Power electronics AEI Module 3

MODULE 3
DC-DC Switch-Mode Converters

Applications:
 Regulated switch mode dc power supplies
 Electric automobiles, trolley cars, marine hoists, mine haulers, etc.
 Also used in regenerative braking of dc motors to return energy back into the supply –
energy savings for transportation systems with frequent stops.
 Like ac transformers, dc converters can be used to step-up or step-down a dc voltage
source
Block Diagram of DC-DC Converters

These dc-dc converters are classified as two

1. Electrically Non Isolated Type
- Here the source and load are directly connected
a. step-down (buck)
b. step-up (boost)
c. step-up/ step-down (buck-boost)
2. Electrically Isolated type
- Here the source and load are not directly connected. These converters are used a electrical
isolation transformer in switch mode dc power supplies
a. Flyback Type
b. Forward
c. Push pull
d. Half Bridge
e. Full Bridge
Here flyback converters are obtained from buck-boost and the remaining from buck
based converters
Types of conduction mode: - Continuous and discontinues mode
In the continuous conduction mode the current from end to end of inductor never goes to
zero. Hence the inductor partially discharges earlier than the switching cycle. But in
Discontinuous Conduction Mode the current through the inductor goes to zero. Hence the
inductor will totally discharge at the end of switching cycles.

Stepping Down a DC Voltage

One method of step down a DC voltage is to switching at constant frequency, so average value
reduced based on the switching period. If a 5V switching at a period of 0.5 sec we get an average
of 2.5v at the output side. The switching frequency is selected as based on the required output.
Commonly we are using PWM scheme for generation of this switching pulses.

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Ts  t on  t off
Pulse-Width Modulation (PWM) switching

• signal-level control voltage vcontrol generated by amplifying the difference between actual
output voltage and desired output voltage
• switch control signal generated by comparing vcontrol with repetitive waveform

Switch duty-cycle D is t on vcontrol

D 
Ts Vˆst
Ton = DTs
Toff =Ts-Ton= (1-D)Ts
So we get Ton= DTs and Toff= (1-D)Ts
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1. Buck converter (Step down converter)
Topology:- The step-down or the buck converter, as the name suggests, gives an output
voltage that is always less than the input voltage

Circuit diagram

Fig. The buck converter with power semiconductor switches

Figure 1: Buck converter with a SPDT switch, an L and a C. The two switches Si and S2; (a)
operative circuit during the period DTs; (b) operative circuit during the period (1 —D)Ts

The buck converter topology is illustrated in Figure1 the buck converter consisting of an
SPDT switch, an inductor that is connected to the pole, P of the SPDT switch and a capacitor that
is connected across the output as shown.
The input DC voltage source Vi is connected across the throws, TI and T2, of the SPDT
switches. Observe that the inductor is connected to the pole of the SPDT switch where there is no
discontinuity in the current. During the DTs, ( T ON) of a switching period. S1 is ON and S2 is
OFF. The pole P is connected to the input Vi. The inductor current flows from the input source to
the output.
The operative circuit during the period (1 -D)Ts, ( T OFF) of the switching period. During
this time Si is OFF and S2 is ON. The inductor current cannot change instantaneously. The
inductor current starts to decrease. This negative di L/dt of the inductor current develops sufficient
voltage (LdiL/dt) with a polarity such as to drive the inductor current through the switch S2. This
is called the freewheeling action of the inductor current.

DTs Duration:- The switch SI is ON and S2 is OFF during the period DTs. The voltage V L
across the inductor during this time is Vi-Vo,
VL = Vi - Vo,

Both Vi and Vo are DC quantities and hence Vi —Vo will be a DC quantity during the period
DTs. From the Faraday's law, the inductor voltage and current are related as,
VL = L(d iL/dt).
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This implies that the current through the inductor is given as

The integration range is from 0 to TON period so

Inductor current at DTs period is

--------------------- (1)
As (Vi-Vo) is a constant, the inductor current iL rises linearly with a slope of (Vi —Vo)/L .
During this time the current through SI is the same as the inductor current.
The voltage acrossS2, which is OFF, is Vi as the pole P is connected to the input source Vi.
(1 — D) Ts Duration: - During the time when S1 is OFF and S2 is ON, P is connected to the T2
At TOFF input current and voltage is zero the voltage, VL across the inductor during this time is

VL = Vi-Vo= 0 - Vo

VL = -Vo

Again as Vo is a DC quantity,Inductor current at (1-D)Ts period is

------------ (2)

The inductor current iL falls linearly with a slope of -Vo/L . During this time, the current
through S2 is the same as the current through the inductor. The voltage across S1, which is OFF,
is Vi as the pole P is connected to the circuit ground.
The inductor current is composed of two parts:
(a) the DC component (Io) and
(b) the AC component (ic).
The DC component cannot flow through the capacitor; therefore the DC component
flows into the load RL. The AC component alone will flow through the capacitor. Therefore, the
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capacitor current ic is the inductor current minus the load DC component.

Input-output relationship
To obtain the input-output voltage relationship, apply the volt -second balance rule to
the inductor. This implies that the area under the inductor voltage curve in one period under
steady state conditions should be zero.
Referring to equation 1 and 2 or the waves under the DT S and (1-D)Ts period in figure 2 we get

[ (Vi -Vo) D Ts] + [ (-Vo) (1— D) Ts] = 0

Simplifying the above equation, we get Vo=D.Vi ----- (3)

The duty ratio (D) can take on values between the closed interval 0 and 1. This means
that the output voltage Vo is always less than the input voltage Vi. Hence this topology is called
a step-down converter or buck converter.

To obtain the input-output current relationship one can use the 100% efficiency constraint.
This implies that
Vi Iin =Vo Io.

Using above Eq. 3 we obtains lin= D.Io

Analysis
The operation of the buck converter may be analyzed by visualizing the waveforms of the
various signals of the circuit. Figure 2 shows the plot of the various signals for the buck
converter under the steady state operating conditions. Due to the resistive load the current wave
forms as same as voltage.
In general for any converter, the following signals may be considered important for analysis:
 voltage across the inductor;
 current through the inductor;
 load current;
 current through the capacitor;
 input source current;
 voltages across switches S1 and S2;
 Currents through switches S1 and S2.

Steady State Analysis

Based on the application of the volt -second balance and charge balance rules, the
input—output relationship under steady-state conditions can be obtained with idealist
constraints. The analysis is performed by assuming the following:

1. The switches Si and S2 have no ON -state drops.

2. The winding resistance of the inductor is zero.
3. The equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the capacitor is zero.
4. There are no losses in the converter implying that the efficiency is 100%.

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Inductor value: - The value of the inductor L is calculated based on the amount of current ripple
ΔL. Referring to the waveforms given in wave form figure, the slope of the inductor current
waveform during the period DTs is given as

Likewise the slope of the inductor current waveform during the period (1 -D) Ts is given as

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The voltage Vi and Vo are known from the converter specifications.

D can be obtained from the input- output relationship.
The switching frequency fs is a design choice. From this Ts= 1/fs is obtained.
ΔL is also a design choice. Though this is chosen based on the application, the common choice in
most cases is ΔL= 10% of Io. The only unknown L can be calculated from above equations.
The value of inductor is given as

Capacitor value and output ripple voltage

The capacitor value is calculated by applying the amp -second rule. Referring to the
capacitor current waveform given in wave form Figure, if there is to be no charge build up or
charge reduction in the capacitor, and then the area under the capacitor current curve in one
period should be zero. The area under the positive portion of the current curve implies charging
of the capacitor and that under the negative portion implies discharging of the capacitor. For
charge balance both these areas should be equal. The change is the capacitor charge ΔQ is given
by the area under either the positive portion or the negative portion of the capacitor current
curve. Thus,

Here ΔVo is known from the output ripple specification.

where ΔiL and fs are design choices

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2.Boost or Step -Up Converter

Topology:- The step-up or the boost converter, as the name suggests, gives an output voltage
that is always higher than the input voltage.

Fig 3: The Boost converter with power semiconductor switches

The boost converter topology is illustrated in Figure 4. Figure 4(a) shows the boost
converter consisting of an SPDT switch, an inductor that is connected to the pole of the SPDT
switch and a capacitor that is connected across the throws of the SPDT switch as shown.
Observe that here also the inductor is connected to the pole of the SPDT switch where there is
no discontinuity in the current. However note that the inductor is connected between the pole
and the input source in the boost configuration whereas in the buck configuration the inductor is
connected between the pole and the output.
For analysis SPDT switch replaced by two SPST switches SI and S2. Figure 4(c) shows
the operative circuit during the period DTs of a switching period. During this time, S2 is ON
and S1 is OFF. The pole P is connected to the circuit ground.
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The inductor current flows from the input source to energize the inductor. Figure 4(d)
shows the operative circuit during the period (1-D)Ts of the switching period. During this time
S1 is ON and S2 is OFF. The inductor current cannot change instantaneously. The inductor
current starts to decrease. This negative di L/dt of the inductor current develops sufficient voltage
(L diL/dt) with a polarity such as to drive the inductor current through S1 to charge the output
capacitor.

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Operation
The operation of the boost converter is analyzed by visualizing the waveforms of the
various signals of the circuit. The following signals are considered important for analysis:

1. voltage across the inductor;

2. current through the inductor;
3. load current;
4. current through the capacitor;
5. input source current;
6. voltages across switches S1 and S2;
7. currents through switches S1 and S2.

Figure 5 shows the plot of the various signals of the boost converter under steady-state
operating conditions.

DT's Duration:-
The switch SI is OFF and S2 is ON during the period DTs. The voltage V L across the
inductor during this time is Vi which is a DC quantity. From the Faraday's law, the inductor
voltage and Current I are related as VL = L(diL/ dt) . This implies that the current through the
inductor is given as

As Vi is a constant, the inductor current rises linearly with a slope of Vi/L as indicated in
Figure 5.16. During this time the current through S2 is the same as the inductor current. The
voltage across S1, which is OFF, is Vo as the pole P is connected to the circuit ground.

(1- D)Ts Duration:-

During this time when SI is ON and S2 is OFF, the voltage V L across the inductor is (Vi-
Vo). In the boost converter, Vo is always greater than Vi and therefore (Vi –Vo) is a negative
quantity. The inductor current iL falls linearly with a slope of (Vi — Vo)/L as indicated in
Figure 5.16. During this time, the current through S1 is the same as the current through the
inductor. The voltage across S2, which is OFF, is Vo as the pole P is connected to the output
Vo.
The inductor current is composed of two parts: (a) the DC component (Iin) and (b) the
AC component (ΔiL). Here also the inductor current ripple is a design choice. The S1 switch
current (i s1) also have two distinct components as shown in Figure 5.16: (a) the average or DC
component (Io) and (b) the AC component (ic). The DC component cannot flow through the
capacitor so it flow through the load R L. The AC component will flow through the capacitor.

Steady State Analysis

Based on the application of the volt -second balance and charge balance rules, the
input—output relationship under steady-state conditions can be obtained with ideal constraints
The analysis is performed by assuming the following:

1. The switches Si and S2 have no ON -state drops.

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2. The winding resistance of the inductor is zero.
3. The equivalent series resistance (ESR) of the capacitor is zero.
4. There are no losses in the converter implying that the efficiency is 100%.

Input-output relationship
To obtain the input-output voltage relationship, apply the volt -second balance rule to the
inductor. This implies that the area under the inductor voltage curve in one period under steady
state conditions should be zero. Referring to Figure signal wave forms,

Simplifying we get

The duty ratio D can take on values between the closed interval 0 and 1. This means that
the output voltage Vo is always greater than the input voltage Vi. Hence this topology is called
a step-up converter or boost converter.
Noted that Vo is infinite when D is unity. This however is not true. It should be noted that
the above input output relationship is derived considering steady-state operating conditions.
This means that the switches SI and S2 are switching and have reached an equilibrium condition
in terms of the ON and OFF times. If D is unity then S2 is always ON and Si is always OFF.
This further implies that on the input side, the inductor current will rise till the inductor
saturates and the input current will be limited only by the winding resistance and the ON -state
impedance of S2.
The output capacitor is disconnected from the input side as S I is OFF. This means that
the capacitor will continually discharge into the load RL till it losses all its charge and Vo
becomes zero. Thus when D is unity, the output voltage Vo will in actuality become zero.
To obtain the input output current relationship one can use the 100% efficiency constraint. This
implies that

We obtains

Inductor value/ Current ripple

The value of the inductor L is calculated on the basis of the amount of current ripple ΔL that the
designer would like to allow for a given application. Referring to the waveforms given in
Figure, the slope of the inductor current waveform during the period DTs, is given as

Likewise the slope of the inductor current waveform during the period (1 —D) Ts is given as

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Here Vi and Vo are known from the converter specifications. D can be obtained from the input-
output relationship. The switching frequency fs is a design choice. From this T.= l/fs is
obtained. The common choice in most cases is ΔL = 10% of Iin. The value of inductor is given
as

Capacitor value/ Ripple voltage

It is calculated by applying the amp -second rule. Referring to the capacitor current wave
form given in Figure 5.16, if there is to be no charge build up or charge reduction in the
capacitor, the area under the capacitor current curve in one period should be zero. The area
under the positive portion of the current curve implies charging of the capacitor and that under
the negative portion implies discharging of the capacitor. For charge balance both these areas
should be equal. The change is the capacitor charge ΔQ is given by the area under either the
positive portion or the negative portion of the capacitor current curve. For the boost converter,
geometrically it is easier to find the area under the negative portion of the capacitor current
curve. Thus,

ΔVo is known from the output ripple specification. The value of C should be greater than
the capacitor value estimate for the buck converter. In the case of the buck converter, the
capacitor current is only the inductor ripple current which is only a fraction of the load current
whereas in the case of the boost converter, the capacitor has to handle a larger swing in the
current through it. Therefore, the capacitor size is bigger in the case of the boost converter as
compared to the buck converter.

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3. Step Up/Down or Buck Boost Converter

Topology
The step-up/down or the buck—boost converter gives an output voltage that can be either
higher or lower than the input voltage depending on the operating duty ratio.

Circuit diagram

Circuit diagram of the buck—boost converter is illustrated in Figure 6. Figure 6(a) shows
the buck—boost converter consisting of an SPDT switch, an inductor that is connected to the
pole of the SPDT switch and a capacitor that is connected across the output.

In all three primary converters, the capacitor is always connected across the output.
However, observe that in the case of the buck converter, the inductor is connected between the
pole of the SPDT switch and the output; in the case of the boost converter, the inductor is
connected between the pole of the SPDT switch and the input; and now in this case of the
buck—boost converter, the inductor is connected between the pole of the SPDT switch and the
circuit ground.

Figure 6(b) shows the buck—boost converter with the SPDT switch replaced by two
SPST switches S1 and S2. Figure 6(c) shows the operative circuit during the period DTs of a
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switching period. During this time, S1 is ON and S2 is OFF. The pole P is connected to the input
source Vi. The inductor current flows from the input source to energize the inductor.

Figure 6(d) shows the operative circuit during the period (1 —D) Ts of the switching
period. During this time, S1 is OFF and S2 is ON. The inductor current starts to decrease. This
negative di/dt of the inductor current develops sufficient voltage (Ldi/dt) with a polarity such as
to drive the inductor current through the switch S 1 to charge the output capacitor with the
polarity as shown. It should be observed that the output voltage polarity is negative with respect
to the circuit ground as shown in Figure 6.

Realization using Semiconductor Switches

The boost converter schematic of Figure 6 shows the conceptual SPDT and SPST
switches. The SPST switches may be replaced with power semiconductor switches as illustrated
in Figure 7.

Figure 7 Realization of buck boost converter with power semiconductor switches

Analysis
The operation of the buck—boost converter is analyzed by visualizing the waveforms of
the various signals of the circuit as shown in figure 8. The following signals are considered for
analysis:

1. Voltage across the inductor;

2. Current through the inductor;
3. Load current;
4. Current through the capacitor;
5. Input source current;
6. Voltages across switches SI and S2;
7. Currents through switches Si and S2.

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Figure 8 shows the Waveforms of various signals of the buck -boost converter under steady-state
operating conditions.

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DTs Duration:
The switch S1 is ON and S2 is OFF during the period DTs. The voltage V L across the
inductor during this time is Vi which is a DC quantity. From the Faraday's law, the inductor
voltage and current are related as

This implies that the current through the inductor is given as

Steady -State Analysis

As Vi is a constant, the inductor current IL rises linearly with a slope of Vi/L as indicated
in Figure 5.20. During this time the current through S1 is the same as the inductor current. The
voltage across S2, which is OFF, is Vi + Vo by applying the 1Kirchhoff's voltage law.

(1-D)Ts Duration: -
During the time when S1 is OFF and S2 is ON, the voltage V L across the inductor during
this time is Vo. However, Vo is a negative quantity with respect to the circuit ground. The
inductor current falls linearly with a slope of Vo/ L as indicated in Figure 8. During this time, the
current through S2 is the same as the current through the inductor.
The voltage across S1, which is OFF, is Vi + Vo. The average or DC component of the
S1 switch current (is1 ) is Iin.. The average or DC component of the S2 switch current (i s2) is Io.

The is2 has two distinct components as shown in Figure 8

(a) the average or DC component (Io ) and
(b) the AC component (ic).

The DC component cannot flow through the capacitor; therefore it flows into the load R L.
The AC component alone will flow through the capacitor. Therefore, the capacitor current i c is
the S2 switch current minus the load DC component.

The inductor current is composed of two parts,

(a) the average or the DC component that is the sum of the DC components of S1 and S2 switch
currents (i.e.,Iin+Io) and
(b) the AC component ΔIL.

Steady state analysis

Based on the application of the volt -second balance and charge balance rules, the input—output
relationship under steady-state conditions can be obtained.
With Idealist Constraints :- The analysis is performed by assuming the following:

1. The switches Si and S2 have no ON -state drops.

2. The winding resistance of the inductor is zero.
3. The ESR of the capacitor is zero.
4. There are no losses in the converter implying that the efficiency is 100%
.
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Input—output relationship
To obtain the input—output voltage relationship, apply the volt -second balance rule to
the inductor. This implies that the area under the inductor voltage curve in one period under
steady- state conditions should be zero. Referring to Figure 5.20,

Simplifying the above equation, one obtains

Note the negative sign in Equation accounts for Vo being negative with respect to the
circuit ground. The duty ratio D can take on values between the closed interval 0 and 1.

If D is between 0 and 0.5, then the output Vo is less than Vi and results in buck operation.
If D is between 0.5 and I, then the output Vo is greater than Vi and results in boost operation.

Hence this topology is called a step-up/down converter or buck—boost converter.

Note :
Vo is infinite when D is unity.
When D= 0.5, the converter acts as a unit pass circuit wherein Vo = Vi , To obtain the input—
output current relationship one can use the 100% efficiency constraint. This implies that

We obtains

Inductor value
The value of the inductor L is calculated based on the amount of current ripple Δi L that
the designer would like to allow for a given application. Referring to the waveforms given in
Figure 5.20, the slope of the inductor current waveform during the period DTs is given as

Likewise the slope of the inductor current waveform during the period (1 —D)Ts is given as

Vi and Vo are known from the converter specifications. D can be obtained from the
input—output relationship. The switching frequency fs is a design choice. From this Ts = 1/fs is
obtained.

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The default choice is ΔiL= 10% of Iin + 1o for the buck—boost converter. The output
power
P is known from the converter specifications. From the knowledge of P Io and Vo is calculated.
The value of inductor is given as

Capacitor value
The capacitor value is calculated by applying the amp -second rule. Referring to the capacitor
current waveform given in Figure 5.20, if there is to be no charge build up or charge reduction in
the capacitor, the area under the capacitor curve in one period should be zero. The area under the
positive portion of the current curve implies charging of the capacitor and that under the negative
portion implies discharging of the capacitor. For charge balance the area under both should be
the same. The change is the capacitor charge AQ is given by the area under either the positive
portion or negative portion of the capacitor current curve. For the buck—boost converter as in
the case of the boost converter, it is easier to find the area under the negative portion of the
capacitor current curve. Thus,

ΔVo can be obtained from the output ripple specification.

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ISOLATED CONVERTERS

In the Isolated converters

-Fly Back Converter is obtained from Buck boost converter and the remaining Forward
converter, Push pull, Half and Full bridge converters are obtained from Buck converter.

-Fly Back Converter and Buck boost converters are unidirectional and the remaining Push pull,
Half and Full bridge converters are bidirectional

Fly Back Converter

Fly-back converter is the most commonly used SMPS circuit for low output power applications
where the output voltage needs to be isolated from the input main supply. The output power of
fly-back type SMPS circuits may vary from few watts to less than 100 watts. Input to the circuit
is generally unregulated dc voltage obtained by rectifying the utility ac voltage followed by a
simple capacitor filter. Fly-back power supplies are inferior to many other SMPS circuits in
terms of energy efficiency but it’s simple topology and low cost makes it popular in low output
power range. The commonly used fly-back converter requires a single controllable switch like,
MOSFET and the usual switching frequency is in the range of 100 kHz.

WORKING
• MODE 1
• When switch ‘S’ is on, the primary winding of the transformer gets connected to the input
supply with its dotted end connected to the positive side.

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The diode ‘D’ connected in series with the secondary winding gets reverse biased due to the
induced voltage in the secondary (dotted end potential being higher). Thus with the turning on of
switch ‘S’, primary winding is able to carry current but current in the secondary winding is
blocked due to the reverse biased diode. Hence the flux established in the transformer core and
linking the windings is entirely due to the primary winding current.
• Under Mode-1, the input supply voltage appears across the primary winding inductance and the
primary current rises linearly

In case the circuit works in continuous flux mode, the magnetic flux in the transformer core is
not reset to zero before the next cyclic turning ON of switch ‘S’. Since some flux is already
present before ‘S’ is turned on, the primary winding current abruptly rises to a finite value as the
switch is turned on. The energy stored in the magnetic field of the fly back inductor-transformer
is

During mode-1, dotted end of secondary winding remains at higher potential than the other end.
Under this condition, voltage stress across the diode connected to secondary winding (which is
now reverse biased) is

Since secondary winding does not conduct during this mode, the load connected to the output
capacitor gets uninterrupted current due to the previously stored charge on the capacitor.
• During mode-1, assuming a large capacitor, the secondary winding voltage remains almost
constant and equals to

That means VL=V2= V1xN2/N1---- (1)

MODE 2
• When switch ‘S’ is turned off after conducting for some time. The primary winding current
path is broken , the voltage polarities across the windings reverse. Reversal of voltage polarities
makes the diode in the secondary circuit forward biased.

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Though primary winding current is interrupted due to turning off of the switch ‘S’, the secondary
winding immediately starts conducting such that the net mmf produced by the windings do not
change abruptly. As soon as the switch ‘S’ turns off the secondary winding current abruptly rises
from zero to

The secondary winding current charges the output capacitor The steady-state magnitude of
output capacitor voltage depends on various factors, like, input dc supply, fly-back transformer
parameters, switching frequency, switch duty ratio and the load at the output. Capacitor voltage
magnitude will stabilize if during each switching cycle, the energy output by the secondary
winding equals the energy delivered to the load.
The primary winding voltage =
Voltage across switch ‘S’ is =

i.e VL=V2= -Vo ------ (2)

with opposite polarity

The secondary winding, while charging the output capacitor, starts transferring energy from the
magnetic field of the fly back transformer to the output. If the off period of the switch is kept
large, the secondary current gets sufficient time to decay to zero and magnetic field energy is
completely transferred to the output capacitor and load. Flux linked by the windings remain zero
until the next turn-on of the switch , and the circuit is under discontinuous flux mode of
operation. Alternately, if the off period of the switch is small, the next turn on takes place before
the secondary current decays to zero. The circuit is then under continuous flux mode of
operation.

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MODE 3 –
• When switch ‘S’ is on, the primary winding of the transformer gets connected to the input
supply with its dotted end connected to the positive side.

The diode ‘D’ connected in series with the secondary winding gets reverse biased due to the
induced voltage in the secondary (dotted end potential being higher). Thus with the turning on of
switch ‘S’, primary winding is able to carry current but current in the secondary winding is
blocked due to the reverse biased diode. Hence the flux established in the transformer core and
linking the windings is entirely due to the primary winding current.
• Under Mode-3, the input supply voltage appears across the primary winding inductance and the
primary current rises linearly. Since secondary winding does not conduct during this mode, the
load connected to the output capacitor gets uninterrupted current due to the previously stored
charge on the capacitor.

The Average value of the output voltage

V2 DTs+V2. (1-D) Ts = 0
From eq 1& 2
V1x(N2/N1) DTs+(-Vo ) (1-D) Ts = 0

Vo= V1x(N2/N1) (D/(1-D))

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So this is similar to buck boost converter

FORWARD CONVERTER

• It’s basically a dc-to-dc buck converter with the addition of a transformer for output voltage
isolation
• The forward converter, when compared with the fly-back circuit, is generally more energy
efficient and is used for applications requiring little higher power output (in the range of 100
watts to 200 watts).
• It consists of a fast switching device ‘S’ along with its control circuitry.
• A transformer with its primary winding connected in series with switch ‘S’ to the input supply
• A rectification and filtering circuit for the transformer secondary winding.
• The load is connected across the rectified output of the transformer secondary.

Assumptions-
• The transformer used in the forward converter is desired to be an ideal transformer with no
leakage fluxes, zero magnetizing current and no losses.
• The basic operation of the circuit is explained by assuming ideal circuit elements.
• The transformer used in the circuit is assumed to be ideal requiring no magnetizing current,
having no leakage inductance and no losses.
• The filter circuit elements like, inductors and capacitors are assumed lossless.
• The input and output dc voltages are assumed to be constant and ripple free.

WORKING
MODE 1
Mode-1 of circuit starts after switch ‘S’ is turned ON. This connects the input voltage, Edc, to
the primary winding. Both primary and secondary windings start conducting simultaneously
with the turning on of the switch. The primary and secondary winding currents and voltages are
related to their turns-ratio (NP / NS), as in an ideal transformer.
• As switch ‘S’ closes, diode D1 in the secondary circuit gets forward biased and the input
voltage, scaled by the transformer turns ratio, gets applied to the secondary circuit.
• Diode D2 does not conduct during mode-1, as it remains reverse biased.
• As can be seen, the output circuit consisting of L-C filter and the load gets a voltage equal to
Vs = Ns/Np*Edc during mode-1. This voltage is shown across points ‘P’ and ‘N’ in Fig. and it is
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the maximum achievable dc voltage across the load, corresponding to δ = 1. Mode-1 can be
called as powering mode during which input power is transferred to the load.

Current path in Mode 1(darkened lines)

Equivalent circuit in mode 1

MODE 2
• As soon as switch ‘S’ is turned off, the primary and the secondary winding currents of the
transformer fall to zero. However, the secondary side filter inductor maintains a continuous
current through the freewheeling diode ‘D2’.
• Diode ‘D1’ remains off during this mode and isolates the output section of the circuit from the
transformer and the input.
• Points ‘P’ and ‘N’ of the equivalent circuit are effectively shorted due to conduction of diode
‘D2’.
• The inductor current continues to flow through the parallel combination of the load and the
output capacitor.
• During mode-2, there is no power flow from source to load but still the load voltage is
maintained nearly constant by the large output capacitor ‘C’. The charged capacitor and the
inductor provide continuity in load voltage

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Current path in Mode 2(darkened lines) Equivalent circuit in mode 2

However since there is no input power during mode-2, the stored energy of the filter inductor
and capacitor will be slowly dissipating in the load and hence during this mode the magnitudes
of inductor current and the capacitor voltage will be falling slightly.
• In order to keep the load voltage magnitude within required tolerance band, the converter-
switch ‘S’ is turned on again to end the freewheeling mode and start the next powering mode
(mode-1).
• Under steady state, loss in inductor current and capacitor voltage in mode-2 is exactly made up
in mode-1.
• It may not be difficult to see that to maintain load voltage within the desired tolerance band the
filter inductor and capacitor magnitudes should be sufficiently large.
• One important factor that directly influences the size of the filter circuit elements and the
transformer is the converter’s switching frequency. High frequency operation of switch ‘S’ will
help in keeping the filter and transformer size small.
• The switching frequency of a typical forward converter may thus be in the range of 100 kHz or
more.

Relation Between Input and Output Voltage

The equivalent circuits of mode-1 and mode-2 can be used to derive a steady state relation
between the input voltage, switch duty ratio (δ) and the output voltage. With the assumption of
constant input and output voltage, the instantaneous value of inductor voltage (eL) during mode-
1 can be written as:

Where t = 0 is the time instant when mode-1 of any steady state switching cycle starts, T is the
switching time period that may be assumed to be constant and δ is the duty ratio of the switch. It
can be seen that δT is the time duration of mode-1 and (1-δ) T is the time duration of mode-2.
The inductor voltage during mode-2 may similarly be written as:

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Now since voltage across an inductor, averaged over a steady state cycle time, must always be
zero, therefore:

It is to be noted that the output voltage relation given by above equation is valid only under the
assumption of continuous inductor current.
For an improperly designed circuit or for very light load at the converter output, the inductor
current may decay to zero in the midst of mode-2 resulting into discontinuous inductor current.
Once the inductor current becomes zero, diode ‘D2’ no longer conducts and the points ‘P’ and
‘N’ of the equivalent circuit are no longer shorted.
• In fact, the output voltage ‘VO’ will appear across ‘P’ and ‘N’. Thus equation remains valid
only for a part of (1-δ) T period.

In case of discontinuous inductor current, the output voltage, which is the average of voltage
across points ‘P’ and ‘N’ will have a higher magnitude than the one given by Eqn.

Here δ = D and Edc= Vi

Output Vo = Vi (N2/N1) D , the operation is similar to buck converter

Under discontinuous inductor current the relation between output voltage and switch duty ratio
becomes non-linear and is load dependent. For better control over output voltage discontinuous
inductor current mode is generally avoided

PUSH PULL CONVERTER

A Push-Pull Converter is a Buck type converter with a dual drive winding isolation transformer.
Push-Pull transformers and filters are much smaller than standard Forward converter filters.
Multiple Outputs Possible • Low Output Ripple Current • Lower Input Ripple Current • Simple
Gate Drive (dual) • Large Achievable Duty Cycle Range

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It uses two switch. Here switches used are power MOSFET M1 & M2. • Transformer with mid
tap configuration on both primary & secondary side. • Inductor L & capacitor C are filter
components.

A fast switching device (‘S’), like a MOSFET,IGBT is used with fast control over switch duty
ratio, to maintain the desired output voltage. • The transformer is used for voltage isolation as
well as for better matching between input and output voltage and current requirements. • Primary
and secondary windings of the transformer are wound to have good coupling so that they are
linked by nearly same magnetic flux.

Assumptions – • Magnetic circuit is assumed to be linear and coupling between primary and
secondary windings is assumed to be ideal. • ON state voltage drops of switches and diodes are
neglected. • The windings , the transformer core, capacitors etc. are assumed loss-less. • The
input dc supply is assumed to be ripple-free.

WORKING
• MODE 1

DTs period
– When M1 is turned on, in
the bottom half of the
transformer’s primary
winding—> v1 = Vs ,
– Secondary winding gets
completely induced by

v2 = Vs* N2/N1.
– D1 is forward biased &

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load voltage
V0 = Vs* N2/N1= n*Vs. where n= N2/N1

MODE 2

DTs period
– When M2 is turned on, in the upper half of the transformer’s primary winding—> v1 = - Vs ,
– Secondary winding gets completely induced by v2 = - Vs* N2/N1

– D2 is forward biased & load voltage

Vo= -V2

V0 = Vs* N2/N1= a*Vs.

Voltage on primary swings from +Vs with M1 on to -Vs with M2 on.

• Power MOSFETs M1 & M2 operate with duty cycle of 0.5.

For a complete period output voltage Voc = 2Vs.

Mode 3

(1-D)Ts period

• When M1 & M2 is off , Inductor will discharge the current and it will circulate through the
loop and make a constant current flux

At DTs period both mode 1 and mode 2

VL= Vi ( N2/N1 )-Vo

At (1-D)Ts period

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VL= -Vo

Her the complete period is 2 times thn

HALF BRIDGE CONVERTER

A fast switching device (‘S’), like a MOSFET,IGBT is used with fast control over switch duty
ratio, to maintain the desired output voltage. The transformer is used for voltage isolation as
well as for better matching between input and output voltage and current requirements. Primary
and secondary windings of the transformer are wound to have good coupling so that they are
linked by nearly same magnetic flux

Assumptions –
• Magnetic circuit is assumed to be linear and coupling between primary and secondary windings
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Power electronics AEI Module 3
is assumed to be ideal.
• ON state voltage drops of switches and diodes are neglected.
• The windings , the transformer core, capacitors etc. are assumed lossless.
• The input dc supply is assumed to be ripple-free

Two switches , Q1 & Q2 are used here.

• Transformer with mid tap configuration is used on secondary side only.
• Two capacitors C1 & C2 are used in input side. They have equal capacitance , hence a voltage
of Vi/2 appears across both capacitors.
• Inductor L & capacitor C on the secondary side are filter components

• MODE 1
– When Q1 is turned on, voltage of C1 appears across the transformer’s primary winding—>
vp = Vi /2,
– Secondary winding gets completely induced by vs = Vi*Ns/2Np.
– D1 is forward biased

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MODE 2
– Both transistors are OFF
– D1 continues to conduct due to current in L1

MODE 3
– When Q2 is turned on, voltage of C2 appears across the transformer’s primary winding—>
vp = -Vi /2,
– Secondary winding gets completely induced by vs = - Vi*Ns/2Np.
– D2 is forward biased

MODE 4
– Both transistors OFF
– D2 continues to conduct due to current in L1 . Voltage on primary swings from +Vi /2 with Q1
on to -Vi /2 with Q2 on.
• Average output voltage is V0 = Vi*Ns/2Np = 0.5*a*Vi.
• When Q1 & Q2 is off , voltage across both will be Voc = Vi.
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Waveform for k<0.5(k is the duty ratio)

FULL BRIDGE CONVERTERS

Among all types of SMPS, full bridge converter operates with minimum
voltage & current load on power MOSFET.
• Its popular for high power applications above 750 W

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A fast switching device (‘S’), like a MOSFET,IGBT is used with fast control over switch
duty ratio, to maintain the desired output voltage.
• The transformer is used for voltage isolation as well as for better matching between
input and output voltage and current requirements.
• Primary and secondary windings of the transformer are wound
to have good coupling so that they are linked by nearly same magnetic flux

Assumptions –
• Magnetic circuit is assumed to be linear and coupling between primary and
secondary windings is assumed to be ideal.
• ON state voltage drops of switches and diodes are neglected.
• The windings , the transformer core, capacitors etc. are assumed loss-less.
• The input dc supply is assumed to be ripple-free.

Four switches ,power MOSFET Q1,Q2,Q3 & Q4 are used here. • Transformer with mid tap
configuration is used on secondary side only. • Inductor L & capacitor C are filter components.
• The control circuit is responsible for producing duty ratio for each switch , depending upon the
feedback from the output

MODE 1
• When Q1 & Q4 are on, voltage across the transformer’s primary winding—> vP = Vi .
• Secondary winding gets completely induced by vs = Vi*Ns/Np.
• D1 is forward biased & load voltage V0 = Vi*Ns/Np = a*Vi.

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MODE 2
– All transistors are OFF
– D1 continues to conduct due to current in L1

MODE 3
• When Q3 & Q4 are on, voltage across the transformer’s primary winding—> vp = -Vi .
• Secondary winding gets completely induced by vs = -Vi*Ns/Np.
• D1 is forward biased & load voltage V0 = -Vi*Ns/Np = -a*Vs.
Open circuit voltage across each MOSFET is Voc = Vs.

.MODE 4

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– All transistors are OFF
– D2 continues to conduct due to current in L1

Fig :Waveform for D<0.5

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