The document summarizes some of the major challenges and responses during the 19th century that provide context for understanding Jose Rizal's role in developing Filipino nationalism. Specifically it mentions:
1) Nations struggled for nationalism as people developed pride in their own countries and fought against foreign domination.
2) Men fought for democracy and human rights as concepts of democracy took hold in places like France, England, and the United States through reforms and abolition of slavery.
3) The industrial revolution led to changes like the shift from hand work to machine work in factories, which established new social classes and transformed economies and societies.
The document summarizes some of the major challenges and responses during the 19th century that provide context for understanding Jose Rizal's role in developing Filipino nationalism. Specifically it mentions:
1) Nations struggled for nationalism as people developed pride in their own countries and fought against foreign domination.
2) Men fought for democracy and human rights as concepts of democracy took hold in places like France, England, and the United States through reforms and abolition of slavery.
3) The industrial revolution led to changes like the shift from hand work to machine work in factories, which established new social classes and transformed economies and societies.
The document summarizes some of the major challenges and responses during the 19th century that provide context for understanding Jose Rizal's role in developing Filipino nationalism. Specifically it mentions:
1) Nations struggled for nationalism as people developed pride in their own countries and fought against foreign domination.
2) Men fought for democracy and human rights as concepts of democracy took hold in places like France, England, and the United States through reforms and abolition of slavery.
3) The industrial revolution led to changes like the shift from hand work to machine work in factories, which established new social classes and transformed economies and societies.
The document summarizes some of the major challenges and responses during the 19th century that provide context for understanding Jose Rizal's role in developing Filipino nationalism. Specifically it mentions:
1) Nations struggled for nationalism as people developed pride in their own countries and fought against foreign domination.
2) Men fought for democracy and human rights as concepts of democracy took hold in places like France, England, and the United States through reforms and abolition of slavery.
3) The industrial revolution led to changes like the shift from hand work to machine work in factories, which established new social classes and transformed economies and societies.
Leading Topics 1. Nations Struggle for Nationalism. 2. Men Fight for Democracy.
3. The Effects of the Industrial Revolution Are Multifarious.
4 Responses to the Growing Social Problems Are Created by the Industrial Revolution. 5. Science Becomes the Servant of Man.
6. Modern Imperialism Starts a Process of Historic Change.
7. Growing Confidence in Progress Inspires Optimism. The meaning and importance of a man’s task can be best understood And appreciated when viewed within a time-frame and in its proper historical Context. To better understand and appreciate the role of Jose Rizal in the Making of the Filipino nation one has to know the developments in the Century when he lived, the period when he worked. The nineteenth century was an era of challenges and responses. It Was a period of major changes which affected men and society. Speaking Of the period, Rizal, in his Noli Me Tangere, asked who would be lost In the struggle between the past and the present: Ah, we were speaking of the present condition of the Philippines, Said Tasio to Don Filipo. Yes, we are now entering upon a Period of strife, or rather, I should say that you are, for my generation Belongs to the night, we are passing away. This strife is between The past, which seizes and strives With curses to cling to the Tottering feudal castles, and the future, whose song of triumph May be heard from afar amid the splendors of the coming dawn, Bringing the message of Good News from other lands. Who will Fall and be buried in the smouldering ruins. The six important changes of the century were: (1) the struggle For nationalism, (2) the gradual spread of democracy, (3) the modern- Tion of living through the Industrial Revolution. (4) the advance of Science, (5) the march of imperialism and (6) the new current in the Movement of thought and growing confidence on progress. Jose Rizal, Noli Me Tangere translated by Charles E. Derbyshire (Manila: Philip- Pine Education, Inc., 1956), p. 410. 2 RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY Nations Struggle for Nationalism. Nationalism is a feeling of oneness by a group of people who believe that they possess common traditions, culture, and common ideals or goals. When people become aware that they are different from another group, they become proud of their group. They become willing to serve this group, their nation. They become patriotic. They develop pride in their country. This is easily possible, however, only if they know their own country. This is the main reason why Rizal would encourage studies about the Philippines. I would stimulate these Philippine studies, wrote Rizal to his bosom German friend, Dr. Ferdinand Blumentritt, which are like nosce te ipsum (know thyself) that gives the true concept of one's self and drives nations to do great things.? The result of two great upheavals that occurred in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, the American Revolution (1775-1783) and the French Revolution (1779- 1789) had influenced the thinking and development of the nineteenth century. Independence from Great Britain for the Americans, and the overthrowing of absolutism and feudal privileges for the French were to inspire many in other parts of the world. Rizal remembered the French Revolution and wished Spain would have benefited from the gifts of said Revolution and shared them with the Philippines. Spain did not plant in those islands (the Philippines) the invincible standard of Castille so that they might be the exclusive patrimony and feudal dominion of the reactionary friars but rather to assimilate and equalize them with herself, moaning if she moans, unfortunate if she is unfortunate, enjoying progress, liberty, rights, social as well as political, when she enjoys these inestimable gifts of the French Revolution." Throughout the nineteenth century many peoples revolted against their rulers. In the struggles for nationalism the liberals and the conservatives disagreed on the rights and the way governments should be run. The liberals believed that a country should be free from domination by another and the people should enjoy liberty, equality and opportunity. The conservatives believed in the "good old days" when monarchs and kings ruled over their subjects. The Greeks with foreign aid won their independence from the Turks in 1830. The Norwegians won their freedom from the Swedes in 1905, the culmination of the struggle started before the turn of the century. In 1861, after a long period of disunion, Italy through the work of Camillo Cavour, Joseph Mazzini and Joseph Garibaldi, became a free and united nation with the exception of the city of Rome which remained under the Pope and Venetia. Trent and Trieste under Austria. Through the leadership of Otto von Bismarck who adopted a policy of blood and iron Germany was united in 1871. The spirit of nationalism spread outside of Europe Canada became a selt-governing nation in 1867. The movement for nationalism in Latin 2 The Rizal-Blumentritt Correspondence, Part One (Manila: Jose Rizal National Cen- tennial Commission, 1961), pp. 71-72. Jose Rizal, "How to Deceive the Native Land", Political and Historical Writings (Manila: National Heroes Commission, 1964), pp. 78-82. 3. CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES America kept pace with the progress in Europe and North America. Spain's colonies in Latin America revolted and won their independence between 1800 and 1825 Simoun de Bolivar, the "liberator", freed Northern South America, the territory which is now Venezuela, Colombia, Bolivia and part of Peru. Jose San Martin, a patriotic upperclass Spaniard born in Argentina, freed Southern South America, the territory that is now known as Argentina, Chile and part of Peru. In Asia, nationalism slowly developed in Japan during a long period of seclusion under the Shogunate. Because foreign powers got control over portions of China, Chinese nationalism was stimulated. Nationalism in India arose because of British exploitation of the country and racial discrimination. In the Philippines, it began to be felt after the unjust execution of Fathers Jose Burgos, Mariano Gomes y de los Angeles and Jacinto Zamora on February 17, 1872. Men Fight for Democracy. With the growth of nationalism came the struggle for democracy, for human rights and fundamental freedoms. Nationalism and democracy were the political ideals of the nineteenth century In France democracy succeeded through a revolution. Foll owing the establishment of the Third French Republic in 1875, France got many laws which advanced democracy. One of these gave every man the right to vote. In England democracy was established peacefully through a series of reforms passed by the Parliament. The Reform Acts of 1832, 1867 and 1884 enhanced its progress. Suffrage was extended to more people. New election districts were created. A cabinet system was adopted under which the ministers were made responsible to the House of Commons and not to the King or House of Lords. Slavery was abolished in British colonies. Funds were provided for public education. The employment of women and children under ten years was prohibited. In Belgium a very liberal constitution was adopted in 1881. To make democracy more responsive to the needs of the people, complete manhood suffrage was approved in Switzer land in 1848. The "referendum" which allows a bill passed by the legislature to be presented to the people for approval and the "initiative" which gives the voters the right to propose laws for approval of the legislature were also adopted. Outside of Europe democracy made significant progress in the British Dominions. Australia introduced the secret ballot system, and adopted man- hood suffrage in 1885. The latter was adopted in New Zealand in 1893. In the United States democracy made remarkable progress when two men from the common people, Andrew Jackson and Abraham Lincoln, were elected president. The American Civil War (1860- 1865) ended slavery. Democracy made slow progress in Spain, Italy and Russia. In the Philip- pines it was even slower. Jose Rizal led the crusade for this by working for the rights of man and wrote: We .fight so that there may be more justice and more liberty and for the sacred rights of man. Marcelo H. del Pilar, Letter to Jose Rizal, May 24, 1889, Rizal's Correspondence With Fellow Reformists (Manila: National Heroes Commission, 1964), Pp. 353-354. 4. RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY The Effects of the Industrial Revolution Are Multifarious. The 19th century witnessed the progress of the Industrial Revolution. This led to a series of changes in industry, two of which were the shift from hand work to machine work, from the domestic system to the factory system. It began in England in the 17th century or even earlier. From there it spread to the United States, and much later to other countries of Europe, Asia, Latin America, Canada, Australia and parts of Africa. The spinning jenny, spinning frame, spinning shuttle, cotton gin and sewing machine hastened the revolution in manufacturing. Coal, iron and steel became basic materials of industry. The revolution in transportation was brought about by the invention of steam boats, steam locomotives, airplanes, automobiles and balloons. The telephone, telegraph, wireless telegraphy, cable, postal service and newspapers revolutionized communication. Invention of machines resulted in the establishment of factories, and brought about far reaching results. Thousands of workers were employed in the beginning. Manufacturers went into large scale production of different kinds of goods Commodities became cheaper. Towns and cities grew. The wealth of nations increased by leaps and bounds. The factory system improved the standards of living. Eventually two social classes arose, the capitalists and the laborers. Division of labor came into practice, time was saved, and factory output increased. The Industrial Revolution encouraged migration. People moved to new lands where they could make a living or improve their social, economic. and political conditions and that of their children. Improved means of transportation made this movement easier. An increase in population came about. This was a result of advances in medical knowledge and public hygiene, opening of more land for cultivation, improvement in the production of goods, development of new industries and increase in national income. Nationalism was stimulated. Modern means of communication and transportation brought the people of a nation closer. They began to realize their common problems and aspirations. They felt the need for closer union in solving their problems and attaining their goals. Rizal confirmed this truth. The people go from one island to another, wrote Rizal, naturally communication and exchange of ideas have increased and realizing that they were all menaced with the same danger and their common sentiments are hurt, they become friends and they unite.3 Growth of liberalism was fostered. A new economic philosophy, laissez- faire, was born. Literally, the term means let well enough alone or "hands off." It is a policy that prevented the government from interfering in private trade or industry except to protect the nation from foreign aggression, to maintain peace and order, to protect investment in foreign countries, to enforce contracts, and to protect private industry. It allowed s Political and Historical Writings, p. 140. 5. CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES only minimal governmental restriction over private trade. Those who favored this new policy became influential in society. Industrial capitalism developed. The factory system brought in a new group of producers called capitalists who financed mills and factories. Capital ism increased the number of banks and the amount of credit, promoted insurance and multiplied corporations. The Industrial Revolution brought about the victory of the middle class. This group was composed of those who owned the means of production (especially machines) and worked for profits instead of wages. The working men were too poor to own machines and thus were forced to sell their labor to the capitalists. Gradually the middle class dominated society and dictated its social, moral and political standards. The new economic condition, however, brought about labor problems. Life was made more complex by the industrial area and ushered in disputes between labor and capital. Labor came to clash with capital, the former demanding increased wages, shorter hours of work, insurance benefits, compensation for injury met during working hours and wholesome working conditions Responses to the Growing Social Problems Are Created by the Industrial Revolution. Proposals to remedy the evils of the Industrial Revolution were suggested by the liberals, the socialists, the communists and the Catholic Church. The liberals adopted the laissez-faire policy. To stimulate the growth of factories, the liberals would allow everybody to expand as much as he wished in his industrial enterprises. As a result the industrialists became powerful and rich. The working men became poorer. Unemployment and misery resulted. The socialists believed that the government should own and manage the means of production for the benefit of all and not only for a few individuals. They preached that as long as the capitalists controlled the economic life of the people, there could be no democracy. Among the earliest socialists were Claude Henri, Francois Fourier and Robert Owen. Karl Marx, co-author of the Communist Manifesto. advocated revolutionary communism. The earliest socialists believed that reforms could be achieved gradually and peacefully through normal political methods and with compensation for the private owners. Marx believed, however, that only a violent revolution could improve the lot of workingmen. e advocated among other things the abolition of private property in land, centralization of all the means of production in the hands of the state, abolition of all rights of inheritance, confiscation of the property of all emigrants and rebels, and universal and equal obligation to work. The Catholic Church reacted to the evils of industrialism by advocating the following Christian principles announced by Pope Leo XIII in Rerum Novarum (The Conditions of Labor). (1) Rights must be religiously respected. (2) It is the duty of public authority to prevent and punish injury. (3) The 6. RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY poor and the helpless have a claim to a special consideration whenever there is a question of protecting the rights of individuals. (4) Since private property is as universal as human nature, the State has the right to regulate the use of private property and to protect it. (5) The preservation of life is the bounden duty of each and all members of society. The worker is entitled to a just and decent living wage which will enable him to live in reasonable comfort as a human being, to develop his faculties, and to attain his ultimate goal in life. (6) The State has the duty to provide favorable working conditions. (7) The workers have the right to form unions. Science Becomes the Servant of Man. During the nineteenth century science became the concern of most. Rizal in his Noli Me Tangere stressed a point on this: To the Jesuits the Philippines owes her dawning system of instruction in the natural sciences, the soul of the nineteenth century. People became interested in science. Many of its secrets were discovered primarily with the use of systematized experimentation. Scientists all over the world worked to know more about the facts of nature. Businessmen spent large sums of money for research. The results of these researches meant millions of profit to the business. Chemistry made great advances through the work of John Dalton, an Englishman who formulated the atomic theory. This explains that all matter Marie Curie, a Pole, dis- is made up of invisible particles or atoms. covered the important element radium. The most exciting work of the century was in medicine. Louis Pasteur, a Frenchman who started his career as a teacher of chemistry, discovered Pasteur thus became the that germs cause diseases in man and animals. outstanding helper of mankind. Robert Koch, a German physician, dis- covered the germ that caused anthrax and developed a method of inoculation to prevent it. Koch became the greatest bacteriologist of his day. In modern surgery Dr. Joseph Lister, an English surgeon, introduced antiseptics, which prevents infection. He began the modern practice of hospital The use of anesthetics advanced medical practice. Dr. Craw- sanitation. ford Long demonstrated the anesthetic properties of ether in a surgical Dr. William Morton, a dentist from Boston, was the operation in 1842. first to use ether to ease pain of tooth extraction in 1846. In Scotland, Dr. James Simpson used chloroform for the first time in 1847. The advances in science gave man longer life-span by controlling or eliminating many Natural sciences brought a new understanding of the world and diseases. the place of man in it. Modern Imperialism Starts a Process of Historic Change. Imperialism is the activity of a nation in extending its control and authority beyond its territorial boundaries through the acquisition of new territories. It also means the desire of civilized nations to rule over weak or backward Rizal, Noli Me Tangere, p. 409 7. CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES peoples. Great modern powers acquired colonies, concessions or sphere of influence for several reasons. From an economic standpoint imperialism is resorted to for the purpose of securing raw materials, markets for manufactured products, additional food supplies, outlets for surplus population and fields for investment of surplus capital. From a political stand- point it may be for the acquisition of regions necessary for national defense and of Territories for patriotic ends in view. Still from a religious standpoint, expansion is made to be able to spread a particular religion. Modern imperialism began in the second half of the nineteenth century and the reasons for this were primarily economic. It grew out of a desire to look for markets where raw materials could be bought, finished products at home could be sold, and surplus capital invested. The two most common techniques of economic imperialism were economic penetration by asking permission to do business for foreign capitalists followed later by political control in order to protect economic interests. The Industrial Revolution in the late nineteenth century inspired nations to begin modern imperialism. This resulted in the building of empires. South America, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific Ocean became the centers for empire-building England, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Japan, Portugal , Russia and the United States took a slice of many regions of the world for varied reasons. Nineteenth century imperialism has both its supporters and opponents. There are those who believe that imperialism had done many good things for the conquered countries. Sanitation, education, better means of transportation and communication, scientific methods of agriculture, improved ways of living. progressive ideas on religion, government and recreation, and enriched culture are cited to support this contention. Imperialism abolished such practices as suite, cannibalism, slave traffic and slavery. Those who opposed imperialism believe that it had done more harm than good. They cite the exploitation of natural resources to enrich the colonizing country and racial discrimination in supporting their thesis. The policy of divide and rule adopted for the colonies is believed to have held back progress by promoting disunity. Speaking of the situation in the Philippines on this policy, Rizal wrote incisively: Thus the Filipinos have remained faithful to Spain for three centuries, giving up their liberty and independence, now fascinated by the hope of a promised heaven, now flattered by the friendship offered them by a great and noble nation, now also compelled to submission by the superiority in arms that for persons with a low opinion of themselves held a mysterious character, or now because of the foreign invader, taking advantage of internal dissensions, played the role of a third party to divide and rule. Modern imperialism aroused the spirit of nationalism among the native peoples. Little by little they rebelled until their demands for independence 7 Political and Historical Writings, p. 136. 8. RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY could not be ignored anymore. The demand for national identity and independence was itself a result of Westernization. By bringing Western ideas of nationalism and democracy to the East imperialism had started a process of historic change, the demand for independence. This became a reality in the second quarter of the twentieth century. Rizal's ideas related to.this historic change were prophetic: No matter how much the Filipinos owe Spain, they cannot be Compelled to renounce their right to redemption... However great is the loyalty of the Filipinos they cannot prevent that the fatal laws of history be fulfilled.3 Growing Confidence on Progress Inspires Optimism. There was great optimism and confidence in progress in the latter part of the nineteenth century. In the Philippines Rizal aptly expressed the spirit of progress. Look at the youth today!, wrote Rizal in the Noli Me Tangere. Full of enthusiasm at the view of a wider horizon, they study history, mathematics, geography, literature, physical sciences, languages all subjects in our times we heard mentioned with horror, as though they were heresies. Man has at last comprehended that he is man. he comprehends that his heritage is the vast world, dominion over which is within his reach; weary of his useless and presumptuous toil, he lowers his head and examines what surrounds him. Man made considerable progress in various fields. Democracy made significant gains by several reforms in government and social relations. Human rights were extended to many people. Large sums of money were spent for public education. Higher education for women became an accepted principle. Education for nationalism was stressed to teach the people of a nation its own glories and achievements. Science received a great boost from businessmen who spent much money so that science may served man- kind. Public health was improved through the establishment of more hospital . Literature centered on the life of the time. Writers wrote about the conditions they saw and experienced. This literary tendency was called realism. The Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo were realistic novels because they pictured Philippine life and culture during Rizal's time. Painters painted life as it actually was all around them. Architects experimented with new buildings. The nineteenth century was a period of nationalism not only in government and politics but also in music. A feeling of nationalism was shown by composers in using folk songs and national themes. "One of the significant contributions of the nineteenth century was this: the individual citizen entered the century a weak man before the Jaw and government; he left it with the conviction that government exists for the welfare of all citizens. We call this idea individualism. It went hand in hand with industrialism and nationalism. It underlies the 8Ibid. p. 153. 9 Rizal, Noli Me Tangere, pp. 402-408. 9 CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES belief that every human life is sacred. Individualism was the cornerstone of the nineteenth century."10 Speaking of this ferment on individualism, Rizal glowingly wrote on the significance of individual enlightenment for the progress of the Philippines: Despite all that system, organized, perfected, and followed with tenacity by those who wish to keep the islands in holy ignorance; there are Filipino writers, free thinkers, historiographers, chemists, physicians, artists, jurists, etc. Enlightenment is spreading and its persecution encourages it. No; the divine flame of thought is inextinguishable among the Filipino people, and in some way or another it has to shine and make it known. It is not possible to brutalize the inhabitants of the Philippines.1 10. CHAPTER II POLICIES AND EVENTS IN NINETEENTH CENTURY SPAIN AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE PHILIPPINES Leading Topics: 1. Spain Faces Struggles for Liberalism. 2. The Philippines Is Affected by the Political Instability in Spain 3. The Philippines Is Affected by the Union of the Church and the State. 4. Philippine Representation in the Spanish Cortes Is Justifiable. 5. Racial Discrimination Is Offensive to the Filipinos. 6. Denial of Human Rights Spurs the Filipinos to Fight for Them. 7. The Spirit of Reform in Spain Influences Philippine Progress. You have just finished reading the important events which took place in the nineteenth century in Europe and other regions. You have also read how men and leaders in government responded to the challenges they faced. What were some of the policies and events in nineteenth century Spain which affected the Philippines? A study of these policies and even will help you understand and appreciate later the leadership of Jose Rizal in working for the freedom of his country. Spain Faces Struggles for Liberalism. Spain was influenced by the ideals of both the French Revolution and the American Revolution. This influence could be seen in the struggles of the people for constitutionalism which marked the first three quarters of the century. During this period Spain was beset by various troubles. On the political problem two sides, the liberals who were constitutionalists and the conservatives who were reactionaries, ideals of liberty, equality and fought bitterly. The liberals, inspired by the opportunity, wanted to limit absolutism so that the people may enjoy their constitutional and human rights. Those who opposed the liberals were the conservatives who wanted the retention of the monarchy. This duality of irreducible tendencies, wrote a Spanish historian, blazed the inevitable trail of national history of Spain throughout the whole of the nineteenth century. The problem consisted in deter mining what men and what ideas should govern Spain, whether liberals or conservatives. The struggles consumed the strength and the wealth of the nation. Military men played important roles in the struggles. There were plots, intrigues, conspiracies and revolts. There were changes in the constitution 1 Rafael Altamira, A History of Spain (Toronto: V. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., 1949), p. 539. 10 11. POLICIES AND PRACTICES some of which were liberal, others conservatives as may be seen in the constitutions of 1812, 1837, 1845 and 1869. When Queen Isabela II was overthrown and exiled during the Revolution of 1869, the fight for constitutionalism was heightened. The new government adopted the radical constitution of that year. Although the constitution continued the monarchial form of government, it included liberal principles, such as the freedom of The worship, the jury system, civil marriage and other human rights. Constituent Cortes which framed said constitution heard proposals for the introduction of reforms to improve the colonial administration in the Philip None of the proposals sponsored by the liberals led by Julian Pellon pines. were approved, however. Marshall Francisco Serrano acted as Regent for Spain from 1868 to 1871. To solve the problem of leadership the Spanish crown was offered to Amadeo, Duke of Aosta, a Prince of the House of Savoy, the royal During his brief reign, Spain was plagued by uprisings, house of Italy bitter party struggles and factional rivalries. Amadeo abdicated after two years of chaotic rule (1871-1878). The liberals decided to establish a Republic The Republic was ruled by four eminent which lasted from 1873 to 1874. Spanish Republicans, Estanislao Figueras, Francisco Pi y Margal, Nicolas Sal- meron, and Emilio Castelar. The government continued to wrestle with grave problems. A soldier-politician, General Manuel Pavia, rose to power and established a dictatorship. When the nation was at the brink of chaos and anarchy, another general, Manuel Martinez Campos, with the help of army officers, succeeded in proclaiming Alfonso, the son of deposed Queen Isabela I1, King of Spain. The Bourbon dynasty was restored and Alfonso XII ruled from 75 to 1885. During his reign Spain was generally peaceful. The constitution of 1876 was proclaimed. It included many fundamental liberties, such as freedom of worship, freedom of expression, freedom of assembly, universal suffrage and freedom of domicile. Alfonso XII died in 1885. His posthumous son was born in May, 1886. Alfonso's widowed mother, Queen Maria During her rule Cristina, acted as Regent of Spain from 1885 to 1896. Praxedes Mateo Sagasta and Antonio Canovas del Castillo alternated as Prime Minister. The most outstanding problem during the Regency was in relation to the implementation of the various constitutional laws. The constitutional problem, wrote Altamira, was no longer the central point of conflict... Now, however, discussion centered rather about the problem of complying efficiently with political and administrative norms and of the more or less ample, more or less sincere, interpretation by the Executive Power of the constitutional precepts. The Philippines Is Affected by the Political Instability in Spain. The political conditions in Spain adversely affected the Philippines. Changes in the Madrid government were followed by constant changes in the political administration in the colony. The common political dictum that "to the victors belong the spoils of office" was shown in the frequent changes of governor-generals. From 1853 to 1898 there were 41 of them who held office 2 Ibid., p. 572. 12. RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY in the Philippines, each serving an average term of only one year and three months. During the Regency of Queen Maria Cristina from 1885 to 1896, there were four assigned to the colonial government and two in acting capacity. The frequent changes prevented the formulation and execution of sound policies of administration. Rizal's observation in his Noli Me Tangere was pertinent to this. You flatter me, said the governor-general to Crisostomo Ibarra, by thinking so, and so it ought to be. Nevertheless, young man, you must know what burdens weigh upon our shoulders in the Philippines. Here, we old soldiers, have to do and to be every thing: King, Minister of State, of War, of Justice, of Finance of Agriculture, and of all the rest. The worst part of it, too, is that in every matter we have to consult the distant mother country which accepts or rejects our proposals according to circumstances there and at times blindly. As we Spaniards say, He who attempts many things succeeds in None. Besides, we generally come here knowing little about the country and leave it when we begin to get acquainted with it. Under the policy of giving The choice of officials was just as weak. political rewards, a Spanish writer commented that the continuous sending of political undesirables to the Philippines was lamentable. Many of these were not prepared to govern the country. Others who were given government positions were disliked by the Filipinos who lost their positions Some ignorant barbers and lackeys were appointed to the newcomers. provincial governors and rough sailors were assigned district judges and garrison commanders. Many Spanish officials were jobseekers and tried to enrich themselves and later retired to enjoy their wealth. Appointment of officials not through merit, specially when monetary consideration dictated such appointment, created maladministration, graft, corruption and bribery. There was no hope that the officials would work for the welfare of the Filipinos. Rizal lamented the existence of such practice. He strongly believed that a colonizing country ought to send to the colonies men who could give glory and luster to her. Rizal wrote convincingly: Because so much power and so much good luck given to one man alone, must presume qualities little than divine and merits of the same kind. A man who permits to command the fate of his fellowmen ought to be just like God, and like Him, incorruptible In order to govern peoples, he does not know or and infallible. understand, he ought to possess the talent of a genius and extra- ordinary knowledge; to govern such diverse entities, to reconcile hostile interests and to remedy all the ills of a people, he ought to be a man who has grown gray in the government of peoples, 3 James A. Leroy, The Americans in the Philippines (Boston: Houghton- Mifflin Co., 1 oNoli Me Tangere, P Teas Filipinas en 1810 (Maat 5 Tomas de Comyn, Estados de las Islas Filipinas en 1810 (Madrid: 1820), p. 134. 13. POLICIES AND PRACTICES 13 informed of the laws and customs of the country. In order to present himself in the name of a nation that pretends to colonize and wants people to forget the loss of their liberty and independence by giving them civilization he must be endowed with real prestige, with profound moral convictions, with a great love for humanity, with an exquisite tact, and with the nicest prudence." The Philippines Is Affected by the Union of the Church and the State. The union of the church and the state was a cardinal policy in Spain. This was carried out in the colonial administration of the Philippines. The governor-general was the head of the central government who exercised great powers. This was because he represented the King of Spain. As an executive official, he controlled and supervised all administrative appointees of the King. As captain-general, he commanded all armed forces. For some time his judicial power included the dispensation of justice. Because he was vice-patron, he assumed the King's ecclesiastical authority over offices and missions. The head of the ecclesiastical administration was the archbishop of Manila. He was appointed by the Pope upon recommendation of the King Under him were the bishops in charge of the dioceses and below the bishops were the priests who were in charge of the parishes. The arch- bishop exercised religious, judicial and political functions. The propagation of the Catholic faith was his important religious function. His judicial function included cases on the violation of the Canon Law. The union of the church and the state was a cause of conflicts between the government and the church. The church officials complained to the King of Spain about the harsh treatment given to the people by the civil officials. On the other hand, the governor-general complained to the King on the interference of ecclesiastical officials in the civil and internal affairs of the government. The King of Spain issued various instructions to bring harmony between the church and the state. In spite of these instructions, the conflicts continued for many years. The policy did not only bring about such conflicts between the officials of the church and those of the state. It also caused discontent among the Filipinos. They felt that the friars wielded too much power in the government which should not be SO. They would rather that the friars confine themselves to purely religious affairs. The separation of the church and the state was one of the reforms asked of Spain later. On the wisdom of this Rizal wrote: Why could not the government emancipate itself from the total age of the friars? What was Philippine Representation in the Spanish Cortes Is Justifiable. Spain's motive in granting Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes? The Spanish War of Independence (1808-1814) against the invading French forces aroused every Spaniard to defend his country. The government officials 8 Political and Historical Writings, p. 294. 7 Emma Blair and James Robertson, The Philippine Islands (Cleveland: The Arthur H. Clark Co., 1903.1909), Vol. II, pp. 254-262, Vol. VII, p. 7; Vol. VIII, Pp. 276-279. 8Political and Historical Writings, pp. 117-118. 14. RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY thought it was timely to rally the colonies to be loyal to Spain. And so on September 25, 1808 a central revolutionary body was set up. On January 22, 1809 it decreed that Spanish colonies should have national and direct participation in the ancient legislature, the Cortes. It was reestablished by a decree issued in May, 1809. The Philippines was represented in the body in 1810-1813, 1820-1823, and 1834-1837. In 1836 Queen Maria Cristina, complying with popular clamor for a constitutional government, called a constituent Cortes to draft a new constitution. It approved the constitution of 1837 which established parliamentary government. Since there was no more need for colonial support at the time the right to representation was conveniently removed. Philippine representation no matter how brief and i:respective of its nature was a memorable event in the Filipinos struggle for the recognition and respect for human rights. For years its restoration continued to be one of the reforms demanded by the reformists. Rizal expressed the need for the political reform: We see, then, no valid reason why the Philippines should not have deputies. With their creation many discontented persons will be mollified and instead of imputing the evils in the country to the government, as it happens today, they will bear them better, because at least they can complain, and because, having their own sons among the lawmakers, makes in a certain way responsible for their acts. At the beginning. the Philippines had hers (in 1810-1813) who dealt with the kings and popes and the needs of the country. She had them in the critical moments when Spain was groaning under the Napoleonic yoke and she did not take advantage of the misfortune of the Metropolis as the other colonies did but even drew closer to Spain. thus giving proofs of her loyalty: she remained loyal many, years afterwards. What crime has the Philippines com- mitted that she should be deprived of her rights Racial Discrimination Is Offensive to the Filipinos. A general belief then current in Europe was that the white man was superior to one who was black or brown. This led to racism. In the Philippines the Spaniards called the natives Indio’s. The Filipinos could not understand why the Spaniards who introduced Christianity with the beautiful ideal of brotherhood considered them inferior on account of the color of their skin. Rizal regretted this attitude towards his people. He urged Spain to disregard this in considering the appeal for representation in the Spanish Cortes: It is useless to refute certain impediments some fine writers have put forth such as the more or less brown color of the skin and the more or less large-nosed faces.. And so long as the Spanish Cortes is not an assembly of Adonises, Antinouses, boys and other similar angels; so long as one goes there to legislate and not to securitize or wander through imaginary hemispheres, we believe that the government should not be deterred by those obstacles. Right has no skin nor has reason noses. Tbid, pp. 149, 152. 10 Ibid., pp. 148-149. 15 POLICIES AND PRACTICESS Denial of Human Rights Spurs the Filipinos to Fight for Them. An individual's human rights are the attributes of his human person. They include the right to life, liberty and security of person; freedom of thought, religion and expression; freedom of assembly, equality before the law, the right to an adequate standard of living and just working conditions; freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention or exile; freedom of movement and residence within the border of each state: the right to nationality: the right to marry and to found a family; the right to own property; the right to take part in the government; the right to form and join trade union for the protection of one's own interests; the right to just and favorable remuneration; the right to rest and leisure; the right to education; the right to participate in the cultural life of the community; the right to seek and be granted asylum; and the right to social and international order. During the nineteenth century the Spaniard struggled hard to secure respect and recognition of their human rights. The Filipinos could not understand why the Spaniards who fought for the sacred rights of men would deny them the same rights. Sinibaldo de Mas, a Spanish economist and diplomat, sympathized with the Filipinos and expressed what they felt: Why do we fall into an anomaly, such as combining our claim for liberty for ourselves, and our wish to impose our law on remote peoples? Why do we deny to others the benefits which we desire for our fatherlandP12 Rizal voiced the respect and recognition of human rights as essential in promoting harmony among peoples. His observations and experiences prodded the Filipinos to work for the recognition of these rights. Neither obscurantism and fanaticism nor oppression or superstitions ever bind or have bound peoples. On the other hand, 1liberty, rights and love group distinct races around the same standard, one aspiration, one destiny. The Spirit of Reform in Spain Influences Philippine Progress. The spirit of reforms which stimulated Spain had their repercussions in the Philippines. From 1600 to 1815, Spain, like several European nations, adopted a restrictive policy in connection with foreign trade. The policy known as mercantilism believed that the strength of a nation depended upon the possession of a large stock of precious metals. Consequently foreign trade must be restricted so that the largest possible amout be brought into the country and the exportation of these metals should be kept at minimum. Mercantilism was later given up by European countries. It was followed by another policy known as laissez-faire. The policy gives to the individual the right to full and free range of economic activity. Public regulation of trade and industry was limited to the maintenance of law and order. As a result of this new economic policy, Spain ended the Galleon Trade in 1813. A Royal Decree of September 6, 1834 officially opened 11 Diosdado G. Capino, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights for Philippine Schools (Quezon City: SCG Enterprises Inc., 1953), p. 4 12 Sinibaldo de Mas, Informe Sobre el Estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1842 (Madrid 1843), Vol. III, p. 88. 13 Frederick A. Ogg, Economic Development of Modern Europe, 19l7 quoied ii Conrado Benitez, History of the Philippines (Boston: Ginn and Co., 1940). pp. 195-196, Political and Historical Writings, p. 81. 16. RIZAL'S IMPACT ON NATIONAL IDENTITY Manila to world trade. This was later followed by the opening of the ports of Sual, Iloilo and Zamboanga in 1855, Cebu in 1860, and Legazpi and Tacloban in 1873. After the opening of Manila, foreigners came to establish their business firms in the Philippines. By about 1859 there were 15 foreign establishments, of which seven were English, three were Americans, two were French, two were Swiss and one was German. Economic progress to- The lowed the opening of the ports and the admission of foreign firms. The social effects of economic progress improved the status of the people in society. "Economic progress, furthermore, paved the way for the development of civic courage, that spirit of personal independence and criticism which characterizes an economically independent middle class. t was that class which, because of greater educational advantages and contact with foreign newcomers and their ideas, as well as enhanced material power, first questioned the abuses of the government and demanded social reforms . Another significant policy adopted by Spain was the improvement of education. On December 30, 1863, the Minister of Colonies, Jose de la Concha, promulgated the Educational Decree. of 1863 which established the public educational system and a normal school for men. The Filipinos had a brief taste of liberal regime when Governor Carlos Ma. de la Torre was sent to the Philippines by the liberal government in Spain then. During the two year rule of De la Torre (1869-1871), the Filipinos enjoyed certain liberal concessions, such as the freedom of the press, untrammeled discussion of political problems including the Filipinization of the parishes, paternal treatment from the government exemplified by the democratic ways of the governor and the freedom to propose reforms. Years later Spain approved several measures in an attempt to improve the colonial administration in the country. Among these were the abolition of the tobacco monopoly in 1884, and the abolition of the tribute and its substitution by the cedula in the same year. Under the Royal Decree of 1884 only lawyers were appointed to the position of aleades mayores. They were prohibited to engage in trade. Justice of the peace courts were established by another Royal Decree on May 29, 1885, Still in another Royal Dccree dated May 5, 1886, each province was placed under a civil governor. The alcaide mayor ceased to be both the judicial and executive official. He became the judge of the court of first instance. The Spanish Penal Code was extended to the Philippine in 187, the Code of Commerce in 1888 and the Civil Code in 1889. The Maura Law of 1893 was instituted to reform the municipal government. Its provisions were not enforced, however, because of the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution in August, 1896