1.

1 Introduction to Maps
Maps
Maps are incredibly important to geographers because it presents information and data in a
geographic form which assists geographers in their fields; with each map having its own strengths
and weaknesses.

Reference Map
Emphasizing the location of a place without using data. Specifically one that doesn’t have a pattern
or tells a story.

Thematic Map
Emphasizes patterns of a place using data; has an overall concept being conveyed, with data being
centered around that concept.
- Examples of thematic maps would include choropleth maps, flowline maps, and cartogram
maps.

Absolute Distance
Describing distances using quantitative terms such as kilometers, meters, etc. (precise terms)
- Examples being the precise distances between two points.

Relative Distance
Describing distances using qualitative terms such as hours, seconds, etc. (arbitrary terms)
- Examples being the relative distances between two points (such as the time instead of precise
units of measure).

Clustering
Items on a map are closely concentrated together in one geographic space.

Dispersing
Items on a map are far apart from each other over a geographic area on a map.

Map Distortion
When translating an accurate and scaled map from a globe onto a flat plain such as paper distortion
occurs; inaccuracies within certain parts of the globe; there are many techniques to solve map
distortion.
- Geographiers, when trying to fix this, will decrease the distortion of a map in one area but
then inadvertently increase the distortion elsewhere, or simply cut off the distorted portion
of the map, or make it incredibly hard to read/understand due to the constant
counter-distortion techniques.
 - An example of decreasing distortion would be the mercator map, where Greenland
ends up being larger than Africa as a result of making most of the rest of the map
more accurate.
- Another type of map distortion would be within the data itself. Depending on how the map
is made, an incorrect impression of the data could occur by the reader.
- An example of this would be a world’s religions map, with each country being given a
religion. If we were to use this map solely, almost 90% of the world would have
Christianity as its religion, however, if you were to scale up the map, you’d realize that
each country has massive diversity with its religions.

Types of Map Projections

- The Mercator Projection is an uninterrupted map in the shape of a rectangle that distorts
the shape and size of landmasses (Antarctica/Greenland) but keeps direction and distances;
the map also has longitude and latitude lines.
- The Goode Homolosine Projection is an interrupted map taking the shape of only major
land masses and distorting the rest; is pseudocylindrical.
- The Fuller Projection is an interrupted map that looks similar to a jigsaw puzzle. Maintains
accurate sizes and shapes at the expense of having no cardinal directions & longitude and
latitude.
- The Robinson Projection is an uninterrupted map in the shape of an oval that spreads its
distortion across all aspects of distance, size, shape, and direction.
- The Winkel Tripel Projection is an uninterrupted similar to the Robinson Projection
except taking a more round or squashed oval shape in addition to distortion being by the
poles.

Types of Maps
- Topographic maps are maps that observe and show the terrain and height of both natural
and man made structures.
- Choropleth maps are thematic maps that show data through the usage of colors and
shading.
- Flowline maps are thematic maps that show the transit of goods, peoples, etc. by showing
lines that connect regions of movement and transit.
- Cartogram maps are a thematic map that distorts the shape and size of landmasses to
convey statistical information (such as countries’ population reflecting their size).

1.2 Geographic Data

Qualitative Data
Qualitative data/research involves subjects often not measurable such as interviews, surveys, and
additional observations to find results and make generalizations; opinion based.
 - Examples of what qualitative research would be used for would be topics subjected to the
individual such as culture, society, religion, gender, etc.

Quantitative Data
Quantitative data/research involves facts that are measurable, making specific observations using
specific information and is usually presented in number form using gathered factual evidence; facts
based.
- Uses censuses, satellites, and other forms of factual information to conduct research.
- Is used to describe demographics of a region, the economic sustainability of a
population/society, etc.
- Discussion of quantitative data is mainly focused on the interpretation rather than
correction of said data.

Geographic Information System

A computer system that analyzes, manages, and displays information given to it; similar to a
composite image with several images connected to form a picture, a geographic information system
combines data it receives and forms a coherent narrative from said data.
- The data used is usually collected via remote sensing.

Remote Sensing
Remote sensing is the process of gathering information on a geographic location without actually
being in said geographic location. Utilizing this information one can input it into a geographic
information system to understand complex streams of data into a singular mean of visualization.
- Examples of people utilizing remote sensing would be farmers of which use drones to
visualize the health of their crops via their color and to then seek appropriate action.

1.3 The Power of Geographic Data

Scale
The ratio or comparison of one distance/space to another; the utilization of geographic data to
make more in-depth connections to these two areas.

Local Scale
Local scale involves participation of local governments/businesses in how to operate locally, utilizing
data for instance, to determine where to build a new school, or how to advertise to consumers.

Regional Scale
Regional scale involves government participation on a regional level (the US for instance uses states)
to help identify data and utilize it correctly, an immediate example being the construction and
maintenance of regional infrastructure and utilities. Businesses however on the regional scale
function by utilizing local data and combining it with data from other communities, enabling them
to form a narrative on how certain products might sell better in a specific region or why a product is
selling poorly.

National Scale
Government operations on a national scale requires the utilization of information from sources such
as a census to determine the general needs of the people; where and how to allocate resources and
budgets to certain states, where and how to allocate resources to large projects, etc. Businesses on a
national scale will utilize information and data to decide on things such as where to locate, as for in
the US for example, certain states provide benefits to certain industries or tax other industries more
heavily.

Global Scale
Governments on a global scale utilize data to perform events such as humanitarian aid through
multinational institutions such as the United Nations, whereas businesses on a global scale would
utilize data to decide how to or if to expand into the international markets, which shipping routes to
use or to use them at all, etc.

Census Data
The official and trustworthy source of societal demographics and breakdowns, showing data on all
walks of life such as the age, gender, pay, etc. demographics of a nation/region.

1.4 Spatial Concepts

Distance Decay
The effect of distance on cultural or spatial interactions.
- Interactions between cultures will occur at a more frequent rate the closer they are, whereas
the farther apart the less interactions will occur

Space-Time Compression
The increasing sense of connectivity due to advancements in technology (such as the internet), that
reduces the impact of distance decay.

Spatial Association
The process of looking at how a specific location/region is organized, such as how communities are
arranged, how are farms arranged in relation to sources of freshwater; generalized patterns.

Absolute Location
Pinpoint locations, the absolute location of a certain area described via things such as longitude and
latitude; the specificity of a location.
Relative Location
The general location of an area, described through the surrounding physical and human
characteristics, such as the presence of mountains, rivers, lakes, or the presence of urban or rural
human settlement.

1.5 Human-Environment Interaction

Society-Environment Interaction
The environment is key to the development and existence of society, with the environment dictating
things such as what clothes we wear, what kinds of food we eat, what houses we build, to even the
color of skin.

Sustainability
The process by which a societies’ wants and needs are met without causing detrimental adverse
effects on future generations’ ability to meet their own needs whilst also enabling this process to
continue indefinitely.

Environmental Determinism
The idea that the environment is what enables for cultures and societies to thrive and develop; the
physical environment controls the actions of people.

Environmental Possibilism
The idea that the environment can either promote or hinder societies and cultures, but ultimately the
actions and decisions of the people within said cultures and societies will determine if it will thrive
and develop; the people control the action of the people with the environment acting as both a
positive and negative force.

1.6 Scales of Analysis

Scale of Analysis
Observations of data at global, national, regional, and local levels; the process of going from the
smallest scale to the largest scale when analyzing data.

States & Subnational

States are of the global/national scale, being the countries that form the international community.
Subnational states would be the smaller units of a nation. For the US, these are the 50 states of
America, for other countries, provinces.
Small Scale & Large Scale
Small scale maps present little to no information about the topic at hand, resulting in large
generalizations. Large scale maps present in-depth and detailed information about the topic at hand,
enabling specifications to be made to the map to present a larger picture.

1.7 Regional Analysis

Region
A region is a geographic area of land which shares unifying common characteristics and patterns.

Formal/Uniform Region
A geographic area with common attributes, traditionally defined by economic, social, political, or
environmental characteristics; a homogenous region that shares many similar characteristics and
patterns (non-debatable).

Functional/Nodal Region
A geographic area organized around a node, or a center point; often based around economic,
activities, travel, or communication.; a region by which certain characteristics and patterns only apply
for a specific area around a center point.

Perceptual/Vernacular Region
A geographic area that has no perfect definition, it only exists because of people’s beliefs, feelings,
and attitudes of the region; a region that has multiple definable boundaries as a result of changing
interactions.

Additional Notes
Extra notes
Mercator Projection Goode Homolosine Projection

Robinson Projection Fuller Projection

Winkel Tripel Projection