switch point assembly is the lock rod. The rod
links the internal machine function to the switch points, independently of the other
functions. External to the switch machine there are logical locking functions, which
prevent the controlling system from attempting to move the switch when it is not safe to
do so.

An alternative to hand-operated and power-operated switches is the spring switch.

As the name implies, it is operated by a heavy spring mechanism that keeps the point
closed in one position, but not locked in that position. A facing point train move will
always go toward the spring-preferred direction, but a trailing point move can be from
either position. If a trailing point move occurs from the side opposite the spring position,
the flange on the first wheel will pry the closed switch point open against the spring
pressure. A damping mechanism allows the point to begin returning slowly to the closed
position so that each wheel that comes through will not have to pry the point open
completely from the fully closed position.

4.5 Other Track Components

At interlockings where one track crosses another, there are four places where
wheel flanges must have a gap to cross the other rails. As with switches, these are also
called frogs and have similar construction. Frogs used in crossings may have various
angles, from 90 degrees to as low as 15 degrees. The group of four frogs used to
accomplish a crossing is generally called a diamond (see Figure 4.5.1)

Figure 4.5.1 - Crossing Diamond

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 Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell
Photo 4.5.2 - Crossing Diamond

Crossing diamonds and turnouts are sometimes combined to reduce the amount of
space needed. One common form of combination in transit work where space is often at
a premium is the scissors crossover. Their typical application is around stations or at the
end of a line, where trains may be required to approach on one track, then change
directions and return on the other track. Illustrated in Figure 4.5.3, this is comprised of
two crossovers overlaid on top of each other with their diverging routes crossing at a
diamond.

Figure 4.5.3 - Scissors Crossover

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 Figure 4.5.4 - Double Slip Switch

Photo 4.5.5 - Double Slip Switch “Puzzle”

Probably the most complicated piece of trackwork is the double slip switch,
sometimes called a puzzle switch. Figure 4.5.4 illustrates the idea of the double slip
switch, but does not attempt to detail it down to individual parts. There are so many
inter-related moving parts that even a person studying it on the ground has trouble
visualizing how it works.

Like the scissors crossover, it is really four turnouts and one diamond, but packed
into a much smaller space than the scissors crossover. Routes can be lined either straight-
ahead or diverging from each of the four entry points, but only one route can be used at a
time. The scissors crossover allows two trains to pass over at the same time provided all
switches are lined normal. Double slips are sometimes found at entrances to major
terminals where a 4 or 6 track “throat” may expand into 15 to 20 separate station tracks.

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 Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell
Photo 4.5.6 - Guard Rail in a Switch

There is a short gap to cross at a switch frog and the possibility exists that a wheel
flange might hit the tip of the frog and rise up to the top rail surface. Therefore, a special
feature is added to minimize that potential. It is called a guardrail and consisting of a
very short piece of rail mounted adjacent to the stock rail directly across from the frog, as
shown in photo 4.5.6. If a wheel is rolling with its flange snug against the rail containing
the frog, the companion wheel at the other end of the axle will have a gap of
approximately 1 inch between its flange and the opposite stock rail. Beginning with
tapered ends, the guardrail will gently drag this companion wheel over closer to its stock
rail by applying pressure to the back side of the wheel. This opens a small gap between
the flange and the rail at the other end of the axle to prevent that flange from hitting the
tip of the frog. Similar guardrails are used around diamonds and in other situations where
safety requires tighter control of exactly where the wheel rides with respect to the rail.

Another device that may be found around interlockings or elsewhere is called a

derail. Since an obvious high priority of any railroad is to keep its trains on the tracks, it
might seem counterproductive to have something designed specifically to create a
derailment. But that is essentially the function of a derail. There are circumstances where
safety might be better served by forcing a slow moving train or car off the tracks rather
than letting it proceed into a far more dangerous situation. An obvious case in point is at
a moveable drawbridge. It would be better to derail the train on the ground than to let it
roll smoothly off the end of the track into the river if the bridge were open. A less
obvious case may be where a siding merges into the main track and a train or loose cars
on the siding could roll onto the main line in front of a fast train. It is better to force a
low speed derailment than allow the possibility of a high-speed collision.

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 Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 4.5.7 - Block Derail
Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 4.5.8 - Split Point Derail

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 Derails fall into two general types: block derail and split point derail. A block
derail is a wedge shaped device that can be moved mechanically into position on top of
the rail to force a wheel up and over the rail. It can be tilted back into the clear when it is
safe for a train to pass. The control may be purely mechanical, linked to some other
device like a bridge or a switch, or it may be electro-mechanical with a drive motor to
move it in and out of position. The split point derail looks like half of a track switch. It
is essentially one point rail from a switch, positioned such that in the closed position a
passing wheel will proceed directly down the track like a normal switch position. In the
derailing position, it opens and forces the wheel off to the side where the rail ends and the
wheels end up on the ground. It is generally controlled very much like a track switch
with a power-operated mechanism.

A final track-related component worthy of mention is the use of track circuits on

all tracks. There could be one or many different track circuits in an interlocking,
depending on the layout. The primary purpose of the interlocking track circuits is to
determine when any part of a train is occupying the interlocking. Interlocking track
circuits end at insulated joints at the interlocking limits. Track circuits located inside
interlocking limits are sometimes called OS tracks. The origin of that term is a little
cloudy but relates to the days when most interlockings were associated with stations and
were manually controlled by operators located in special buildings overlooking the track.
The buildings were called towers in North America. In Europe and Britain they were
called signal boxes. The operator’s work area was 20 to 30 feet above the ground, with
big windows, high enough to see over the tops of trains. The operator would report that a
train passed the tower by sending a telegraph message indicating that the train was on-
station or out-of-station at a particular time. The OS abbreviation has remained over the
years.
Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 4.5.9 - Signal Tower

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4.6 Signals

Interlocking signals, commonly called home signals, define the limits of the
interlocking and stand at the end of the OS track circuit on each track entering the
interlocking. The signals may be of any type (searchlight, color light, position light, etc.)
and may be either high signals or dwarf signals. High signals are mounted 15 to 20 feet
above rail level on a mast or other structure to allow visibility from a considerable
distance. A dwarf signal is viewed by slow trains at a close range. It is mounted in a
short housing attached directly to a buried foundation, with no mast or pole under it.
Aspects and indications are generally similar between the two types, although more
aspects are generally available on high signals.

Photo Courtesy of James Mitchell

Photo 4.6.1 - Home Signal At Interlocking

Depending on application, a home signal may display an aspect that only governs
a train movement through the interlocking. In more common applications it also serves
as a block signal controlling entrance into a main line block. Because there are more
conditions to display on an interlocking signal, they are usually more complex than the
typical block signal. Many of them have two or even three groups of lamps (arms),
allowing them to display a wide variety of color combinations, each of which is defined
as a certain aspect in the rule book. This will be discussed further in the next section.

Rather than leave it up to the crews to remember which signals require absolute
stop and which ones allow stop and proceed, the distinction is generally done with a fixed
marker placed on the block signal and not on a home signal. The most common form of
marker is a number plate, which identifies the signal by its number. Signal numbers are
usually based on the milepost number to the nearest tenth. This is a fail-safe scheme in
that the possibility of a number plate falling off of a signal is much more likely than one
appearing on a signal where it was not initially installed. If a plate falls off, the signal

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(when red) will be interpreted with the more restrictive aspect (stop instead of stop and
proceed). The number plate has no significance with any other aspect on the signal.

Photo Courtesy of John Roma

Photo 4.6.2 - Block Signal With Number Plate

Another difference in operation between home signals and block signals is that
the normal state or default position of a block signal is usually a clear state, the actual
aspect being based on conditions ahead. Block signals are controlled automatically and,
in the absence of a train in the area, will display the best aspect permitted by safety
controls. The normal or default state of a home signal is to indicate stop until a specific
request is made, either by an operator or, in some automatic operations, by a train in the
track circuit approaching the signal. The specific request will cause the signal to display
the best aspect it can, subject to safety controls, until the train has passed. As soon as the
front of the train passes, the signal returns to the stop aspect until another request is made
to clear it.

Because block signals are located between interlockings, they are often called
intermediate signals. The last intermediate signal that a train passes before reaching a
home signal is called a distant signal or an approach signal (not to be confused with
Approach aspect) for the interlocking.

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4.7 Signal Aspects and Indications

The home signal often serves a second function as a substitute block signal.
When this function is combined with the requirement to convey instructions about
movement through the interlocking, the result leads to some rather complex indications.
It can be pretty simple if the move through the interlocking is a normal, straight route. In
that case, the only information to convey is the status of the block ahead (clear,
approach or advance approach). In other situations, the route through the interlocking
takes a diverging route through one or more switches. This must be indicated on the
signal, since there are speed restrictions associated with most diverging routes.

To put some order to the possible combinations, the railroads have defined most
diverging moves as falling into one of three speed categories, each of which relates to a
certain range of switch sizes. Railroads are not consistent on the definitions or on the
limits for a particular switch size, but a typical example would be:

• Slow speed 20 MPH Number 12 or lower

• Medium speed 30 MPH Number 16
• Limited speed 45 MPH Number 20

As a result, the home signal must be able to display indications calling for one or
more of these three speeds, depending on the route to be followed. Many installations
have only one switch size at a given interlocking, so a signal may not need to display all
three speeds. However, in some of the more complex interlockings there may be
different possible routes beyond a signal, with different speed restrictions. In any case,
the aspects will generally be different for each route.

When you combine this with the requirement to display conditions in the block
beyond the signal, there are many possible combinations. Adding to the complexity of
the subject, not all railroads use the same signal aspects and rules. The same aspect may
have different meaning from one railroad to the next. The examples given here are taken
from the NORAC rules applying to Amtrak, Conrail, and a number of smaller
northeastern roads.

In the earliest systems the interlocking protection devices were strictly

mechanical, elaborate schemes of perpendicular moving bars mounted in a framework to
hold them in place. The bars were fitted with protrusions and notches to permit only
certain combinations of positions. Levers in a signal tower were connected through
mechanical linkage to the switches themselves and to the semaphore signals. If a switch
was not in the proper position for a signal to grant authority over it, the signal lever was
prevented from moving. If a signal lever was pulled, meaning the signal was cleared; the
locking bar associated with that signal prevented moving the control lever for any
switches in the route of that signal. The framework and combination of mechanical
locking apparatus was called a locking bed.

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 Photo Courtesy of John Roma

Photo Courtesy of John Roma

Photo 4.7.1 - Old Mechanical Interlocking – Levers and Locking Bed

When electrical devices came along, the mechanical semaphore signals were
replaced with electric lamps. The direct-motion switches were fitted with electric or, in
some cases, pneumatic powered machines to move the switch points. This was like
adding power steering to a heavy truck. The operator no longer had to apply enough
muscle to move the switch or semaphore through all the mechanical linkage; he only had
to operate an electrical contact to operate the signal or activate the switch machine. But
the interlocking logic was still performed mechanically, with a smaller but otherwise
similar set of mechanical rods equipped with similar notches and protrusions that
prevented any of the unsafe combinations from occurring. This combination of electrical
power operation and mechanical locking was called electro-mechanical interlocking.

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 Photo 4.7.2 - Electro-Mechanical Interlocking Machine

Beginning in the 1920s, the use of relays became very common. The entire
interlocking logic could be performed using various combinations of contacts connected
in series and parallel to achieve the required interlocking results. This greatly reduced
the size, cost and maintenance requirements for interlocking control, and made it much
easier to make changes and additions compared to any of the mechanical schemes.

Photo 4.7.3 - Relay Room In Large Relay Interlocking

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 The first computer-based interlocking was installed in Sweden in 1978. This
introduced the world of electronics and software to the field of safety controls in
interlockings. Today, many all-relay interlockings still exist and some are still being
installed. However, there is a steadily growing acceptance of the microprocessor-based
controllers.

Photo 4.7.4 - Processor-Based Interlocking Control

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4.8 Safety-Critical Requirement

The various functions and components of interlocking operation are classified as

being vital or non-vital, which defines whether the function or component is part of the
safety-critical control. An operator’s requests for routes is considered non-vital, as there
is no assurance that the operator is not distracted or missing some essential component of
information needed to execute the operation with complete safety. The logic that
ultimately determines whether it is safe to grant a request (move the switch or clear the
signal) and performs that operation is considered vital.

Fundamental to any system employed in such a safety-critical application is the

fail-safe philosophy whereby any expected failure of any component will not cause a
condition less restrictive than is proper under any condition. In the signal business, the
term vital has more or less replaced fail-safe in discussing the need for ensuring that an
unsafe event cannot happen. In the mechanical or electro-mechanical interlockings,
safety was assured by the use of the moving rods and bars with the notches and
protrusions. It was assumed the operator would occasionally make a mistake and try to
operate the wrong lever at the wrong time. As long as the mechanical logic was correctly
implemented and the integrity of the locking bars was maintained, unsafe combinations
could not be set up, regardless of operator error.

In relay circuits, the same logic is performed using series and parallel
combinations of contacts. However, the relays themselves introduced new possibilities
for failure. Overcoming or at least minimizing this possibility is accomplished in part by
the special design of the relay itself, which makes the possibility of sticking in the
energized position extremely unlikely. In addition, a closed-loop design practice is
followed which requires that a de-energized circuit always produce conditions more
restrictive than the energized state in the same circuit. All the safety involved in
protecting train movements is achieved in the vital portion of the control logic, and does
not depend on the operator pushing the right button or moving the right lever. The
operator must enter commands into the system to operate the switches and clear signals.
These commands will be executed only if the vital interlocking logic determines that it is
safe to do so.

Processor-based controls largely emulate the logic of the relay systems. In fact,
the creation of logic equations for interlocking control in most processor-based
controllers is developed in an off-line compiler using relay contact symbols. However,
the combination of a solid-state controller and its internal software add a whole new
realm of potential failure modes. These possible failures must be addressed in the design
of both the electronic hardware and the software, just as the vital relay had to be carefully
designed to limit the possible failure modes that it could introduce to the system.

An important concept to grasp is the relationship between physical locking and

logical locking. When switches and signals were operated by direct mechanical linkage,
the relationship of moving bars in the locking bed provided both functions. It prevented
an improper control from being executed and physically prevented the switch points from

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moving until the proper conditions existed. When power operated switches and electric
lamp signals were employed, physical locking of the signals was no longer relevant (no
moving parts in the light signal) and the physical locking of the switch was moved to the
switch machine where direct connection to the switch points exists. Logical locking is
handled elsewhere, be it in the locking bed of an electro-mechanical system, the relay
circuits of an all-relay interlocking, or in the Boolean equations of a processor-based
controller.

4.9 Locking and Check Functions

The operation of an interlocking must follow a prescribed sequence. All home

signals are normally at stop. Any changes that are to be made in the route must be
completed before a signal over the route is cleared. If any part of the route is locked
(control lock on switches), no changes can be made in that part. When the route is
properly lined (all switches in the proper position), the operator may attempt to clear a
signal over the route. When this request is received by interlocking logic, it begins a
series of tests:

§ Does a valid route exist ahead of the signal being requested?

§ Are all switches in the route fully closed and point-locked?
§ Are all switches in the same position that the operator requested?
§ Are all track circuits in the route unoccupied?
§ Is the opposing signal indicating STOP?
§ Is the leaving block free of opposing traffic?
§ Is the signal for any potential conflicting cross-route indicating STOP?

If all of these conditions are met, the route is then locked (logical locking applied
to all switches). When the locking is complete and verified, the requested signal will
clear with the appropriate aspect based on the route and exit block conditions. If it is a
home signal, the aspect is based on the safe speed through the interlocking (maximum,
limited, medium, slow, or restricted). If it is also a block signal, the aspect is impacted by
conditions of the block ahead and by the aspect of the next signal.

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4.10 Drawing Symbols

Figure 4.10.1 - Typical Drawing Symbols

Figure 4.10.1 illustrates some typical drawing symbols frequently used in connection
with interlockings.

(1) Two equivalent versions of a block signal, distinguished from the interlocking
absolute signal in item (2) by the presence of the number plates.
(2) Two equivalent versions of an interlocking absolute signal with no number plates
(3) Power operated switch machine without dual control
(4) Power operated switch machine equipped for dual control.
(5) Track switch equipped for power switch machine operation.
(6) Track switch equipped for spring switch operation
(7) Hand throw track switch equipped with electric lock
(8) Hand throw track switch equipped with circuit controller only
(9) Block derail
(10) Split point derail
(11) Insulated joints with track circuits on both sides of joints
(12) Insulated joints with track circuits on one side only (left side)

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Chapter 5 – Introduction to Railway Signal Equipment

5.1 Relays

Photo 5.1.1 - Vital and Non-Vital Relays

Since the early part of the 20th century, the most fundamental component of
railway signal systems has been the electro-mechanical relay. Relays are used to directly
control all operating equipment (signals, switch machines, crossing gates, etc.) and to
develop the logic networks necessary to execute the controls in a fully safe manner.
Although newer installations are making extensive use of computerized controls, the vast
majority of existing installations at the end of the 20th century are still based on relays,
and some new ones are still being built. There are some jobs that a relay just does better
than solid state, and until that changes, there will always be some relays to deal with in
signaling.

The chapter on interlockings addressed the separation of control functions into the
categories of vital and non-vital, depending on whether that function had safety-critical
implications. These same categories impact the design of the relays used in signal
control systems. Non-vital applications have used a wide array of relays normally
classified as commercial, industrial or telephone relays. Although reliability is important
in any application, the nature of potential failure modes is of no particular concern. No
safety is compromised if a non-vital relay fails to release when energy is removed, or if a
contact fails to open or close when it should. By contrast, vital applications are restricted
to a very specific series of relays that are designed with very particular requirements
stemming from the allowable failure modes. The bedrock principle behind any vital relay
used in American or British signal practice is that when the energy is removed from the

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coil, the armature will release and the contacts will open. Designs and manufacturing
techniques go to great lengths to assure that this principle is adhered to. A few of the
primary factors are:

§ Special iron used in core and armature material that will not retain magnetism that
could cause the armature to remain in the energized position
§ Special contact material made of silver-impregnated carbon that cannot weld
closed even with extreme surges in current
§ Wide spacing between contact and structural framing around the contact arms to
prevent contact bending to the point of touching another contact at the wrong time
§ Enclosures that, although not exactly sealed, are largely impervious to dirt,
moisture and insects
§ Use of gravity as a factor in assuring release of the armature when energy is
removed

See Figure 5.1.2 for a generic summary of the main components of a relay. Primary
parts are the magnetic structure consisting of the stationary core and the moveable
armature, the coils wound around the core to create the magnetic field when energized,
and the contacts, both stationary and moveable. The armature is connected to the
moveable contacts and moves them with respect to the stationary contacts. Using typical
signal terminology, the movable contacts are called the heel contacts. In the energized
position, the heel contacts are closed against the front contacts, which are stationary. In
the de-energized position, the heel contacts are closed against the stationary back
contacts. Not all relays have all three types of contacts in every position. Some
applications require only a heel-front combination; sometimes called a Form A contact,
and some require only the heel-back combination, sometimes called a Form B contact.
Where all three are used, it may be called a heel-front-back combination, or sometimes a
Form C contact.

Industrial relays use terminology like Single Pole Single Throw (SPST) for a relay
with only a single Form A or Form B contact set, or Double Pole Double Throw for one
with two Form C contact sets. Most signal relays use considerably more contacts than
that, depending on the special version. There are many different styles and special
versions of the relays used in signaling. Most of the following discussion will address the
design of vital relays only.

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 Figure 5.1.2 - Main Components Of A Vital Relay

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5.2 Shelf Relays

The earliest relays were designed to set on a shelf. Photo 5.2.1 shows several
typical shelf-type relays. The cores and associated coils mount vertically on the top, and
the armature and contacts are arranged horizontally below the cores. The armature and
contact grouping are enclosed in a heavy rectangular glass bowl that permits viewing the
contacts clearly from the front. In the de-energized state, the armature is hanging
downward on a rear-mounted hinge, holding the heel contacts against the back contacts
across the bottom. When the coils are energized, the magnetic flux pulls the armature
upward against the pole faces, and the heel contacts are lifted to make contact with the
front contacts mounted across near the top of the bowl. All contacts are electrically
connected to terminal posts on the top of the relay. The stationary front and back
contacts are part of a stiff arm and contact assembly that is actually secured in place by
the underside of the terminal posts. The heels are electrically connected to the terminal
posts using short lengths of soft copper braid or ribbon that will carry the needed current
but is soft enough to have no bearing on the movement of the contacts.

Photo 5.2.1 - Several Typical Shelf Relays

Shelf relays typically have all Form C contacts, but because of the cost of these
rather delicate contact assemblies, different size relays are offered. The 2-point relays are
the smallest, having only two sets of Form C contacts. Larger standard designs are the 4
point and 6 point versions. A unique characteristic of the shelf type relays is that the
armature release is strictly gravity-dependent. There is no spring action involved. As a
result, the orientation is critical. If a relay is inverted, the front contacts close as though
the coils were energized. This has been both a blessing and a curse over the many
decades that shelf relays have been used.

One serious downside of the shelf relays is the fact that all external wires attach
directly to the terminal posts on top of the relay. If a relay has to be replaced, or removed

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for testing, all the wires must be removed. This is not only a time-consuming task, but
dangerous because of the possibility that the wires may not all be put back in exactly the
same place. All wires are required to be clearly marked as to which contact they are tied
to, but given time pressures, adverse conditions and normal human frailties, mistakes can
be made, and such mistakes can be deadly in terms of their potential impact on operation
of the wired logic. To protect against this, whenever a shelf type relay is removed, and
the wires moved to a new one, a complete functional test must be made on the entire
facility in which that relay was used. This is quite costly and impractical, and contributed
to the development of plug-in vital relays in the 1940s.

5.3 Plug-In Relays

The two main U.S. signal companies each developed their own version of plug-in
vital relays, and, of course, the two are not interchangeable. With the plug-in relay, all
external wiring is attached to terminals on a socket called a plugboard. The relay is
simply plugged in, with no disturbance of the wiring, and can readily be removed for
service, testing or replacement without impacting the security of the wiring. The only
danger with this approach is the possibility of plugging in a different type of relay with a
different contact arrangement or different operating characteristics than the one that was
intended. To minimize this danger, manufacturers came up with a keying scheme that
mounted a little metal plate on the plugboard. This plate contains a matrix array of metal
pins that exactly matches a hole pattern in a corresponding plate on the relay when the
relay is inserted in the plugboard. If someone tries to plug the wrong relay into a
plugboard, the key will prevent it from making contact with the electrical connections.

Both manufacturers developed a wide range of plug-in relays with many specialty
applications. In both cases, they adopted two standard sizes; one being twice the width of
the other, so rack-mounting combinations could be made up using multiples of the single
or double width relays. The GRS models were called Type B relays, and the sizes were
B1 (standard size) or B2 (double size). US&S called theirs the PN series, with PN-1xx
being the standard and PN-2xx being the double size. Photo 5.3.1 shows the typical Type
B relays and Photo 5.3.2 shows some typical PN-150 and PN-250 relays.

Photos 5.3.1 - Typical B Relays

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 Photo 5.3.2 - Typical PN Relays

There is a tremendous range of variation among vital relays. These variations

encompass contact arrangement and type, coil resistance and sensitivity, and general
operating characteristics. We will discuss these in more detail in class.

5.4 Batteries

A battery is an electro-chemical energy storage device consisting of one or more

cells. Each cell is an enclosed container consisting of two electrodes and an electrolyte,
which causes electron transfer between the two electrodes. A cell has a natural voltage
level, based on the chemical makeup of the cell, and a current capacity based on the
physical size of the components. Batteries of different voltage and current capacity are
assembled by combining cells in series to achieve the desired terminal voltage, and by
selecting appropriate cell size to provide the required current levels. Primary batteries
create electrical energy from a chemical reaction between the electrodes and the
electrolyte that destroys the electrodes in the process. When the electrodes are destroyed,
the battery is disposed of, and cannot be reused. They are single-use batteries, not
rechargeable. The most common commercial examples of primary batteries are those
used in flashlights, watches, and many battery powered toys.

Secondary batteries, more commonly known as storage batteries, do not create

electrical energy internally like the primary batteries, but can store a substantial amount
of energy when a current is passed through the electrolyte in the proper direction. When
this charging current is removed, the energy is stored within the cell and can be
discharged into a load, reversing the chemical reaction of the charging process. The
charge-discharge process can be repeated many times before the chemistry of the cells

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deteriorates too far to accept further charges. Common commercial examples of storage
batteries are automobile batteries and the batteries in rechargeable tools and appliances of
all kinds, from flashlights to lawn mowers.

Except for certain urban transit systems and areas with electrified railways, most
signal systems in North America make extensive use of batteries in their power source.
Both primary and storage batteries have been used, although storage batteries are the vast
majority of those in use. Primary batteries serve as stand-alone power sources that can be
used for limited power needs where there is no commercial source of power. When the
battery is exhausted, it is simply thrown away and replaced. In signal work, these clearly
could not be used where there is a significant need for power, as the continuing
replacement cost would be prohibitive. They have been used in some cases for DC track
circuits in very remote areas where there is just no convenient source of commercial
power. However, the advent of solar power has all but eliminated the use of primary
batteries in the signal business.

Almost all new signal work uses some form of storage batteries, which can be
recharged repeatedly from an outside power source. The most common application uses
a commercial AC power source and a charger that keeps the battery at full charge while
supporting the normal load of equipment. In the event of a loss of AC power, the battery
continues to support the load for a number of hours until normal power service can be
restored. A less common but growing application uses solar panels to charge the battery
during bright daylight conditions, and the battery supports the load during the night and
on darker days. Batteries for this type of application must generally have a much higher
storage capacity than those needed to back up commercial power.

Cell capacity is rated in ampere-hours, which defines how much current can be
delivered for a given number of hours before depleting a fully charged battery. The
deliverable power will vary with the discharge rate. For example, an 80 amp-hour battery
could deliver 10 amps continuously for 8 hours. This is called an 8-hour discharge rate.
If discharged with an 80-amp load, it would last somewhat less than 1 hour. With a 1
amp load, it would last somewhat longer than 80 hours. To establish some form of
standard, capacities are defined based on the 8-hour rate, which is a current draw that
totally discharges the battery in 8 hours. Various sizes are used in different signal
applications. One popular series is built in multiples of 40 amp–hours, with common
sizes of 80, 120, 160 and 240 amp-hour batteries. Actual sizes will be different among
different manufacturers.

The most common types of storage batteries in railroad signal use are called lead-
acid batteries, based on their chemical makeup. The positive electrode consists of Lead
Dioxide and the negative electrode is sponge lead. The electrolyte is sulfuric acid. They
have a nominal voltage of around 2.2 volts per cell at full charge, so the typical 12 volt
system which uses 6 cells actually has a fully charged voltage just over 13 volts. This is
similar to the automotive application, which also generally uses lead-acid batteries. In
automotive batteries, the 6 cells are combined into a single container and connected in
series internally. Most railroad signal applications use much higher capacity cells, which

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are packaged individually and interconnected at installation so as not to make them so
heavy to handle.

Another battery type that has had considerable use in signal systems is the Nickel-
Cadmium battery, more commonly called NiCad. Its construction uses Nickel Hydrate
for the positive electrode and Cadmium Oxide for the negative, with an electrolyte of
water and Potassium Hydroxide. It performs similarly to the lead-acid batteries but has a
lower terminal voltage per cell at around 1.45 volts instead of 2.2 volts. As a result, a
nominal 12-volt application most often uses 9 cells of NiCad where it would have used 6
cells of lead-acid. Like lead-acid batteries, the NiCad batteries used in signal systems are
generally made as individual cells. One characteristic of NiCad batteries that has made
their use a little less common is a tendency to lose capacity if they go through a series of
small discharges. A lead-acid battery can be discharged anywhere from a few percentage
points to nearly 100%, and when recharged, will recover its initial full capacity. A NiCad
cell that is subjected to near full discharge will recover fully, but if recharged several
times from a shallower discharge state, may no longer have the full original capacity. It
may take several complete discharges to restore that original capacity. However, the
NiCad batteries can handle more full discharge and recharge cycles than most lead acid
batteries. This characteristic, plus their ability to be made into small packages, makes the
NiCad cells good for rechargeable power tools, portable telephones, and other household
applications.

Nickel-iron batteries were used extensively in early days of electrically-controlled

signal systems but due to maintenance costs and other factors these are no longer in
general use. They had a positive electrode of Nickel Oxyhydrate, negative electrode of
Iron sponge, and electrolyte of Potassium Hydroxide, similar to the NiCads. Their cell
voltage was also similar to NiCad at around 1.5 volts per cell.

Photo 5.4.1 - Typical Batteries

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 Maintenance cost of batteries, in general, has been a concern for years. The
normal charge-discharge cycle of a lead-acid battery releases hydrogen and oxygen gas
into the atmosphere, and gradually depletes the electrolyte, which needs periodic
refreshing. If overcharged, the electrolyte liquid can be “boiled away” rapidly which can
destroy the battery. If under-charged, the batteries will gradually discharge under load
and end up dead. Historically, maintenance has meant frequent inspections to be sure the
charge rate was in the proper range, that the liquid level and electrolyte density was
proper and any corrosion forming around the terminal was promptly cleaned up. The
newer lead-acid batteries use a slightly different principle intended to minimize the
gassing process. The process is called absolyte, meaning absorbed electrolyte, a process
in which the gasses are re-absorbed into the cell to minimize water loss. The batteries are
sealed and are advertised as being low-maintenance or “maintenance free”. The degree
to which this claim is valid depends on the degree of control over the charging process.

5.5 Battery Chargers

When storage batteries are used, they must be used with battery chargers to
maintain the normal state at full charge. There is a wide assortment of charger
technologies, ranging from extremely simple to highly sophisticated. Capacities also
must vary to take care of the different applications. In general, the system is designed to
allow the charger to supply all of the current for the normal load, plus enough additional
current to recharge the battery within a limited time depending on application. Once the
battery is fully charged, the battery itself should only draw a slight trickle charge current
to make up for internal losses, while the charger delivers essentially all of its current to
the load.

The very simple, lowest cost chargers do not provide much in the way of
regulation. They typically consist of a transformer and simple rectifier that can be set for
the desired terminal voltage. Setting the charge rate on such a charger is a compromise
between overcharging a battery in normal operation or not allowing enough recharge
capability after a discharge has occurred. Such chargers are usually quite reliable, due in
part to their simplicity, but may result in excess battery maintenance due to the difficulty
in establishing the proper charge rate. A slightly more sophisticated type uses a saturable
reactor that tends to minimize the effect of varying AC input voltage. This gives better
regulation than a simple transformer, but does not provide for fine-tuning the charge rate.

There are some rather sophisticated chargers including various types of regulators
that will adjust the charge rate automatically to compensate for battery condition and load
variations. These typically use electronic controls. Some have built-in temperature
compensation, since the natural cell voltage at full charge will vary with ambient
temperature. The more exotic chargers will do a better job of keeping the batteries in
proper balance, but may have lower reliability due to the more fragile electronic controls
within the charger itself. Also, depending on application, the failure modes of the
chargers may have very undesirable consequences.

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 Chargers of all types are available in all sizes. Requirements will range from 1 or
2 amps to as high as 50 amps. Within each charger type, cost and size are roughly
proportional to capacity, so there is good incentive for matching the charger to the
applications. Also, some of the more exotic chargers contain internal diagnostics or
maintenance aids that make it easier for a user to determine if everything is working
properly, and if not, to diagnose the problem. Chargers are also limited to a specific
voltage, so if a given installation uses some 12-volt equipment and some 24-volt
equipment, it will typically have separate batteries and chargers for each independent
voltage level.

Photo 5.5.1 - Typical Chargers

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5.6 Lighting Transformers

Common practice for many years has been to use low voltage AC to drive signal
lights except when the power source fails. A power transfer relay is used to detect when
the AC power is lost, and the contacts of that relay then transfer the lighting circuits to
the battery. Since the batteries are typically a nominal 12 volts, the AC source used must
also provide a very similar voltage level to give equivalent illumination on the lamps.
This is done with a lighting transformer that operates from a 120 volt primary and has a
series of secondary taps to allow relatively fine adjustment of the final voltage. Figure
5.6.1 shows a typical terminal setup for a transformer that allows for setting the voltage
anywhere between 8 volts and 15.5 volts in steps of 0.5 volt.

Figure 5.6.1 - Typical Termination Panel For A Lighting Transformer

Photo 5.6.2 - Typical Lighting Transformer

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5.7 Lightning Arresters

A major concern in signal equipment is the effect that lightning has on the
circuits. Signal equipment is typically exposed to lightning surges due to long external
cable runs or open wire between equipment locations. The track is also a very effective
antenna for collecting lightning surges, and power brought into the equipment location to
operate the system is subject to surges. Arresters that attempt to drain off excessive
power to the ground and protect both the equipment and the personnel who may be in the
area generally protect circuits leaving the controlled environment of the equipment house
or case.

Typical lightning arresters consist of two electrodes separated by a small air gap,
each electrode being connected to a wire terminal. The working circuit to be protected is
connected to one terminal, and earth ground to the other terminal. When the line-to-
ground voltage on the working circuit rises high enough, it will arc across the air gap and
discharge the current to ground. The general class of devices is called air-gap arresters.

Photo 5.7.1 - Lightning Arresters

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5.8 Terminals and Resistors

Most signal hardware is anything but compact. The bulky nature of the
equipment is largely driven by the perceived relationship between size and ruggedness,
and the need for signal equipment to survive unattended in a potentially hostile
environment for years on end. Given the rather large wire sizes and heavy wire
insulation applied, wire terminations on most signal equipment uses a standard terminal
post that is generally called the AAR Terminal, named for the Association of American
Railroads whose standards define the specifications of the terminal. It is a plated 14-24
bolt and thread, which is not a common industrial standard. The nuts used have a
standard outside hex shape compatible with a standard ½inch socket wrench. When used
with solid wire, the wire is formed into a loop that circles the terminal, and is secured in
place by a washer and nut. Stranded wire is crimped into a wire eye that is properly sized
to fit the terminal post and be secured by the nut. Standard spacing between terminals in
a group is based on a 1 inch grid, which allows ample space for the socket wrench with
no danger of shorting to adjacent terminals. The terminal is solid enough to support very
large wire, and it is common to use wire as large as AWG #6 solid for certain
applications. The same terminal, in combination with a wire eye, can be used with very
small wire when necessary.

Various other hardware is made for use with these terminals, including buss links,
buss straps, and special test links that allow a circuit to be opened for testing without
removing any wires. Terminal strips are made in single rows and double rows, and the
same terminal posts are used on most chargers, transformers, signals, switch machines,
and various other equipment. Some newer electronic equipment uses plug connectors, or
other more compact approved terminals to conserve space, but the old AAR terminal is
still very predominant in signal housings.

Photo 5.8.1 - Terminals

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 Certain applications in signal work require the use of low value resistors to aid in
adjustment of equipment. The most common applications are with track circuits and in
signal lighting. These resistors are generally large devices made up of resistance wire
wound around a porcelain or ceramic base, with an AAR wire terminal at each end.
Photo 5.8.2 shows an assortment of these resistors. Resistors are made in a range of
typical resistance values ranging from fractions of an ohm to several hundred ohms.
Adjustable versions are also common. These allow setting a sliding contact to achieve
some portion of the total resistance, by shorting out the remainder of the resistance wire.
While these resistors are not typically given a power rating, their size would enable them
to dissipate up to 10 watts or more without creating excessive heat.

Photo 5.8.2 - Assorted Signal Resistors

5.9 Signals

Some of the more common types of signals were discussed briefly in an earlier
chapter. Actual design and construction of the common types will be explored here.

The most common type of signal on American railroads is the colorlight signal.
The signal unit itself generally is mounted on top of a mast, bridge or other structure to
position it 15 to 20 feet above the rail for best long range viewing from the front window
of an approaching locomotive. The signal unit may be a single cast housing with up to
three separate lamp compartments inside, each having its own round opening toward the
front where the colored light appears, and its own internal mounting brackets for the lamp
socket and any other needed hardware. One hinged back door can be opened to provide
access to all the lamp compartments. Depending on the manufacturer and model, these
one-piece signals may be a vertical combination of the three lamp compartments, or may
be a triangular combination with two lamp compartments side by side on top, and the
third centered between and below the other two.

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Photo 5.9.1 - Colorlight Signal

A popular alternative to the one-piece signal is the use of modular signals, in

which each lamp compartment is an independent casting with its own rear access door.
The modular units can be grouped in various ways to achieve the same results, but
provide more flexibility and less waste, since some signals do not require all three colors
to be made available in each lamp group or each head of the signal. With the modular
approach, the signal is assembled with only as many independent units as are needed to
display the aspects on any given signal. The modular units can be stacked vertically or in
a triangular pattern, depending on railroad preference.

Photo 5.9.2 - Colorlight Stackable Module

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 Regardless of the nature of the enclosure, the optical portion of all colorlight
signals is essentially the same. There is a clear outer lens, approximately 8 3/8 inches in
diameter, which focuses the light in a very narrow beam to provide an intensely bright
spot at considerable distance, up to a mile or more away. There is also a small spot at the
center called a hot spot that directs a small portion of the light at a diagonal to the main
axis. This is done so that an observer in a train that is quite close to the signal can still
see which color is lit, even though he may be well off the main axis.

Photo 5.9.3 - Colorlight Optics Construction

Behind the clear outer lens is a second, smaller lens called the inner doublet. This
lens is colored to create the desired signal color: red, yellow, green, or lunar white. It is
about 5 inches in diameter and its optical role is to gather as much light as possible from
the bulb and direct it in a conical patter toward the outer lens.

The lamp itself is mounted in a bayonet style socket fairly close to the inner
doublet, and in most signals the socket position is adjustable over a small range to allow
for precise focusing of the signal by setting the filament at the exact focal point of the
inner lens. This adjustment is quite critical, as very small deviations can cause major
reductions in light output. The lamps themselves are made to very exacting standards so
that the location of the filament is very tightly controlled, avoiding the need to refocus the
assembly when replacing a lamp. Lamps in North American practice are typically 18 or
25 watts, rated at 10 volts.

Maintenance of the signals is accomplished using the rear access door, which
provides easy access to the lamp and the inner doublet from behind. Until the mid 1990s,
any cleaning or replacement of the outer lens required getting around to the front of the
unit to reach the front of the lens. If the lens had to be removed, a retaining ring had to
be removed from the front side. This is rather awkward, since there is generally no
service platform in front of the signal. Newer models of signals provide for removing the
entire lens assembly, including the outer lens, from the rear.

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 Around the signal unit itself, the typical installation includes a black background
to provide some dark contrast with the lighted lens. An overhead hood used to minimize
sunlight reflection on the outer lens shields each outer lens. Another feature sometimes
found on signals is a snow shield, which looks like an extended overhead hood that
covers the sides as well as the top of the lens group, reducing the chance of snow building
up around the lenses during a hard blizzard.

Photo 5.9.4 - Snow Shield

An accessory sometimes found is a device to minimize the chance of an external

light source, like a bright low sun or a bright headlight, from shining in through the outer
lens and reflecting off the inner doublet to give a phantom indication that could be
misinterpreted as a lighted signal. The device, called a phankill, is a sort of honeycomb
shaped screen that restricts the angle at which light can strike the lens assembly from the
front.

Finally, most signals include a built-in peephole sight that allows an installer to
look through the sight, similar to a gun sight, to aim the signal at the proper location on
the track. The aiming process usually includes a fine-tuning stage that requires an
observer some distance down the track to communicate adjustment instructions back to
the person aiming the signal.

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5.10 Searchlight Signal

Photo 5.10.1 - Searchlight Signal

Searchlight signals, as describe in an earlier chapter, have only a single optical

system for all three colors. The searchlight mechanism contains a removable lamp socket
assembly and the moving mechanism that tilts left or right to change the color filter
between the lamp and the inner doublet. The mechanism is electrically similar to a polar
relay, in that the polarity of the drive current determines which position the armature and
color filter is in. Another similarity with the polar relay is that the searchlight signal has
several sets of electrical contacts attached to the moving vane, exactly like on the polar
relay, and these contacts are used to electrically verify that the mechanism is in the proper
position. As in the colorlight signal, the outer lens is about 8 inches in diameter and is
attached to the cast enclosure of the signal, not to the mechanism itself. The mechanism
is slid into the enclosure from the rear access door and secured in place with an internal
clamp.

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5.11 Position Light and Color Position Light Signals

Photo 5.11.1 - Position Light Signal

Photo 5.11.2 - Color Position Light Signal

Position light signals and color-position light signals consist of an array of smaller
units similar to the modular colorlight in that they each contain a single lamp. Where a
colored output is needed, there is a colored inner lens in addition to the clear outer lens.
All the individual units are interconnected and equipped with a single round background
plate that enhances the visibility of whatever combination is lighted. Typically each
individual outer lens has its own sun hood over it to minimize glare from reflected light.

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5.12 Signal Mounting

Photo 5.12.1 - Signal Mounting

The most common form of signal mast is a 5 inch diameter steel or aluminum
pipe, with a cast base to secure it to a concrete or galvanized steel foundation that is
buried about 5 feet deep. Many of the cast bases include a junction box area with a
removable cover, containing terminals to allow separating the internal signal wiring from
the underground supply cable. Internal wiring then extends up through the mast and is
brought out to each individual signal unit. Where multiple signals are mounted to the
same mast, specialized side mounting brackets are used and flex conduit is typically used
to bring the wiring from the mast to the signal. Where a mast supports only one signal
head, it is generally attached with a top-of-mast bracket that covers the open top of the
mast and allows wiring to run directly into the signal without a conduit.

For maintenance access, most signal masts are equipped with an attached ladder
and a service platform at the appropriate location for access to the back of the signals.
Given the concern for unauthorized tampering, some railroads have eliminated the built-
in ladder and have developed alternative means for servicing the signals. One of the
newer concepts is to mount the signal mast on top of the equipment housing that encloses
the track circuits and other control equipment. There is a short ladder reaching from the
housing roof to the service platform, but you need to have a portable ladder to get to the
roof. This arrangement also saves on cable installation since the wiring to the signals can
extend directly up from the control equipment without ever going underground. The

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entire assembly is factory assembled, greatly reducing the amount of on-site installation
work.

Foundations for signals are generally either welded steel assemblies, galvanized
for rust proofing, or modular pre-cast concrete assemblies. In either case, a round hole
must be dug about 5 feet deep, the foundation set into the hole, and then back filled and
tamped to make it solid.

5.13 LED Signal

One final signal type that needs to be mentioned is a new technology that is just
being introduced as this is written. It is a solid-state signal that eliminates the
incandescent lamps and colored filters, and uses instead an array of Light Emitting
Diodes (LEDs), which emit the proper color directly when energized. This technology
has been rather widely adopted by the traffic signal industry as a means to dramatically
improve lamp life while reducing power consumption. In the railroad environment, the
main incentive is lamp life improvement, since the railroad signal already operates at a
relatively low power level (18 or 25 watts) compared to traffic signals where the lamps
are generally 120 to 150 watts each. There are technical hurdles to be crossed in the rail
application, which, in addition to the economic questions, have seriously limited the
widespread use of this technology in the early years following its initial development.

5.14 Housings

Most railroad signal equipment is not located close enough to existing structures
to allow the control equipment to share space with other facilities. As a result, most such
equipment finds itself enclosed in a dedicated enclosure provided purely for the housing
of the signal controls. Housings could be roughly divided into two general categories:
houses or bungalows, with “walk-in” capability, and cases, where access is from standing
on the ground.

Most such housings are made of metal, the popular forms being aluminum,
painted steel and CORTEN steel, which develops a natural weatherproof rust coating.
Aluminum is the lightest and requires essentially no long-term maintenance, but is also
more susceptible to damage from vandalism. Painted steel looks good while the paint is
new, but needs to be repainted periodically to preserve appearance and prevent weather
damage. CORTEN steel is supposed to be low maintenance if left alone to weather, but it
looks so bad in its natural state that some users apply paint, which then leads to the same
concern as standard steel housings.

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 Corten Steel Signal House

Steel Signal House

Aluminum Signal House

Photo 5.14.1 - Various Signal Houses

Houses are generally built from modular sections that result in sizes being
multiples of 2 feet. The smaller ones are usually 4x6 or 6x6. There is no top end to the
available sizes, although anything larger than 12x20 is fairly rare. Width is limited by
transport restrictions, whether carried by rail or by truck. Houses, regardless of size,
generally have two walk-in access doors, one at each end.

Cases come in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. There are tiny ones that mount
to a pole and have only one door. Most cases attach to foundations consisting of
galvanized steel or pre-cast concrete piers. Other than the pole-mounted cases, most have
at least two doors, one front and one rear, to permit mounting equipment on one side of a
backboard or rack and wiring from the other side. Low cases may be only around 4 feet
tall, while high ones are typically around 6 feet tall, allowing equipment access from a
comfortable standing position. Low narrow cases with one front door and one back door,
approximately 40 inches wide, are called low singles. A tall narrow case with a similar
door arrangement will be called a high single.

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High Single Case Small Equipment Case

High Double Case

Large Signal Case

Photo 5.14.2 - Various Signal Cases

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 When the space needed for equipment exceeds that available in a narrow or single
case, the next typical size is around 6 feet wide and offers two doors side by side on both
the front and back sides. Although there may be some low cases with this door
arrangement (low doubles), the tall ones with this arrangement are much more common
(high doubles). Beyond that, there are larger ones with 4 doors on each side that are
about 8 to 9 feet wide. Anything requiring more space than that will probably justify a
house.

The selection of house or case is not always based simply on the amount of
equipment to enclose. Many railroads, especially those operating in hostile climates,
prefer houses to provide better shelter to both equipment and staff when servicing the
equipment. Also, if environmental conditions are such that limited heating or air
conditioning is required, this pretty well drives the selection to a house, complete with
insulation.

Interior Of Signal House Equipment Rack

Cable Entrance Board Shelves and Backboard

Photo 5.14.3 - Interior Of A Signal House

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 Facilities provided in housings are extremely customized by user and by job. In a
house, the side walls are generally equipped with shelves and/or back boards for
mounting things that do not need rear access, like transformers, power supplies, power
distribution panels, etc. Also it is common to provide battery trays along the sides near
the floor, with a shelf above the tray to both protect the batteries below and provide a
work surface and a place to lay plans and manuals. Racks for plug-in relays and for most
electronic equipment are often arranged down the center of the house, allowing easy
access to either side of the racks. It is common to include a rack at one end of the house
supporting a cable entrance board, where all outside cable is terminated to meet with the
internal house wiring. These cable entrance boards often also support the lightning
arresters used with the external cables.

Other facilities often provided include utility outlets, ceiling lights, vent fans,
insulation, heaters, air conditioning, and sometimes bullet-resistant lining. Overhead
cable trays allow wiring to be run neatly from the center racks to equipment and
terminations along the ends and sides.

Cases don’t offer quite as much flexibility, but here there are also a fair number of
options. Most common are some combination of backboards, shelves, and rack space.
Cases also are usually equipped with utility outlets and lights, providing for easier use of
tools and night work. Some cases also provide battery trays at floor level to keep the
batteries together with the control equipment.

Doors on both houses and cases are secured with some kind of padlock, and the
door is usually equipped with an integral 3-point locking mechanism that secures the top
and bottom of the door to the house or case frame along with the edge nearest the handle.
Screened and louvered air vents are commonly installed in the doors for ventilation, with
sliding covers to allow vents to be closed in winter if desired. Also it is common in
houses to have one or more chimney-style air vents at the roof peak, with or without vent
fans. Heat buildup inside a closed metal building on a hot sunny day can be pretty
intense, making the use of ventilation a necessary step to protect equipment as well as
service personnel.

Some railroads prefer to keep their batteries separate from the control equipment.
One reason for this is the presence of corrosive fumes from the batteries, and the potential
for spilling the corrosive electrolyte on the floor of a case or house, which would cause
damage to the metal structure. Keeping the batteries separate is accomplished by use of a
battery box or battery tub, most typically a pre-cast concrete container with a lockable
lift-off lid that is partially buried in the ground close to the house or case where the
battery power is to be used. Cable is run between the battery tub and the house or case
that it supports, either underground or through a solid conduit extending between the
house/case wall and the near wall of the battery tub.

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5.15 Grade Crossing Warning Devices

Most of the discussion of this group of equipment will be saved for the class on
crossings, but a brief introduction will be summarized here. Only 25 to 30% of all rail-
highway grade crossings in the United States are equipped with active warning devices of
any kind. Of the other 70 to 75%, many are either secondary roads or private crossings,
or roads crossing branch lines or industrial spurs. The facilities at these crossings are
called passive warning systems, consisting generally of the railroad crossing signs (called
a crossbuck) mounted on a post, and sometimes a stop sign. They warn the motorist that
the road is crossing a track, but give no warning of the approach of a train.

Photo 5.15.1 - Crossbuck

The crossings with active warning systems provide some means of detecting a
train and will activate some combination of visual and audible warning that may be
supplemented by a physical barrier across the roadway. Typical flashing light signals
consist of a metal pole mounted in the near right quadrant of the rail-highway intersection
as seen from the roadway. The standard crossbuck sign is mounted near the top of the
pole, and below it a set of crossarms supporting the flashing light units. The pole is
secured to a foundation by means of a 2-piece cast base that often includes a junction box
with a removable cover, allowing cable from the control housing to be terminated. In
current practice, most of the poles and castings used for bases and crossarms are made of
aluminum to minimize maintenance.

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Photo 5.15.2 - Flashing Light Signal

The flashing light unit most commonly used has a 12 inch diameter red lens on
the front, called a roundel, and a 10 volt signal lamp rated at 18 or 25 watts. Behind the
lamp is a parabolic mirror designed to collect most of the light from the bulb and direct it
forward through the roundel. As with railroad signals, the optics are rather refined and
placement of the lamp filament in exactly the right spot at the focal point of the mirror is
essential to achieve proper light intensity. To achieve this, lamp socket mounting
brackets provide for adjustment in several planes. Older signals used a smaller housing
and a roundel measuring 8 inches in diameter. Service access to the light unit itself is
accomplished though the front, with a front door that is hinged at the bottom and secured
in place at the top with a bolt. The front door is essentially a supporting ring for the
roundel, and mounting for the black background and sun hoods which serve the same
function as they do on the railroad signal, providing contrast and glare reduction.

Where roadways are several lanes wide, or where visibility from the road is
limited, a cantilever structure is often used to mount one or more sets of flashing lights
over the roadway in addition to the set on the pole to the right of the roadway. These
cantilever structures can be quite long, up to 40 feet in length, and are made in several
styles. The longest ones contain a walkway and railing along the cantilever arm, with an
integral ladder mounted to the mast, so that maintenance can be performed on the lights
from the arm without blocking the roadway. Most cantilever structures are made of
aluminum to minimize maintenance and weight. The obvious stresses resulting from the
unbalanced load on the base and from wind forces on the arm require a very sturdy
foundation and mounting base. Mounting bases on most cantilevers are factory welded to
the mast with extensive gussets and bracing. The foundations are concrete and are

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generally poured in place with a hole at least 6 feet deep and a large footer at the bottom
for maximum stability.

Photo 5.15.3 - Cantilever

Some of the smaller cantilevers have been installed using a different concept
where, instead of a rigid structure with a walkout platform for maintenance, the arm can
be rotated 90 degrees to the side of the road and accessed with a ladder directly from the
ground.

Photo 5.15.4 - Crossing Gate

Where a physical barrier is needed to enhance the resistance to crossing the

tracks, crossing gates are installed along with standard flashing lights. The gate arms
themselves are usually some combination of aluminum and fiberglass, with a reflective
coating applied displaying diagonal red and white stripes. For many years, wood was the

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material of choice for gate arms but this has been all but phased out due to cost and
weight considerations. Length of the gate arm is determined by the width of the
roadway, and could be anywhere from 12 feet to 40 feet in length. Three small red light
units are generally attached to the gate arm to make it more visible, especially at night.
The tip light, close to the outer end of the gate, is lighted continuously whenever the
flashing lights at the crossing are activated. The other two gate lights flash alternately
synchronized with the standard flashers on the pole.

Photo 5.15.5 - Gate Mechanism

The gate arm is raised and lowered by a gate mechanism consisting of a 12-volt
DC motor and gear box, along with a magnetic latch and a series of cam-driven contacts.
The direction of motor rotation is determined by the current polarity applied by the
control circuits. The gate arms are attached to the shaft on the mechanism by an offset
mounting called a conversion bracket, and an adjustable counterweight is mounted to the
opposite end of the bracket. The shape of the arrangement is such that the
counterweights have maximum impact when the gates are horizontal, and minimum or no
effect with the gate vertical. This allows the gate arm to free-fall by gravity from the
vertical position if the magnetic hold-clear device in the mechanism is released. In
normal operation, power is applied to help drive the gates down to around the 45 degree
position, and snubbing circuits provide dynamic braking to soften the stop as they reach
the horizontal position.

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Photo 5.15.6 - Crossing Bell

For audible warning, most crossings are equipped with a bell that operates at
somewhere between 100 and 225 strokes per minute. The bell is generally mounted at
the top of one of the flasher poles and is intended mostly to warn pedestrians when the
crossing is activated. Mechanical bells have been used for many years, but recently many
railroads have converted to an electronic bell that sounds exactly the same as mechanical
one but is smaller, less costly and requires less maintenance.

Photo 5.15.7 - Advanced Warning Sign

Advance warning signs are often used to give drivers advance notice that they are
approaching a railroad crossing. These are generally just a round yellow sign installed by
the highway department, and provide no active warning based on train presence.

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5.16 Wire and Cable

All of the signals, switch machines, track circuits, and crossing gates we have
been talking about have one thing in common, they all must be connected electrically to
some control facility using wire and cable. Electrical cable is a major component of any
signal system.

Wiring inside a control housing is mostly done with individual wires, using
stranded copper wire ranging in size from AWG #6 for heavy power circuits to AWG
#19 for serial communications. The most common house wiring for vital circuits
involving relays or solid state controllers uses stranded wire AWG #14 or #16, while
track circuits and signal lighting circuits will more often use #10 for the in-house wire.
This wire must be covered with a substantial insulation to minimize any chance of arcing
between wires from voltage surges. There are various industry specifications for wire
and insulation used for different applications, and these, in many cases, vary by customer.

Photo 5.16.1 - Signal Cable

Wiring outside the housings is generally solid copper wire packaged in various
configurations of multi-conductor cables. The vast majority of signal cable is buried in
the ground, and must meet appropriate industry specifications for direct burial cable.
High voltage insulation is applied to the individual wires in the cable, and the group is
then enclosed in one or more layers of outer insulating jackets and sometimes a metallic
sheath. In most signal cable, the individual conductors are laid in parallel fashion within
the outer jacket. When required, cable can be made with “twisted pairs” of conductors to

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minimize coupling between adjacent wires or pairs in the same cable. In environments
where the potential for electrical interference is very high, cable may also have a metallic
shield wrapped around individual pairs and/or wrapped around the complete bundle of
conductors. This is done to protect against coupling from or to other cables in the area or
to reject high EMI levels as may be encountered in electrified rail operations.

Special cable construction is often used for specific applications. Two conductors
#9 or #6 are common for connection to individual track circuits. For track circuits other
than simple DC, these are often done as twisted pairs to minimize coupling with other
pairs serving other track circuits. Switch machine cable is generally made up with more
than one wire size contained within the same outer jacket. Combinations like 3
conductors of #6 and 9 conductors of #14 are useful to provide the larger current capacity
needed for driving the switch motor, while using the smaller sizes for low current
functions like point position monitoring.

For non-vital functions like analog or digital communications, it is common to use

relatively standard communications cable with lower insulation thickness, smaller wire
size and all wire in twisted pairs with color-coded insulation.

For situations where cable needs to be above ground, a different design is used.
Above ground cable is generally hung from poles or bridge girders, or maybe anchored to
supports in a tunnel wall. Since copper wire is not terribly strong in physical strength,
these aerial cables need some physical support to avoid having the entire weight of the
cable borne by the copper conductors between supports. In these cases, a separate steel
wire called a messenger wire is generally used to support the cable. The steel wire is
hung from the supports on the poles, bridge girders etc. and the electrical cable is then
tied to it at closely spaced intervals. To reduce installation costs, a popular version of
aerial cable is made with the messenger wire attached to the electrical cable at the
factory, so the field installation does not require the separate operation of attaching the
two together. Since the messenger wire in this type cable is attached parallel to but
external to the electrical wire grouping, a cross-section of this cable would look like two
circles side by side with a small link between them. For this reason it is often referred to
as figure eight cable.

Cable made for direct burial has its outer jacket made of material that is
particularly resistant to constant moisture, insects, sharp objects (rocks) and other hazards
that might be expected in a buried environment. This cable is seldom installed in
conduit, being instead laid in an open trench along the track or simply sliced into the
ground with a plow. Aerial cable, on the other hand, must be jacketed with material that
has maximum resistance to variations in temperature and to the damaging effects of
ultraviolet rays from the sun, in addition to the obvious need for being waterproof. Once
installed, cable is expected to give trouble-free operation for decades.

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 Chapter 6 – Power Sources and Distribution

6.1 AC Feed and Distribution

The vast majority of signal facilities in North America operate from a commercial
power source. There are some very isolated areas where access to commercial power is
just not practical. These areas may be served by solar panels, primary batteries, or power
distributed by the railroad on their own cable. However, most installations are equipped
with an electric meter mounted on the house, case, or utility pole nearby, with service
being either 110 volts or 220 volts single phase 60 Hz.

Photo 6.1.1 - Circuit Panel

Until the 1990s, many signal facilities were wired for AC power using a railroad’s
typical signal practice for wire, cable and terminations. Newer facilities, especially
bungalows, generally follow the National Electrical Code practices including standard
commercial circuit breaker panels and steel conduit for all power wiring. The breaker
panel will contain a main breaker and a number of branch circuits feeding different parts
of the system -- each one having its own branch breaker. Individual branches will be
assigned for functions like house lights and utility outlets, and where used, heater and
vent fans or air conditioning. In addition, one or more branches may be designated for
battery chargers, signal lighting transformers, and specialized power supplies as needed.

Most signal power equipment like chargers and lighting transformers are designed
to operate from a 110 volt source. If the supplied line voltage were higher than that, the
first stop would be a transformer to step down the source to 110 volts. The commercial
power is always grounded on one side and this is maintained through the distribution

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system in the signal housing. Once the power has passed through a local transformer for
use either as DC or AC, it is isolated from ground.

6.2 Alternative Energy Sources

It was mentioned earlier that some electrified railways and transit lines might not
use battery backup for some of their signal facilities. There are several reasons for this.
For one, these lines are generally in or around metropolitan areas where commercial
power is readily available and quite reliable, as opposed to remote areas that may be at
the far end of a single distribution feeder that is far from the nearest substation. Also,
electrified railway and transit lines require so much power for the running of trains that a
very substantial power infrastructure is generally built as part of the railway installation
to support the propulsion needs of the system. In many cases, the infrastructure is
designed to be fed from more than one point in the metropolitan power grid, primarily for
reliability of rail service. The same power source that serves train operation is generally
tapped for support functions like signaling. If there is a major power outage that takes out
the railway’s power source, trains will not run, so there is no need to spend extra money
to assure that signals will work. Even in these cases, some level of battery backup is
required for crossing warning systems and is generally provided to support certain
microprocessor control equipment. Without some level of battery backup, software could
be upset and data lost in the event of even a very short interruption in power that would
have no impact on train operation.

Photo 6.2.1 - Power Supply

In some cases, railroads will decide to install their own power distribution cable to
serve certain locations where the cost of having commercial power service is excessive
due to the distance from existing sources. This railroad-owned cable may be buried
along the track, or it may be suspended from poles. Railroads have also installed backup
diesel generators in certain situations where extended outages could not be tolerated, and
adequate backup service from batteries is not feasible. The generator would ordinarily be

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used in combination with batteries, so that the batteries would maintain operation for a
short time following the loss of commercial service, until the generator is up and running
to take over the load and begin recharging the batteries.

Another alternative that makes sense in some isolated locations is solar power.
The 12-volt operating level of signal equipment is ideal for the application of solar
power. The photovoltaic panels deliver low voltage DC to a bank of batteries through a
regulator that can very easily be set to run at 12 volts. Even for a relatively small
installation, solar will cost substantially more than a commercial service, providing
commercial service is available. But in places where the nearest commercial service may
be several miles away, solar may make economic sense. Each installation of solar power
must be analyzed for capacity requirements, available sunlight, weather patterns, etc.
Batteries must be sized to handle the entire load through the longest nights and partial
loads through periods of gloomy days and low sun angle. Solar panels must be sized in
combination with the batteries to provide not only the full load current during peak
daylight hours, but also to generate adequate power from less-than-ideal sun conditions.
They must also have the ability to recharge the batteries at the same time they are
delivering load energy, even under these less-than-ideal conditions. Solar power supply
experts generally do this analysis process, and this expertise is neither common nor
expected within the signal engineering profession. Needless to say, solar power makes
more sense in places like Texas and Arizona than it does in Oregon and Alaska.

Photo 6.2.2 - Solar Panel

A power source that has not yet found its way into the signal world but may in the
future is fuel cells. Fuel cells have been used in space missions for years and are
beginning to be tried on automobiles and other land vehicles. Using hydrogen as a fuel,
they create electrical energy with no moving parts and no emissions other than water
vapor. Obstacles to widespread application as this is written are cost and availability of

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fuel. Much research is being conducted on practical ways to package the hydrogen fuel
or alternate sources of the hydrogen. Also, as development proceeds and commercial
applications evolve, the cost and availability of such equipment will improve, making it a
potentially popular power source for the future.

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 Chapter 7 – Basic Electricity and Ohm’s Law

7.1 Basic Electricity and Ohms Law

In railroad signaling the need to maintain a working basic electrical knowledge is

a very important requirement. Understanding some basic characteristics of electronic
values are the basis for effective troubleshooting, set up, and repair of signal equipment.
While mastering the art of electronics comes with much study and time, good signal
practices can be achieved by embracing just a few of the basics. Ohms Law and a brief,
general understanding of capacitive and inductive reactance and AC sine wave
rectification are essential to getting a good start in understanding the electronic side of
signaling. This portion of the primer lesson is intended to help the newcomer to
electronics and railroad signaling grasp a basic understanding of some electronic
concepts.

7.2 AC vs. DC Voltage

AC and DC voltages are used all around us in our world today at home, work and
most assuredly in railroad signaling.

DC stands for “Direct Current” and always has a steady positive state. DC is the
type of voltage we get from a battery. AC stands for “Alternating Current” and is the
type of energy we get from the power generating companies. Due to the mechanical
physics of generating this type energy, the output is always changing from positive to
negative and back again.

A graphical representation of both AC and DC energy is shown in Figure 7.2.1.

AC is represented by the sine wave, with voltage changing polarity and DC is shown as a
straight positive energy source.

+5 V

A.C. 0V

-5 V

+5 V

D.C.
0V

Figure 7.2.1 – AC / DC Graphical Representation

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 AC is the type of energy that is delivered to our houses (and signal facilities) by
the commercial power company. AC energy is relatively easy to generate and can be
transmitted over great distances without an appreciable loss of energy. Most of our
appliances (and signal equipment) convert this AC source into a DC voltage. A DC
voltage is required to allow most equipment to work effectively.

A good example of this would be an electric motor. When a DC voltage source is

connected to an electric motor, it will spin in one direction. If the polarity of the source
were switched, the motor would spin in the opposite direction. To keep the motor
running continuously in one direction a DC energy source, a battery (or a source that
looks like a battery), is required. If an AC source were used, the always changing or
“Alternating Current”, would continuously reverse polarity and attempt to reverse the
direction of the motor with each polarity change.

The manner in which AC is generated causes a constantly changing level of

voltage. This AC voltage is made up of a repeating cycle of positive and negative
voltage levels. When current flows in one direction it is called the positive alternation.
When current reverses and flows in the opposite direction, it is called the negative
alternation. This repeating reversal of current flow is graphically demonstrated in
Figures 7.2.1 and 7.2.2.

+5 V
Positive
Alternation

0V

Negative
Alternation
-5 V

Figure 7.2.2 - AC Sine Wave

The number of times the voltage completes one cycle from 0 volts through its
peak positive and peak negative values and back to 0 volts in one second is referred to as
the frequency of the AC signal and is expressed in Hertz. The AC signal supplied by
power generating companies in the United States is 60 Hertz.

By changing the duration of the positive and negative alternations the frequency
of an AC signal can be changed. Using a variety of AC frequencies, allows for multiple
AC voltages to be applied to the same circuit and these signals can be used for different
functions. Components can be used in an AC circuit to filter only the frequency required
for any particular use.

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7.3 Sine Wave Rectification

To convert AC voltage into a usable DC voltage, it is necessary to prevent

polarity changes in the voltage. Sine wave rectification converts an AC voltage source to
DC voltage or more precisely, converts AC into a source that simulates a steady DC
source. To rectify an AC sine wave, a diode can be inserted into the circuit. A diode
allows current flow in one direction and blocks current flow in the opposite direction.
Essentially, a diode will block the negative alteration and pass the positive alteration,
making what will be a pulsed or “on and off” DC voltage corresponding to the positive
alternations, as illustrated in Figure 7.3.1.

Step-Down
Transformer
Diode

Output

120 VAC 12 VAC

+12 V
0V

Figure 7.3.1 – Half-Wave Rectification

On the left side of the drawing in Figure 7.3.1, is the plug that plugs into the wall
socket and on those lines that represent the wires hooked to the plug is an AC voltage
(notice the sine wave symbol). This AC voltage is then passed to a step-down
transformer. A transformer is a device used to convert an AC source voltage to a
different level of AC voltage. A step-down transformer will take a higher AC voltage
and convert it into a lower AC voltage, while a step-up transformer does the opposite.
The step-down transformer, in Figure 7.3.1, converts the 120 VAC source to 12 VAC.
On the right side of the transformer, the 12 VAC is sent through a diode (the arrow
pointing to a line symbol). The diode will pass the positive alternation and block the
negative alternation. The output is the pulsed 0 to 12 volts positive voltage shown in the
lower right of Figure 3. Any load attached to the output terminals, the motor for instance,
will have a pulsating DC voltage applied to it. The motor will operate in a single
direction because the supplied voltage is pulsed, with each pulse the same polarity.

Using a single diode, only the positive alternations are supplied to the load for use
and the negative alternations are not used. Only half of the usable voltage from the AC
source or the sine wave is used, this is called half-wave rectification.

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 It is possible to make available for use, both the positive and the negative
alternations, using a series of diodes. This series of diodes is called a bridging or full-
wave rectifier. In Figure 7.3.2, the full-wave rectifier is supplied with the positive and
negative alternations of the AC source, however the polarity at the output terminals
remains the same. The full-wave rectifier converts all parts of the AC voltage into usable
positive DC voltage.

The output as shown in Figure 7.3.2, is a more consistent energy source then the
source using half-wave rectification illustrated in Figure 7.3.1. As one alternation turns
off the other is turning on. The motor does not recognize the off time between pulses and
will operate just as if it were attached to a steady 12-volt battery. Using the full-wave
rectifier, an AC voltage can be converted into a nearly steady DC voltage.

Step-Down
Transformer

+ +
Output

- 12 VAC
-
120 VAC

+12 V

0V

Step-Down
Transformer

- +
Output

+ 12 VAC
-
120 VAC

+12 V
0V

Figure 7.3.2 – Full-Wave Rectification

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7.4 Circuits and DC Current Flow

In electrical circuits, DC current will flow from the source through the wires and
components of the circuit and back to the battery. The circuit shown in Figure 7.4.1 is an
example of a simple circuit consisting of a source of electrical energy (the battery), a path
for current flow (the wires), and a load (the light bulb).

Load

Source

Path

Figure 7.4.1 – Simple Circuit

The battery can be described as any source of direct current or a source where a potential
difference of polarity exists. If a potential difference exists, there is a possibility for
current to flow from one polarity to the other. Battery or voltage level is expressed in
Volts or V or E.

Current flow can be described as the movement of electrons within the materials that
compose the circuit. Only the materials through which it must pass to get to the opposite
potential limit current flow. Current flow is expressed in Amps or I.

Resistance can be described as the opposition to current flow. The more resistant a
material is, the less current will be allowed to flow. Resistance to DC current flow is a
physical property of the materials or components of the circuit. Resistance is composed
of all components in the circuit including the resistance added to the circuit by the wires
of that circuit. In most cases, the resistance added by the wires in negligible and is not
included in any calculations relating to the circuit. Resistance is expressed in Ohms or Ω.

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 As illustrated in Figure 7.4.2, when only one path exists for current flow, all the
current from the source will flow through all the wires and components in that circuit.
This type of circuit is called a Series Circuit.

When multiple paths for current flow exist, current will divide between the paths
and different quantities of current will flow through each of the paths depending on the
resistance of the loads attached. This type of circuit is called a Parallel Circuit.

Circuits that use a combination of series and parallel components are called
Series-Parallel Circuits.
Load

+
Current
Flow
Source

Series Circuit

Load

Source

Parallel Circuit
Figure 7.4.2 – Simple Series and Parallel Circuits

A set of rules called Ohm’s Law describes how the load and the DC source
interact, and provides a means to predict or calculate where and how much current will
flow in any electrical circuit.

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7.5 Ohm’s Law

In any give DC circuit, Ohm’s Law states that:

Current is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance.

That statement can be written as equations that can then be used to calculate any value in
any DC circuit.

E
I =
R
E
E = IR

R=
E I R
I

Figure 7.5.1 – Ohm’s Law Formulas

If there is 1 volt present with a path and a 1 ohm load there will be 1 amp of current.

Load
1 ohm

+
Source
1 volt Current
1 amp
-

Series Circuit

Figure 7.5.2 – Ohm’s Law Demonstration

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Ohm’s Law can be applied to the circuit in Figure 7.5.3 to calculate any of the values. As
long as 2 of the values are provided, the third value can be calculated using Ohm’s Law.

Load
2 ohms

+
Source
10 volts Current
5 amps
-

Series Circuit

E 10 V
I = = = 5A
R 2Ω
E = IR = 5 A * 2 Ω = 10 V
E 10 V
R= = = 2Ω
. I 5A

Figure 7.5.3 – Ohm’s Law Calculations

In the previous examples, the load has been described as a single component, the
light bulb. However, most DC circuits consist of a variety of components, all of which
can be described as a resistance of some kind and of varying resistance values. How the
components are connected to the battery source determine where and how much current
will flow in the circuit.
As described earlier, the series and parallel connections allow current to flow in
different portions of the circuit and the resistance values of those portions of the circuit
will directly affect the amount of current flow.

Rules can be defined to describe how current, voltage and resistance react to
series and parallel circuits. These rules can be separated into 2 sections, those associated
with series circuits and those associated with parallel circuits.

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In a series circuit the following apply:

Ø Voltage drops at each load or resistance

• The total of voltage drops at all resistors will be equal to the source
voltage
Ø Current remains the same throughout the circuit
Ø Resistance is the sum of all of the resistors in the circuit

In a parallel circuit the following apply:

Ø Voltage remains the same across all paths of the parallel circuit
Ø Current divides between paths of the circuit
• The total current flowing through parallel paths will equal total circuit
current.
Ø Resistance of a parallel circuit is always lower than the lowest resistance path
of the parallel circuit

Memorizing these six rules and where they apply is the first step towards solving
for values of a circuit using Ohm’s Law. Some circuits may be a combination of both
series and parallel circuits and these same rules apply.

Voltage and current can be easily calculated using Ohm’ Law. Resistance,
however, causes current to flow differently depending on its connection to the voltage
source.

Calculating circuit resistance requires additional rules for series and parallel circuits.

Resistors in series required all current to flow through all the resistance so the resistance
total would be additive.

Resistance values are added together to calculate the total circuit resistance as shown in
Figure 7.5.4.
Total Resistance (RT) = 2 Ω + 2 Ω =
4Ω

R1
+ 2Ω

10V

- R2
2Ω

Figure 7.5.4 – Resistors in Series

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In a parallel circuit the total resistance is always lower than the lowest resistance path of
the parallel circuit

There are three ways to calculate total resistance in a parallel circuit.

Ø Resistance Value / Number of Resistors

• This can only be used if the resistance of all parallel paths is equal

Ø Product / Sum
• This can only be used with 2 parallel paths

Ø Reciprocal
• This can be used for any type of parallel circuits

Figure 7.5.5, demonstrates each of these formulas.

+
10V R1 R2
2Ω 2Ω
-

Value 2Ω
Resistance / Number RT = = = 1Ω
# Resistors 2

Product 2*2
Product / Sum RT = = = 1Ω
Sum 2+2

1 1
Reciprocal RT = 1 1 = 1 1 = 1Ω
+ +
Value Value 2 2

Figure 7.5.5 – Resistors in Parallel

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In a series-parallel circuit the same rules apply as those for simple series and parallel
circuits.

In the circuit shown in Figure 7.5.6, rules for both series and parallel circuits will
be applied to different parts of the circuit.
R2

+
4Ω
2V R1 R3
2Ω 2Ω
-

Figure 7.5.6 – Series Parallel Circuit

In this circuit, current will flow from the battery through the conductor to the first
junction point. Some current will then flow through R1 and the remaining current will
flow through the path made up of R2 and R3 . With the current splitting between paths the
circuit exhibits the characteristics of a parallel circuit. In the parallel path made up of R2
and R3 , all the current is required to flow through both resistors, characteristic of a series
circuit. The rules for series circuits would apply to this portion of the circuit.

To calculate the total resistance of this circuit, it is necessary first to apply the
series rules to calculate the resistance of the R2 and R3 path. In Figure 7.5.7, these rules
have been applied and an equivalent circuit is shown.

2V R1 R2 + R3
2Ω 6Ω
-

Figure 7.5.7 – Series Parallel Equivalent Circuit

A simple parallel circuit remains and the total resistance can now be calculated
using either the product/sum or reciprocal formula. Once the total resistance is
calculated, current and voltage drops can then be calculated for each component in the
circuit.

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 1 1
RT = 1 1 = 1 1 = 1.5 Ω
R1 + R2,3 2 + 6

With the total circuit +

resistance calculated,
Ohm’s Law can be used 2V R1, 2, 3
to determine total circuit 1.5 Ω
current. - 1.33 A
The equivalent circuit is
shown in Figure 7.5.8.

Figure 7.5.8 – Series Parallel Equivalent Circuit

ET 2V
IT = = = 1.33 A
RT 1.5 Ω

The rules of parallel circuits state that voltage remains the same across all paths of a
parallel circuit. Using this information, the voltage drop across R1 will be 2 volts as will
the voltage drop across the series connected R 2, 3.

2V R1 R2 + R3
2Ω 6Ω
- 2V 2V

Figure 7.5.9 – Series Parallel Equivalent Circuit

With 2 of the values for R1 , the current flow through this path of the parallel circuit can
now calculated.

ER1 2V
IR1 = = = 1A
RR1 2Ω

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With 2 of the values for R 2,3, the current flow through this path of the parallel circuit can
also be calculated.

ER2, 3 2V
IR2, 3 = = = .33 A
RR2, 3 6Ω

With current flow calculated in the parallel path of R 2, 3, the rules for series circuits can
be applied for current flow through R2 and R3 . The series rule states current remains the
same throughout the circuit.

R2

+
4Ω
2V R1
.33 A R3
2Ω 2Ω
- .33 A

Figure 7.5.10 – Series Parallel Circuit

Now that 2 values for each component have been calculated, the voltage drops for each
resistor can be determined using Ohm’s Law.

ER2 = IR2 * RR2 = 4 * .33 = 1.32 V

ER3 = IR3 * RR3 = 2 * .33 = .66 V

Using both the rules for series and parallel circuits and Ohm’s Law, the voltage
current and resistance values of all components in a circuit can be calculated. It is
necessary to have enough information regarding the circuit to accomplish these
calculations. At least 2 of the values are required to use Ohm’s Law and all of the
resistance values are required to use the rules for series and parallel resistance.

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7.6 Power

Power is the amount of work being done and is expressed as Watts or W.

At any load or source the voltage drop at the component is multiplied by the
amount of current flowing through the component to determine the amount of power used
at that component. It is irrelevant whether the component is in series or parallel since
power is calculated at the component using values obtained by Ohm’s Law calculations.

Load
2 ohms

+
Source
10 volts Current
5 amps
-

Series Circuit

PT = IT * E T = 10 V * 5 A = 50 W

Figure 7.6.1 – Series Power Demonstration Circuit

Figure 7.6.2 shows the various formulas that can be used to calculate voltage,
current or power depending on the information provided.

P
I =
E
P
P = IE

E=
P I E
I

Figure 7.6.2 – Series Parallel Equivalent Circuit

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7.7 Circuits and AC Current Flow

As in a DC circuit, current will flow from the energy source (the transformer or
generator) through the conductors (the wires) and through the load. The main difference
between DC and AC current flow is that the direction (polarity) of the current flow
changes constantly with AC, as previously described.

Resistors will react to AC current flow in the same manner that they react to DC
current flow, as resistance is a physical property of the material from which they are
constructed. Resistors will oppose current flow regardless of the direction current flows
in the circuit.

Other components, inductors and capacitors, will react differently to AC current

flow than they do to DC current flow. Using knowledge of these components reaction to
AC current in a circuit, they can be used to restrict AC current in circuits where AC
might produce a negative effect on the circuit. In some application AC and DC are both
used in the same circuit and capacitors and inductors can be inserted to separate the AC
and DC voltages for different purposes. Inductors and capacitors can also be used to
affect only a certain frequency of an AC signal.

7.8 Inductors

An inductor is simply a coil of wire. A core can also be inserted into the coil to
allow the inductor become more effective. Inductors use the magnetic field that is
created when current is passed through the wire to resist AC current flow. This effect is
called inductance and is measured in Henry’s. Depending on the frequency of the AC
signal, the inductor will react differently and this resistance to AC current flow is called
inductive reactance.

Figure 7.8.1 – Inductor Symbols

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 In a circuit with a DC voltage applied, the inductor appears to be only a piece of
wire; therefore, they have little affect on the DC circuit. The DC voltage source applied
to the inductor will cause a magnetic field to be created when current flows in the circuit
as shown in Figure 7.8.2. The DC current will create a stable magnetic field around the
inductor that will have no effect on the current flow through the inductor.

Positive Magnetic Field

N S
+

Figure 7.8.2 – Inductor Positive Magnetic Field

An AC signal applied to the inductor will also cause magnetic fields to be created.
When the AC signal is in the positive alternation, a magnetic field is created as shown in
Figure 7.8.2. However, when the AC signal is in the negative alternation the polarity of
the voltage on the inductor is reversed and the magnetic field created is opposite to the
field created in the positive alternation as shown in Figure 7.8.3.

Negative Magnetic Field

S N
-

Figure 7.8.3 – Inductor Negative Magnetic Field

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 As the direction of the current flow (polarity of the source) is reversed, the
magnetic field collapses causing a counter voltage to be generated in the inductor. This
counter voltage, also called Counter EMF, is in opposition to the source voltage and will
resist the change in voltage from the source. The final effect of this counter voltage is to
cancel out or block the AC voltage from passing through the inductor.

Because inductors use the changing polarity of the source to block AC current
flow, the higher the frequency of the AC signal or the more often the polarity changes,
the more effective the inductor will be.

Inductors are mainly used to block AC from passing through the circuit
containing an inductor and are often called filters or chokes.

7.9 Capacitors

While inductors resist a change in direction of current flow, capacitors resist a

change in voltage. Capacitors resistance values to DC current is express in Ohms or Ω .

Plates with
dielectric center

Figure 7.9.1 – Capacitor Symbol

A capacitor resists a change in voltage through an electrostatic charge process.

The voltage is passed until the electrostatic charge carrying capable center (the dielectric)
is equal to the voltage applied to the capacitor by the source. Once a capacitor stores a
charge equal to the source voltage charging it, it will stop the flow of voltage.

A DC voltage source will quickly reach this threshold and current flow will stop.
AC voltage is not affected by capacitors as the voltage changes constantly. Capacitors
can be used to block DC current while allowing AC current to pass.

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7.10 Ohm’s Law Worksheet

Use the material covered on Ohm’s Law and solve for the following, rounding all
answers to 2 decimal places, if necessary:

R1
Problem 1

35 Ω R2
10V 10 Ω
R3

50 Ω

RT IT

ER1 IR1

ER2 IR2

R1
Problem 2

15 Ω R2
10V 25 Ω
R3

15 Ω

RT IT

ER1 IR1

ER2 IR2

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 Problem 3
R1

10 Ω R2
2V 10 Ω
R3

20 Ω

RT IT PT

ER1 IR1 PR1

ER3 IR3 PR3

Problem 4

R1

15 Ω R2
__ V 10 Ω
R3

25 Ω

ET IT .5 A RT

ER1 IR1 PR1

ER2 IR2 PR3

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 Problem 5
R1 R2

50 Ω __ Ω R3
24V 10 Ω
R4

30 Ω

RT IT 120 mA R2

ER1 ER3

ER2 ER4

Problem 6

R1 R2
10V 10 Ω 10 Ω

RT IT

ER1 IR1

ER2 IR2

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 Problem 7

R1 R2
2.2V 1.1 Ω 3.8 Ω

RT IT

ER1 IR1

ER2 IR2

Problem 8

R1 R2 R3
2.2V 1Ω 3Ω 5Ω

RT IT PT

ER1 IR1 PR3

ER2 IR2 IR3

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 Problem 9
R2

R1 3Ω R3
2.2V 1Ω 5Ω

RT IT PT

ER1 IR1 PR3

ER2 IR2 IR3

Problem 10

R2

R1 3Ω R3
2.2V 1Ω 5Ω
R4

1Ω

RT IT IR3

ER1 IR1 IR4

ER2 IR2 PT

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 Problem 11
R2

R1 1Ω R3
2.2V 5Ω 4Ω
R4

1Ω

RT IT IR3

ER1 IR1 IR4

ER2 IR2 PT

Problem 12

R2

R1 1Ω R3 R5
2.2V 5Ω 4Ω 2Ω
R4

1Ω

RT ER3 IT IR3

ER1 ER4 IR1 IR4

ER2 ER5 IR2 IR5

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7.11 Ohm’s Law Worksheet - Answers

R1
Problem 1

35 Ω R2
10V 10 Ω
R3

50 Ω

RT 95 Ω IT .11 A

ER1 3.85 V IR1 .11 A

ER2 1.1 V IR2 .11 A

R1
Problem 2

15 Ω R2
10V 25 Ω
R3

15 Ω

RT 55 Ω IT .18 A

ER1 2.7 V IR1 .18 A

ER2 4.5 V IR2 .18 A

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 Problem 3
R1

10 Ω R2
2V 10 Ω
R3

20 Ω

RT 40 Ω IT .05 A PT .1 W

ER1 .5 V IR1 .05 A PR1 .025 W

ER3 1V IR3 .05 A PR3 .05 W

Problem 4

R1

15 Ω R2
__ V 10 Ω
R3

25 Ω

ET 25 V IT .5 A RT 50 Ω

ER1 7.5 V IR1 .5 A PR1 3.75 W

ER2 5V IR2 .5 A PR3 6.25 W

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 Problem 5
R1 R2

50 Ω __ Ω R3
24V 10 Ω
R4

30 Ω

RT 200 Ω IT 120 mA R2 110 Ω

ER1 6V ER3 1.2 V

ER2 13.2 V ER4 3.6 V

Problem 6

R1 R2
10V 10 Ω 10 Ω

RT 5Ω IT 2A

ER1 10 V IR1 1A

ER2 10 V IR2 1A

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 Problem 7

R1 R2
2.2V 1.1 Ω 3.8 Ω

RT .85 Ω IT 2.59 A

ER1 2.2 V IR1 2A

ER2 2.2 V IR2 2.58 A

Problem 8

R1 R2 R3
2.2V 1Ω 3Ω 5Ω

RT .65 Ω IT 3.38 A PT 7.44 W

ER1 2.2 V IR1 2.2 A PR3 .97 W

ER2 2.2 V IR2 .73 A IR3 .44 A

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 Problem 9
R2

R1 3Ω R3
2.2V 1Ω 5Ω

RT .89 Ω IT 2.47 A PT 5.43 W

ER1 2.2 V IR1 2.2 A PR3 .39 W

ER2 .84 V IR2 .28 A IR3 .28 A

Problem 10

R2

R1 3Ω R3
2.2V 1Ω 5Ω
R4

1Ω

RT .9 Ω IT 2.44 A IR3 .24 A

ER1 2.2 V IR1 2.2 A IR4 .24 A

ER2 .72 V IR2 .24 A PT 5.36 W

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 Problem 11
R2

R1 1Ω R3
2.2V 5Ω 4Ω
R4

1Ω

RT 3.5 Ω IT .63 A IR3 .31 A

ER1 1.55 V IR1 .31 A IR4 .63 A

ER2 .31 V IR2 .31 A PT 1.39 W

Problem 12

R2

R1 1Ω R3 R5
2.2V 5Ω 4Ω 2Ω
R4

1Ω

RT 2.59 Ω ER3 .77 V IT .85 A IR3 .19 A

ER1 1.35 V ER4 .85 V IR1 .27 A IR4 .85 A

ER2 .58 V ER5 .77 V IR2 .58 A IR5 .38 A

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 Table of Illustrations

PHOTO 1.1.1 - TRAIN COLLISION ......................................................................................... 3

PHOTO 1.4.1 - TRAIN ORDER ............................................................................................... 6
FIGURE 1.5.1 - MANUAL BLOCK OPERATION....................................................................... 7
PHOTO 1.5.2 - BLOCK STATIONS.......................................................................................... 7
PHOTO 1.5.3 - MODERN SMASHBOARD (RAILROAD CROSSING GATE) ................................ 8
PHOTO 1.5.4 - TITLING TARGET SIGNAL............................................................................. 9
PHOTO 1.5.5 - SEMAPHORE ................................................................................................. 9
PHOTO 2.1.1 - TRACK COMPONENTS ................................................................................. 11
PHOTO 2.1.2 - TRACK BOND ............................................................................................. 12
FIGURE 2.2.1 - CLOSED LOOP PRINCIPLE ........................................................................... 12
PHOTO 3.1.1 - SIGNALS AS S EEN BY THE TRAIN ENGINEER.............................................. 13
PHOTO 3.1.2 - SEMAPHORE SIGNALS ................................................................................. 13
FIGURE 3.1.3 -VARIOUS COMMON SIGNAL TYPES ............................................................. 14
PHOTO 3.1.4 - COLORLIGHT SIGNALS ................................................................................ 15
PHOTO 3.1.5 - POSITION LIGHT SIGNAL ............................................................................. 16
PHOTO 3.1.6 - SEARCHLIGHT SIGNAL ................................................................................ 16
FIGURE 3.1.7 - SEARCHLIGHT SIGNAL OPERATION ............................................................ 17
FIGURE 3.1.8 - COLOR P OSITION LIGHT SIGNAL OPERATION............................................. 17
PHOTO 3.1.9 - COLOR POSITION LIGHT SIGNAL................................................................. 18
FIGURE 3.2.1 - SIGNAL DRAWING S YMBOLS ...................................................................... 18
FIGURE 3.2.2 - SIGNAL S YMBOLS APPLIED TO A TRACK P LAN......................................... 19
PHOTO 3.3.1 - BACK TO BACK SIGNALS ............................................................................ 20
PHOTO 3.3.2 - BRACKET MAST SIGNAL. ............................................................................ 20
PHOTO 3.3.3 - CANTILEVER SIGNALS ................................................................................ 21
PHOTO 3.3.4 - SIGNAL BRIDGE .......................................................................................... 21
PHOTO 3.3.5 - DWARF SIGNALS ......................................................................................... 22
PHOTO 3.5.1 - POLE LINE................................................................................................... 24
PHOTO 4.1.1 - COMPLICATED INTERLOCKING.................................................................... 26
FIGURE 4.2.1 - PARTS OF A TRACK SWITCH ....................................................................... 27
PHOTO 4.2.4 - MOVEABLE POINT FROG............................................................................. 28
FIGURE 4.3.1 - SWITCH ORIENTATION ............................................................................... 28
FIGURE 4.3.2 - SWITCH SIZE .............................................................................................. 29
FIGURE 4.3.3 - CROSSOVER CONSISTING OF TWO SWITCHES ............................................ 30
PHOTO 4.4.1 - HAND THROW SWITCH STAND.................................................................... 31
PHOTO 4.4.2 - ELECTRIC LOCK .......................................................................................... 31
PHOTO 4.4.3 - POWER SWITCH MACHINE .......................................................................... 32
FIGURE 4.5.1 - CROSSING DIAMOND.................................................................................. 33
PHOTO 4.5.2 - CROSSING DIAMOND................................................................................... 34
FIGURE 4.5.3 - SCISSORS CROSSOVER ............................................................................... 34
PHOTO 4.5.5 - DOUBLE SLIP SWITCH “PUZZLE” ................................................................ 35
PHOTO 4.5.6 - GUARD RAIL IN A SWITCH .......................................................................... 36
PHOTO 4.5.7 - BLOCK DERAIL ........................................................................................... 37

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PHOTO 4.5.9 - SIGNAL TOWER ........................................................................................... 38
PHOTO 4.6.1 - HOME SIGNAL AT INTERLOCKING .............................................................. 39
PHOTO 4.6.2 - BLOCK SIGNAL WITH NUMBER PLATE ....................................................... 40
PHOTO 4.7.1 - OLD MECHANICAL INTERLOCKING – LEVERS AND LOCKING BED .............. 42
PHOTO 4.7.2 - ELECTRO-MECHANICAL INTERLOCKING MACHINE .................................... 43
PHOTO 4.7.3 - RELAY ROOM IN LARGE RELAY INTERLOCKING......................................... 43
PHOTO 4.7.4 - PROCESSOR-BASED INTERLOCKING CONTROL............................................ 44
FIGURE 4.10.1 - TYPICAL DRAWING S YMBOLS .................................................................. 47
PHOTO 5.1.1 - VITAL AND NON-VITAL RELAYS ................................................................ 48
FIGURE 5.1.2 - MAIN COMPONENTS OF A VITAL RELAY .................................................. 50
PHOTO 5.2.1 - SEVERAL TYPICAL SHELF RELAYS ............................................................. 51
PHOTOS 5.3.1 - TYPICAL B RELAYS .................................................................................. 52
PHOTO 5.3.2 - TYPICAL PN RELAYS .................................................................................. 53
PHOTO 5.4.1 - TYPICAL BATTERIES ................................................................................... 55
PHOTO 5.5.1 - TYPICAL CHARGERS ................................................................................... 57
PHOTO 5.6.2 - TYPICAL LIGHTING TRANSFORMER ............................................................ 58
PHOTO 5.7.1 - LIGHTNING ARRESTERS .............................................................................. 59
PHOTO 5.8.1 - TERMINALS ................................................................................................. 60
PHOTO 5.8.2 - ASSORTED SIGNAL RESISTORS .................................................................... 61
PHOTO 5.9.2 - COLORLIGHT STACKABLE MODULE............................................................ 62
PHOTO 5.9.4 - SNOW SHIELD ............................................................................................. 64
PHOTO 5.10.1 - SEARCHLIGHT SIGNAL .............................................................................. 65
PHOTO 5.14.1 - VARIOUS SIGNAL HOUSES ........................................................................ 69
PHOTO 5.14.2 - VARIOUS SIGNAL CASES ........................................................................... 70
PHOTO 5.14.3 - INTERIOR OF A SIGNAL HOUSE ................................................................ 71
PHOTO 5.15.2 - FLASHING LIGHT SIGNAL.......................................................................... 74
PHOTO 5.15.5 - GATE MECHANISM.................................................................................... 76
PHOTO 5.16.1 - SIGNAL CABLE.......................................................................................... 78
PHOTO 6.2.1 - POWER SUPPLY ........................................................................................... 81
FIGURE 7.2.1 – AC / DC GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION ................................................... 84
FIGURE 7.2.2 - AC SINE WAVE ........................................................................................ 85
FIGURE 7.3.1 – HALF -WAVE RECTIFICATION .................................................................... 86
FIGURE 7.3.2 – FULL-WAVE RECTIFICATION..................................................................... 87
FIGURE 7.4.1 – SIMPLE CIRCUIT ........................................................................................ 88
FIGURE 7.4.2 – SIMPLE S ERIES AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS ................................................. 89
FIGURE 7.5.1 – OHM ’S LAW FORMULAS............................................................................ 90
FIGURE 7.5.2 – OHM ’S LAW DEMONSTRATION.................................................................. 90
FIGURE 7.5.3 – OHM ’S LAW CALCULATIONS ..................................................................... 91
FIGURE 7.5.4 – RESISTORS IN SERIES ................................................................................. 92
FIGURE 7.5.5 – RESISTORS IN PARALLEL ........................................................................... 93
FIGURE 7.5.6 – SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUIT ....................................................................... 94
FIGURE 7.5.7 – SERIES PARALLEL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT .................................................. 94
FIGURE 7.5.8 – SERIES PARALLEL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT .................................................. 95
FIGURE 7.5.9 – SERIES PARALLEL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT .................................................. 95
FIGURE 7.5.10 – SERIES PARALLEL CIRCUIT ..................................................................... 96
FIGURE 7.6.1 – SERIES POWER DEMONSTRATION CIRCUIT ................................................ 97

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FIGURE 7.6.2 – SERIES PARALLEL EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT .................................................. 97
FIGURE 7.8.1 – INDUCTOR S YMBOLS ................................................................................. 98
FIGURE 7.8.2 – INDUCTOR POSITIVE MAGNETIC FIELD ..................................................... 99
FIGURE 7.8.3 – INDUCTOR NEGATIVE MAGNETIC FIELD ................................................... 99
FIGURE 7.9.1 – CAPACITOR SYMBOL............................................................................... 100

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