Biology Lecture Notes Y.

Nagah

Biology Lecture

Notes
(STEMer’s guide)

2023

Lecture (2)

Mr. Youssef Nagah

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Biology Lecture Notes Y. Nagah

BI.3.02: students will describe how the structure of the neuron and the transmission of a nerve
impulse allow communication within an organism and with the external environment.

Model answer Lecture one

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
B C A D A D D B B B B E C D D

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
C D A B C B A A B B D D A A A

31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45
B D A B B C D A C D B B B C D

46 47 48 49 50
A C A B A

7: Both prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells have vesicles. Membrane vesicles (MVs) are
lumen-containing spheres of lipid bilayers secreted by all prokaryotes into the
extracellular milieu. They have multifunctional roles in stress response, virulence transfer,
biofilm formation, and microbial interactions.
Q.12 & 14

URT (Passage I)
1. C 2. C 3. B 4. D 5. C 6. D

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Practical work

Test your self

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Inventory.. BI.1.03 (will be explaind completely in the next sessions)

Cell Membrane & Transport
Phospholipid and protein covering of every cell, controls what goes
i. cell membrane
in and out of each cell
movement of molecules from region of greater concentration to
ii. diffusion
region of lesser concentration.
iii. concentration The difference in concentration between two regions
gradient
iv. solute The solid that is dissolved in a solution
v. solvent The liquid that dissolves the solute in a solution
The pressure of water moving across membranes caused by a
vi. osmotic pressure
concentration gradient.
Solution that has same concentration of solute as the cells it
vii. isotonic solution
surrounds
viii. hypertonic Solution that has greater concentration of solute as the cells it
solution surrounds. Will cause cell to shrink
Solution that has lesser concentration of solute as the cells it
ix. hypotonic solution
surrounds. Will cause cells to burst
Shrinking of a plant cell (wilting) due to being place in a hypertonic
x. plasmolysis
solution.
Hydrostatic pressure due to a plant cell being placed in hypotonic
xi. turgor pressure
solution. Is pressure on inside of plant cell against the cell wall.
Carrier-mediated transport that works with the conc. gradient and
xii. facilitated transport
requires no energy.
xiii. crenation Shrinking of animal cells placed in hypertonic solutions.
Carrier-mediated transport that works against the conc. gradient
xiv. active transport
and requires energy.
Cells bringing in materials by forming vesicle around substance
xv. endocytosis
outside the cell with the cell membrane.
Endocytosis of large particles (large enough to be seen with light
xvi. phagocytosis
microscope)

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“Cell drinking” Endocytosis of small particles (small enough that an

xvii. pinocytosis
electron microscope is needed)
Opposite of endocytosis. Vesicle inside cell fuses with cell
xviii. exocytosis
membrane, depositing contents on the outside.
Carbohydrate attached to phospholipid on cell membrane. Often
xix. glycolipid
serves in cell identification and communication.
Current model of membrane structure. A phospholipid fluid sea is
xx. Fluid Mosaic Model
embedded with a wide variety (“mosaic”) of protein molecules.

Ion Channels
• When ion channels are open, they allow specific ions to move across the
plasma membrane, down their electrochemical gradient—a concentration
(chemical) difference plus an electrical difference.
• Recall that ions move from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower
concentration (the chemical part of the gradient).
• Also, positively charged cations move toward a negatively charged area, and
negatively charged anions move toward a positively charged area (the electrical
aspect of the gradient).
• As ions move, they create a flow of electrical current that can change the
membrane potential.
• Ion channels open and close due to the presence of “gates.” The gate is a part
of the channel protein that can seal the channel pore shut or move aside to
open the pore.
• The electrical signals produced by neurons and muscle fibers rely on four
types of ion channels: leak channels, ligand-gated channels, mechanically gated
channels, and voltage-gated channels:
1. The gates of leak channels randomly alternate between open and closed
positions. Typically, plasma membranes have many more potassium ion
(K+) leak channels than sodium ion (Na+) leak channels, and the potassium

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ion leak channels are leakier than the sodium ion leak channels. Thus, the membrane’s
permeability to K+ is much higher than its permeability to Na+.
• Leak channels are found in nearly all cells, including the dendrites, cell bodies, and axons of all
types of neurons.

2. A ligand-gated channel opens and closes in response to the binding of a ligand (chemical)
stimulus. A wide variety of chemical ligands—including neurotransmitters, hormones, and
particular ions—can open or close ligand-gated channels. The neurotransmitter acetylcholine, for
example, opens cation channels that allow Na+ and Ca2+to diffuse inward and K+ to diffuse
outward.
• Ligand-gated channels are located in the dendrites of some sensory neurons, such as pain
receptors, and in dendrites and cell bodies of interneurons and motor neurons.

3. A mechanically gated channel opens or closes in response to mechanical stimulation in the

form of vibration (such as sound waves), touch, pressure, or tissue stretching. The force distorts
the channel from its resting position, opening the gate.

• Examples of mechanically gated channels are those found in auditory receptors in the ears, in
receptors that monitor stretching of internal organs, and in touch receptors and pressure
receptors in the skin.

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4. A voltage-gated channel opens in response to a change in membrane potential (voltage).

Voltage-gated channels participate in the generation and conduction of action potentials in the
axons of all types of neurons.

Ion pump and ion channels establish the resting potential of a neuron
As you know, ions are unequally
distributed between the interior of cells
and the fluid that surrounds them. As a
result, the inside of a cell is negatively
charged relative to the outside. Because
the attraction of opposite charges across
the plasma membrane is a source of
potential energy, this charge difference, or
voltage, is called the membrane potential.
• The membrane potential of a resting
neuron—one that is not sending a signal—
is its resting potential and is typically
between 60 and 80 mV (millivolts).
• Inputs from other neurons or specific
stimuli cause changes in the neuron’s
membrane potential that act as signals,
transmitting and processing information.
• Rapid changes in membrane potential
are what enable us to see a flower, read a
book, or climb a tree. Thus, to understand
how neurons function, we first need to
examine how chemical and electrical
forces form, maintain, and alter membrane
potentials.

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Formation of the Resting Potential

Potassium ions (K+) and sodium ions (Na+) play an essential role in the formation of the resting
potential. Each type of ion has a concentration gradient across the plasma membrane of a neuron,
(as shown in the table).
• In case of mammalian neurons, the
concentration of K+ is highest inside the cell, while
the concentration of Na+ is highest outside.
• These Na+ and K+ gradients are maintained by
sodium-potassium pumps in the plasma
membrane. These ion pumps use the energy of
ATP hydrolysis to actively transport Na+ out of the
cell and K +into the cell (as shown in the Figure).
• There are also concentration gradients for chloride ions (Cl-) and other anions, but we will
ignore these for the moment.
A sodium-potassium pump transports three sodium ions out of the cell for every two
potassium ions that it transports in. Although this pumping generates a net export of positive
charge, the resulting voltage difference is only a few millivolts.

Why, then, is there a voltage difference of 60–80 mV in a resting neuron?

The answer lies in ion movement through ion channels, pores formed by clusters of specialized
proteins that span the membrane. Ion channels allow ions to diffuse back and forth across the
membrane. As ions diffuse through channels, they carry with them units of electrical charge.
Any resulting net movement of positive or negative charge will generate a membrane potential, or
voltage across the membrane.
The concentration gradients of K+ and Na+ across the plasma membrane represent a chemical form
of potential energy. The ion channels that convert this chemical potential energy to electrical
potential energy can do so because they have selective permeability, allowing only certain ions to
pass.
For example, a potassium channel allows K+ to diffuse freely across the membrane, but not other
ions, such as Na+.
Diffusion of K+ through open potassium channels is critical for formation of the resting potential.
The K+ concentration is 140 mM inside the cell, but only 5 mM outside.
The chemical concentration gradient thus favors a net outflow of K+. Furthermore, a resting
neuron has many open potassium channels, but very few open sodium channels (see the
Figure). Because Na+ and other ions can’t readily cross the membrane, K+ outflow leads to a net
negative charge inside the cell. This buildup of negative charge within the neuron is the major
source of the membrane potential.
What stops the buildup of negative charge?

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The excess negative charges inside the cell exert an attractive force that opposes the flow of
additional positively charged potassium ions out of the cell. The separation of charge (voltage)
thus results in an electrical gradient that counterbalances the chemical concentration gradient of
K+.

Modeling the Resting Potential

• The net flow of K+ out of a neuron proceeds until the chemical
and electrical forces are in balance.
How well do these two forces account for the resting potential in
a mammalian neuron?
To answer this question, let’s consider a simple model consisting
of two chambers separated by an artificial membrane (as shown
in figure a).
To begin, imagine that the membrane contains many open ion
channels, all of which allow only K+ to diffuse across.
To produce a K+ concentration gradient like that of a mammalian
neuron, we place a solution of 140 mM potassium chloride (KCl) in
the inner chamber and 5 mM KCl in the outer chamber.
The K +will diffuse down its concentration gradient into the outer
chamber.
But because the chloride ions (Cl-) lack a means of crossing the
membrane, there will be an excess of negative charge in the inner
chamber.
When our model neuron reaches equilibrium, the electrical
gradient will exactly balance the chemical gradient, so that no further net diffusion of K + occurs
across the membrane. The magnitude of the membrane voltage at equilibrium for a particular ion
is called that ion’s equilibrium potential (Eion). For a membrane
permeable to a single type of ion, Eion can be calculated using a
formula called the Nernst equation. At human body temperature
(37°C) and for an ion with a net charge of 1, such as K+ or Na+, the
Nernst equation is

Plugging in the K+ concentrations reveals that the equilibrium

potential for K+ (EK) is 90 mV
(see Figure a).
The minus sign indicates that K+ is at equilibrium when the inside of
the membrane is 90 mV more negative than the outside.
• Although the equilibrium potential for K+ is 90 mV, the resting
potential of a mammalian neuron is somewhat less negative. This
difference reflects the small but steady movement of Na+ across
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the few open sodium channels in a resting neuron. The concentration gradient of Na + has a
direction opposite to that of K+ (see Table). Na+ therefore diffuses into the cell, making the inside
of the cell less negative.
• If we model a membrane in which the only open channels are selectively permeable to Na +, we
find that a tenfold higher concentration of Na+ in the outer chamber results in an equilibrium
potential (ENa) of 62 mV (Figure b).
In an actual neuron, the resting potential (60 to 80 mV) is much closer to EK than to ENa because
there are many open potassium channels but only a small number of open sodium channels.
Because neither K +nor Na+ is at equilibrium in a resting
neuron, each ion has a net flow (a current) across the membrane. The resting potential remains
steady, which means
that the K+ and Na+ currents are equal and opposite. Ion concentrations on either side of the
membrane also remain steady.
• Keep in mind that the extent of ion movement required to generate the resting potential is
extremely small (about 10-12 mole/cm2 of membrane), far less than would be required to alter the
chemical concentration gradient.
• Under conditions that allow Na+ to cross the membrane more readily, the membrane potential
will move toward E Na and away from EK. As we will see in the next section, this is precisely what
happens during the generation of a nerve impulse.

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Action potentials are the signals conducted by axons

• The membrane potential of a neuron changes in response to a variety of stimuli. Using the
technique of intracellular recording, researchers can record and graph these changes as a function
of time (as shown in the figure).
Changes in the membrane potential occur because neurons contain gated ion channels, ion
channels that open or close in response to stimuli. The opening or closing of gated ion channels
alters the membrane’s permeability to particular ions, which in turn alters the membrane
potential.
Hyperpolarization and Depolarization
To explore how the membrane potential
changes, let’s consider what happens when
gated potassium channels that are
closed in a resting neuron are stimulated to
open. Opening these potassium channels
increases the membrane’s permeability to
K+. Net diffusion of K+ out of the neuron
increases,
shifting the membrane potential toward EK
(90 mV at 37°C).
This increase in the magnitude of the
membrane potential, called a
hyperpolarization, makes the inside of the
membrane more negative (Figure a).
In a resting neuron, hyperpolarization
results from any stimulus that increases the outflow of positive ions or the inflow of negative ions.
• Although opening potassium channels in a resting neuron causes hyperpolarization, opening
some other types of ion channels has an opposite effect, making the inside of the membrane less
negative (Figure b).
• A reduction in the magnitude of the membrane potential is
called a depolarization.
• Depolarization in neurons often involves gated sodium
channels. If a stimulus causes the gated sodium channels in a
resting neuron to open, the membrane’s permeability to Na+
increases. Na+ diffuses into the cell along its concentration
gradient, causing a depolarization as the membrane potential
shifts toward ENa (62 mV at 37°C).
Graded Potentials and Action Potentials
• Sometimes, the response to hyperpolarization or depolarization
is simply a shift in the membrane potential. This shift, called a
graded potential, has a magnitude that varies with the strength

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of the stimulus, with a larger stimulus causing a greater change in the membrane potential.
Graded potentials induce a small electrical current that leaks out of the neuron as it flows along
the membrane.
• Graded potentials thus decay with distance from their source. Although graded potentials are
not the nerve signals that travel along axons, they have a major effect on the generation of nerve
signals.
• If a depolarization shifts the membrane potential sufficiently, the result is a massive change in
membrane voltage called an action potential.
• Unlike graded potentials, action potentials have a constant magnitude and can regenerate in
adjacent regions of the membrane.
• Action potentials can therefore spread along axons, making them well suited for transmitting a
signal over long distances.
• Action potentials arise because some of the ion channels in neurons are voltage-gated ion
channels, opening or closing when the membrane potential passes a particular level.
If a depolarization opens voltage-gated sodium channels, the resulting flow of Na+ into the neuron
results in further depolarization. Because the sodium channels are voltage
gated, an increased depolarization causes more sodium channels to open, leading to an even
greater flow of current. The result is a process of positive feedback, that triggers a very rapid
opening of all voltage-gated sodium channels and the marked change in membrane potential that
defines an action potential (Figure c).
Action potentials occur whenever a depolarization increases the membrane voltage to a particular
value, called the threshold.
• For mammalian neurons, the threshold is a membrane potential of about 55 mV. Once initiated,
the action potential has a magnitude that is independent of the strength of the triggering stimulus.
Because action potentials occur fully or not at all, they represent an all-or-none response to
stimuli. This all-or-none property reflects the fact that depolarization opens voltage-gated sodium
channels, and the opening of sodium channels causes further depolarization.
• The positive-feedback loop of depolarization and channel opening triggers an action potential
whenever the membrane potential reaches the threshold.
The discovery of how action potentials are generated dates to the 1940s and 1950s, with the work
of British scientists Andrew Huxley and Alan Hodgkin.
Because no techniques were available for studying electrical events in
small cells, they
took electrical recordings from the giant neurons of the squid.
Their experiments led to a model, presented in the next section, that
earned them a Nobel Prize in 1963.

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Generation of Action Potentials: A Closer Look

The characteristic shape of the graph of an action potential (see Figure c) reflects the large change
in membrane potential resulting from ion movement through voltage-gated sodium
and potassium channels.
Membrane depolarization opens both types of channels, but they respond independently and
sequentially. Sodium channels open first, initiating the action potential.
As the action potential proceeds, the sodium channels become inactivated: A loop of the channel
protein moves, blocking ion flow through the opening. Sodium channels remain inactivated until
after the membrane returns to the resting potential and the channels close. Potassium channels
open more slowly than sodium channels, but remain open and functional until the end of the
action potential.
To understand further how voltage-gated channels shape the action potential, we’ll consider the
process as a series of stages (shown in the Figure).
1- When the membrane of the axon is at the resting potential, most voltage-gated sodium
channels are closed. Some potassium channels are open, but most voltage gated potassium
channels are closed.
2- When a stimulus depolarizes the membrane, some gated sodium channels open, allowing more
Na+ to diffuse into the cell. The Na+ inflow causes further depolarization, which opens still more
gated sodium channels, allowing even more Na+ to diffuse into the cell.

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3- Once the threshold is crossed, the positive-feedback cycle rapidly brings the membrane
potential close to ENa. This stage of the action potential is called the rising phase.
4- Two events prevent the membrane potential from actually reaching E Na: Voltage-gated sodium
channels inactivate soon after opening, halting Na+ inflow; and most voltage-gated potassium
channels open, causing a rapid outflow of K+.
5- Both events quickly bring the membrane potential back toward EK. This stage is called the falling
phase. In the final phase of an action potential, called the undershoot, the membrane’s
permeability to K+ is higher than at rest, so the membrane potential is closer to EK than it is at the
resting potential. The gated potassium channels eventually close, and the membrane potential
returns to the resting potential.
The sodium channels remain inactivated during the falling phase and the early part of the
undershoot. As a result, if a second depolarizing stimulus occurs during this period, it will be
unable to trigger an action potential. The “downtime” when a second action potential cannot be
initiated is called the refractory period. This interval sets a limit on the maximum frequency at
which action potentials can be generated.
As we will discuss shortly, the refractory period also ensures that all signals in an axon travel in one
direction, from the cell body to the axon terminals.
Note that the refractory period is due to the inactivation of sodium channels, not to a change in
the ion gradients across the plasma membrane. The flow of charged particles during an action
potential involves far too few ions to change the concentration on either side of the membrane
significantly.

For most neurons, the interval between the onset of an action potential and the end of the
refractory period is only 1–2 milliseconds (msec). Because action potentials are so brief, a
neuron can produce hundreds per second. Furthermore, the frequency with which a neuron
generates action potentials varies in response to input. Such differences in action potential
frequency convey information about signal strength.
In hearing, for example, louder sounds result in more frequent action potentials in neurons
connecting the ear to the brain. Differences in the time interval between action potentials are in
fact the only variable in transmission of information by an axon.
Gated ion channels and action potentials have a central role in all nervous system function. As a
consequence, mutations in genes that encode ion channel proteins can cause disorders affecting
the nerves, muscles, brain, or heart. The type of disorder depends largely on where in the body the
gene for the ion channel protein is expressed.
For example, mutations affecting voltage-gated sodium channels in skeletal muscle cells can cause
myotonia, a periodic spasming of those muscles; and mutations affecting sodium channels in the
brain can cause epilepsy, in which excessive synchronized firing of groups of nerve cells causes
seizures.

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N.B.

Test your self

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Conduction of Action Potentials

1. At the site where an action potential is initiated

(usually the axon hillock), Na+ inflow during the
rising phase creates an electrical current that
depolarizes the neighboring region of the axon
membrane (as shown in the figure).
2. The depolarization in the neighboring region is
large enough to reach the threshold, causing the
action potential to be reinitiated there. This process
is repeated many times along the length of the axon.
Because an action potential is an all-or-none event,
the magnitude and duration of the action potential
remain constant at each position along the axon. The
result is the movement of a nerve impulse from the
cell body to the synaptic terminals, much like the
cascade of events triggered by knocking over the
first domino in a line.
An action potential that starts at the axon
hillock moves along the axon only toward the
synaptic terminals. Why?

3. Immediately behind the traveling zone of

depolarization caused by Na+ inflow is a zone of
repolarization caused by K+ outflow. In the
repolarized zone, the sodium channels remain inactivated. Consequently, the inward current that
depolarizes the axon membrane ahead of the action potential cannot produce another action
potential behind it. This prevents action potentials from traveling back toward the cell body.

Test your self (GSCE ..2023)

In the opposite figure, the nerve impulse propagates through ….
A. 1 to 4
B. 4 to 6
C. 5 to 6
D. 4 to 1

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If the question is
The structures that recieve most of stimul ior neurotransmiters are …….
A. 1 and 4
B. 2 and 3
C. 5 and 6
D. 6 and 7

If the question is
The structure that synthesizes most of neurotransmiters is …….
A. 1
B. 4
C. 6
D. 7

If the question is
The structure that synthesizes large sizeed neurotransmiters is …….
2
A. 1
B. 4
C. 6
D. 7

If the question is
The structure that releases neurotransmiters is …….
A. 1
B. 4
C. 6
D. 7

Evolutionary Adaptations of Axon Structure

Axon diameter is a major factor affecting the speed at which action potentials are conducted.
One adaptation that increases conductance speed is an increased axon width. Resistance to
electrical current flow is inversely proportional to the cross-sectional area of a conductor (such as
a wire or an axon). In the same way that a wide hose offers less resistance to the flow of water
than does a narrow hose, a wide axon provides less resistance to the current associated with an
action potential than does a narrow axon.
In invertebrates, conduction speed varies from several centimeters per second in very narrow
axons to about 30 m/sec in the giant axons of some arthropods and molluscs (as shown in the
figure). These giant axons (up to 1 mm wide) function in rapid behavioral responses, such as the
muscle contraction that propels a squid toward its prey.
Vertebrate axons have narrow diameters but can still conduct action potentials at high speed.
How is this possible?
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The evolutionary adaptation that enables fast conduction in vertebrate axons is electrical
insulation, analogous to the plastic insulation that covers many electrical wires. Insulation causes
the depolarizing current associated with an action potential to spread farther along the axon
interior, bringing more distant regions to the threshold sooner. The electrical insulation that
surrounds vertebrate axons is called a myelin sheath (as shown in the figure).
• Myelin sheaths are produced by two types of glia—oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann
cells in the PNS.
• During development, these specialized glia wrap axons in many layers of membrane.
The membranes forming these layers are mostly lipid, which is a poor conductor of electrical
current.

Myelination
• As you have already learned, axons surrounded by a multilayered lipid and protein covering,
called the myelin sheath, are said to be myelinated.
• The sheath electrically insulates the axon of a neuron and increases the speed of nerve impulse
conduction.
• Axons without such a covering are said to be unmyelinated.
Two types of neuroglia produce myelin sheaths: Schwann cells (in the PNS) and oligodendrocytes (in
the CNS).
1- Schwann cells begin to form myelin sheaths around axons during fetal development. Each Schwann cell
wraps about 1 millimeter.
• Eventually, multiple layers of glial plasma membrane surround the axon, with the Schwann cell’s
cytoplasm and nucleus forming the outermost layer.
• The inner portion, consisting of up to 100 layers of Schwann cell membrane, is the myelin sheath. The
outer nucleated cytoplasmic layer of the Schwann cell, which encloses the myelin sheath, is the
neurolemma (sheath of Schwann).
• A neurolemma is found only around axons in the PNS. When an axon is injured, the neurolemma aids
regeneration by forming a regeneration tube that guides and stimulates regrowth of the axon.
• Gaps in the myelin sheath, called nodes of Ranvier, appear at intervals along the axon.
• Each Schwann cell wraps one axon segment between two nodes.
2- In the CNS, an oligodendrocyte myelinates parts of several axons.
• Each oligodendrocyte puts forth about 15 broad, flat processes that spiral around CNS axons, forming a
myelin sheath.
• A neurolemma is not present, however, because the oligodendrocyte cell body and nucleus do not
envelop the axon.
• Nodes of Ranvier are present, but they are fewer in number.
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• Axons in the CNS display little regrowth after injury. This is thought to be due, in part, to the absence of
a neurolemma, and in part to an inhibitory influence exerted by the oligodendrocytes on axon regrowth.
• The amount of myelin increases from birth to maturity, and its presence greatly increases the speed of
nerve impulse conduction.
• An infant’s responses to stimuli are neither as rapid nor as coordinated as those of an older child or an
adult, in part because myelination is still in progress during infancy.
• In myelinated axons, voltage-gated sodium channels are restricted to gaps in the myelin sheath called
nodes of Ranvier. The extracellular fluid is in contact with the axon membrane only at the nodes. As a
result, action potentials are not generated in the regions between the nodes. Rather, the inward current
produced during the rising phase of the action potential at a node travels all the way to the next node,
where it depolarizes the membrane and regenerates the action potential (as shown in the figure).
Thus, the time-consuming process of opening and closing of ion channels occurs at only a limited number
of positions along the axon. This mechanism for action potential propagation is called saltatory conduction
(from the Latin saltare, to leap) because the action potential appears to jump along the axon from node to
node.
The major selective advantage of myelination is its space efficiency. A myelinated axon 20 μm in diameter
has a conduction speed faster than that of a squid giant axon with a diameter 40 times greater.
Furthermore, more than 2,000 of those myelinated axons can be packed into the space occupied by just
one giant axon.

Test your self

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Questions
1) For a neuron with an initial membrane potential at -70 mV, an increase in the movement of potassium
ions out of that neuron's cytoplasm would result in
A) the depolarization of the neuron.
B) the hyperpolarization of the neuron.
C) the replacement of potassium ions with sodium ions.
D) the replacement of potassium ions with calcium ions.
E) the neuron switching on its sodium-potassium pump to restore the initial conditions.
2) Although the membrane of a "resting" neuron is highly permeable to potassium ions, its membrane
potential does not exactly match the equilibrium potential for potassium because the neuronal
membrane is also
A) fully permeable to sodium ions.
B) slightly permeable to sodium ions.
C) fully permeable to calcium ions.
D) impermeable to sodium ions.
E) highly permeable to chloride ions.
3) The operation of the sodium-potassium "pump" moves
A) sodium and potassium ions into the cell.
B) sodium and potassium ions out of the cell.
C) sodium ions into the cell and potassium ions out of the cell.
D) sodium ions out of the cell and potassium ions into the cell.
E) sodium and potassium ions into the mitochondria.
4) A cation that is more abundant as a solute in the cytosol of a neuron than it is in the interstitial fluid
outside the neuron is
A) HCO3-. B) Cl-. C) Ca++. D) Na+. E) K+.
5) The membrane potential that exactly offsets an ion's concentration gradient is called the
A) graded potential. B) threshold potential. C) equilibrium potential.
D) action potential. E) inhibitory postsynaptic potential.
6) ATP hydrolysis directly powers the movement of
A) K+ out of cells. B) Na+ out of cells. C) Na+ into cells.
D) Ca++ into cells. E) Cl- into cells.
7) Two fundamental concepts about the ion channels of a "resting" neuron are that the channels
A) are always open, but the concentration gradients of ions frequently change.
B) are always closed, but ions move closer to the channels during excitation.
C) open and close depending on stimuli, and are specific as to which ion can traverse them.
D) open and close depending on chemical messengers, and are nonspecific as to which ion can traverse
them.
E) open in response to stimuli, and then close simultaneously, in unison.
8) Opening all of the sodium channels, with all other ion channels closed, which is an admittedly artificial
setting on an otherwise typical neuron should move its membrane potential to
A) -90 mV. B) -70 mV. C) 0 mV.
D) +30 mV. E) +62 mV.
9) A graded hyperpolarization of a membrane can be induced by
A) increasing its membrane's permeability to Na+.
B) decreasing its membrane's permeability to H+.
C) decreasing its membrane's permeability to Cl-.
D) increasing its membrane's permeability to Ca++.
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E) increasing its membrane's permeability to K+.

10) Self-propagation and refractory periods are typical of
A) action potentials.
B) graded hyperpolarizations.
C) excitatory postsynaptic potentials.
D) threshold potentials.
E) resting potentials.
11) The "selectivity" of a particular ion channel refers to its
A) permitting passage by positive but not negative ions.
B) permitting passage by negative but not positive ions.
C) ability to change its size depending on the ion needing transport.
D) binding with only one type of neurotransmitter.
E) permitting passage only to a specific ion.
12) A "resting" motor neuron is expected to
A) release lots of acetylcholine.
B) have high permeability to sodium ions.
C) be equally permeable to sodium and potassium ions.
D) exhibit a resting potential that is more negative than the "threshold" potential.
E) have a higher concentration of sodium ions on the inside of the cell than on the outside.
13) The "threshold" potential of a membrane
A) is the point of separation from a living to a dead neuron.
B) is the lowest frequency of action potentials a neuron can produce.
C) is the minimum hyperpolarization needed to prevent the occurrence of action potentials.
D) is the minimum depolarization needed to operate the voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels.
E) is the peak amount of depolarization seen in an action potential.
14) Action potentials move along axons
A) more slowly in axons of large than in small diameter.
B) by the direct action of acetylcholine on the axonal membrane.
C) by activating the sodium-potassium "pump" at each point along the axonal membrane.
D) more rapidly in myelinated than in non-myelinated axons.
E) by reversing the concentration gradients for sodium and potassium ions.
15) A toxin that binds specifically to voltage-gated sodium channels in axons would be expected to
A) prevent the hyperpolarization phase of the action potential.
B) prevent the depolarization phase of the action potential.
C) prevent graded potentials.
D) increase the release of neurotransmitter molecules.
E) have most of its effects on the dendritic region of a neuron.
16) After the depolarization phase of an action potential, the resting potential is restored by
A) the opening of sodium activation gates.
B) the opening of voltage-gated potassium channels and the closing of sodium channels.
C) a decrease in the membrane's permeability to potassium and chloride ions.
D) a brief inhibition of the sodium-potassium pump.
E) the opening of more voltage-gated sodium channels.
17) The "undershoot" phase of after-hyperpolarization is due to
A) slow opening of voltage-gated sodium channels.
B) sustained opening of voltage-gated potassium channels.
C) rapid opening of voltage-gated calcium channels.

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D) slow restorative actions of the sodium-potassium ATPase.

E) ions that move away from their open ion channels.
18) Immediately after an action potential passes along an axon, it is not possible to generate a second
action potential; thus, we state that the membrane is briefly
A) hyperexcitable. B) refractory. C) fully depolarized.
D) above threshold. E) at the equilibrium potential.
19) An action potential can start in the middle of an axon and proceed in both opposite directions when
A) the neuron is an inhibitory neuron and operating normally.
B) only the middle section of the axon has been artificially stimulated by an electrode.
C) the dendritic region fires an action potential.
D) it is in its typical refractory state.
E) its membrane potential is above the threshold.
20) The primary means by which a neuron can communicate to a second neuron is by
A) the frequency of its action potentials.
B) the peak of the depolarization phase of an action potential.
C) the peak of the undershoot/hyperpolarization of an action potential.
D) varying how much neurotransmitter it releases for a given action potential.
E) remaining in the depolarization phase of the action potential for an extended interval.
21) Which of the following statements are true?
(1) The sensory function of the nervous system involves sensory receptors sensing certain
changes in the internal and external environments.
(2) Sensory neurons receive electrical signals from sensory receptors.
(3) The integrative function of the nervous system involves analyzing sensory information, storing some of
it, and making decisions regarding appropriate responses.
(4) Interneurons are located primarily in the PNS.
(5) Motor function involves the activation of effectors (muscles and glands).
(a) 1, 2, 3, and 4 (b) 2, 4, and 5 (c) 1, 2, 3, and 5
(d) 1, 2, and 4 (e) 2, 3, 4, and 5
22) A neuron’s resting membrane potential is established and maintained by:
(1) a high concentration of K+ in the extracellular fluid and a high concentration of Na+ in the cytosol,
(2) the plasma membrane’s higher permeability to Na+ because of the presence of numerous Na+ leakage
channels,
(3) differences in both ion concentrations and electrical gradients,
(4) the fact that there are numerous large, non-diffusible anions in the cytosol,
(5) sodium–potassium pumps that help to maintain the proper distribution of sodium and potassium.
(a) 1, 2, and 5 (b) 1, 2, and 3 (c) 2, 3, and 4
(d) 3, 4, and 5 (e) 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5
23) Which of the following statements are true?
(1) The basic types of ion channels are gated, leakage, and electrical.
(2) Ion channels allow for the development of graded potentials and action potentials.
(3) Voltage-gated channels open in response to changes in membrane potential.
(4) Ligand-gated channels open due to the presence of specific chemicals.
(5) A graded potential is useful for communication over long distances.
(a) 1, 2, and 3 (b) 2, 3, and 4 (c) 2, 3, and 5
(d) 2, 3, 4, and 5 (e) 1, 3, and 5

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24) Which of the following statements are true?

(1) The frequency of impulses and number of activated sensory neurons encode differences in stimuli
intensity.
(2) Larger-diameter axons conduct nerve impulses faster than smaller-diameter ones.
(3) Continuous conduction is faster than saltatory conduction.
(4) The presence or absence of a myelin sheath is an important factor that determines the speed
of nerve impulse propagation.
(5) Action potentials are localized, but graded potentials are propagated.
(a) 1, 3, and 5 (b) 3 and 4 (c) 2, 4, and 5
(d) 2 and 4 (e) 1, 2, and 4
25) Which of the following statements correctly characterizes an action potential?
a. Action potentials are initiated by depolarization of the membrane to threshold.
b. Action potentials reverse the membrane potential so that the interior is negatively charged and the
exterior is positively charged.
c. A stronger action potential will travel faster than a weaker action potential.
d. Action potentials are more likely to result when the membrane is hyperpolarized.
26) Which of the following influence(s) the speed of an action potential?
a. the presence of a myelin sheath
b. the extent of depolarization that initiates the action potential c. the diameter of the axon
d. both the presence of a myelin sheath and the diameter of the axon
27) Which of the following cell types makes up the majority of cells in the nervous system?
a. sensory neurons b. motor neurons
c. neuroglial cells d. interneurons
28) Which one of the following is the correct sequence of events that follows a threshold potential:
1. the membrane becomes depolarized
2. sodium channels open and sodium ions diffuse inward
3. the membrane becomes repolarized
4. potassium channels open and potassium ions diffuse outward while sodium is actively
transported out of the cell
A) 2, 1, 4, 3 B) 3, 2, 4, 1 C) 2, 1, 3, 4 D) 4, 1, 3, 2 E) 1, 2, 4, 3
29) Which one of the following best describes the waxy-appearing material called myelin:
A) a mass of white lipid material that surrounds the dendrites of a neuron
B) an outer membrane on a neuroglial cell
C) a mass of white lipid material that insulates the axon of a neuron
D) a lipid-protein (lipoprotein) cell membrane on the outside of axons
E) a mass of white lipid material that surrounds the cell body of a neuron
30) Which of these cells are not a type of neuroglia found in the CNS:
A) Schwann cells B) oligodendrocytes C) ependymal cells
D) astrocytes E) microglia
31) An action potential is caused by an influx of these ions into the cell:
A) both potassium and sodium B) potassium C) sodium
D) magnesium E) calcium
32) Which one of the following describes saltatory conduction:
A) is faster than conduction on an unmyelinated fiber
B) occurs only if nodes of Ranvier are lacking
C) occurs only if the myelin sheath is continuous
D) is slower than conduction on an unmyelinated fiber
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E) occurs only in the absence of axon hillocks

33) The Schwann cell forms a myelin sheath around the:
A) nucleus B) cell body C) axon D) nodes of Ranvier E) dendrites
34) Which of the following best describes the electrical state of a neuron at rest?
a. The inside of a neuron is more negatively charged than the outside.
b. The outside of a neuron is more negatively charged than the inside.
c. The inside and the outside of a neuron have the same electrical charge.
d. Potassium ions leak into a neuron at rest.
35) During an action potential
a. the rising phase is due to an influx of Na+. b. the falling phase is due to an influx of K+.
c. the falling phase is due to an efflux of K+. d. both a and c occur
36) Imagine that you are doing an experiment on the movement of ions across neural membranes.
Which of the following plays a role in determining the equilibrium concentration of ions across these
membranes?
a. Ion concentration gradients b. Ion pH gradients
c. Ion electrical gradients d. Both a and c
37) What happens when a resting neuron’s membrane depolarizes?
a. There is a net diffusion of Na out of the cell.
b. The equilibrium potential for K (EK) becomes more positive.
c. The neuron’s membrane voltage becomes more positive.
d. The neuron is less likely to generate an action potential.
e. The cell’s inside is more negative than the outside.
38) A common feature of action potentials is that they
a. cause the membrane to hyperpolarize and then depolarize.
b. can undergo temporal and spatial summation.
c. are triggered by a depolarization that reaches the threshold.
d. move at the same speed along all axons.
e. require the diffusion of Na and K through ligand-gated channels to propagate.
39) Where are neurotransmitter receptors located?
a. the nuclear membrane b. the nodes of Ranvier c. the postsynaptic membrane
d. synaptic vesicle membranes e. the myelin sheath
40) Temporal summation always involves
a. both inhibitory and excitatory inputs. b. synapses at more than one site.
c. inputs that are not simultaneous. d. electrical synapses. e. multiple inputs at a single synapse.
41) Why are action potentials usually conducted in one direction?
a. The nodes of Ranvier conduct potentials in one direction.
b. The brief refractory period prevents reopening of voltagegated Na channels.
c. The axon hillock has a higher membrane potential than the terminals of the axon.
d. Ions can flow along the axon in only one direction.
e. Voltage-gated channels for both Na and K open in only one direction.
42) Which of the following is a direct result of depolarizing the presynaptic membrane of an axon
terminal?
a. Voltage-gated calcium channels in the membrane open.
b. Synaptic vesicles fuse with the membrane. c. The postsynaptic cell produces an action potential.
d. Ligand-gated channels open, allowing neurotransmitters to enter the synaptic cleft.
e. An EPSP or IPSP is generated in the postsynaptic cell.
43) The surface on a neuron that discharges the contents of synaptic vesicles is the
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A) dendrite. B) axon hillock. C) node of Ranvier.

D) postsynaptic membrane. E) presynaptic membrane.

44) Neurotransmitters are released from axon terminals via

A) osmosis. B) active transport. C) diffusion.
D) transcytosis. E) exocytosis.
45) The fastest possible conduction velocity of action potentials is observed in
A) thin, non-myelinated neurons. B) thin, myelinated neurons.
C) thick, non-myelinated neurons. D) thick, myelinated neurons.
46) Neural transmission across a mammalian synaptic gap is accomplished by
A) the movement of sodium and potassium ions from the presynaptic neuron into the postsynaptic
neuron.
B) impulses traveling as electrical currents across the gap.
C) impulses causing the release of a chemical signal and its diffusion across the gap.
D) impulses ricocheting back and forth across the gap.
E) the movement of calcium ions from the presynaptic into the postsynaptic neuron.
47) One possible disadvantage to a nerve net is that it might conduct impulses in two directions from the
point of the stimulus. Most of the synapses in vertebrates conduct information in only one direction
A) as a result of the nodes of Ranvier.
B) as a result of voltage-gated sodium channels found only in the vertebrate system.
C) because vertebrate nerve cells have dendrites.
D) because only the postsynaptic cells can bind and respond to neurotransmitters.
E) because the sodium-potassium pump moves ions in one direction.
By using the following graph answer the following questions:(48 – 52)
48) The membrane potential is closest to the equilibrium potential for
potassium at label
A) A. B) B. C) C. D) D. E) E.
49)) The membrane's permeability to sodium ions is at its maximum at
label
A) A. B) B. C) C. D) D. E) E.
50)) The minimum graded depolarization needed to operate the voltage-
gated sodium and potassium channels is indicated by the label
A) A. B) B. C) C. D) D. E) E.
51) The cell is not hyperpolarized; however, repolarization is in progress,
as the sodium channels are closing or closed, and many potassium
channels have opened at label
A) A. B) B. C) C. D) D. E) E.
52) The neuronal membrane is at its resting potential at label
A) A. B) B. C) C. D) D. E) E.
53) Action potentials are normally carried in only one direction: from the axon hillock toward the axon
terminals. If you experimentally depolarize the middle of the axon to threshold, using an electronic
probe, then
A) no action potential will be initiated.
B) an action potential will be initiated and proceed only in the normal direction toward the axon terminal.
C) an action potential will be initiated and proceed only back toward the axon hillock.
D) two action potentials will be initiated, one going toward the axon terminal and one going back toward the hillock.
E) an action potential will be initiated, but it will die out before it reaches the axon terminal.
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54) Assume that excessive consumption of ethanol increases the influx of negative chloride ions into
"common sense" neurons whose action potentials are needed for you to act appropriately and not harm
yourself or others. Thus, any resulting poor decisions associated with ethanol ingestion are likely due to
A) increased membrane depolarization of "common sense" neurons.
B) decreased membrane depolarization of "common sense" neurons.
C) more action potentials in your "common sense" neurons.
D) more EPSPs in your "common sense" neurons.
E) fewer IPSPs in your "common sense" neurons.
55) In the sequence of permeability changes for a complete action potential, the first of these events
that occurs is
A) the activation of the sodium-potassium "pump."
B) the inhibition of the sodium-potassium "pump."
C) the opening of voltage-gated sodium channels.
D) the closing of voltage-gated potassium channels.
E) the opening of voltage-gated potassium channels.
56) Saltatory conduction is a term applied to
A) conduction of impulses across electrical synapses.
B) an action potential that skips the axon hillock in moving from the dendritic region to the axon terminal.
C) rapid movement of an action potential reverberating back and forth along a neuron.
D) jumping from one neuron to an adjacent neuron.
E) jumping from one node of Ranvier to the next in a myelinated neuron
57)By using the opposite graph answer the following:
1- which area(s) of the graph indicate(s) the opening of Na+ ion
channels and the diffusion of Na+ ions into the nerve cells? Explain your
answer.
2- repolarization occurs in which areas? Explain
your answer.

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URT
Biology Test
25 Questions – 45 Minutes
Passage II
In the 1940s, scientists thought all genetic material was contained in structures called chromosomes and
that chromosomes had been found only in the nucleus of a cell (not in the cytoplasm):
Chromosomes are composed of 2 types of molecules, proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Proteins
are composed of subunits called amino acids. DNA consists of
chains of subunits called nucleotides. The parts of that
responsible for the transmission of genetic information are called
genes. Two scientists in the 1940s debate whether genes are
made of proteins or DNA.
Protein Hypothesis
Genes are made only of proteins. Proteins make up 50% or more
of a cell’s dry weight. Cells contain 20 different amino acids that
can be arranged in a virtually infinite number of ways to make
different proteins. The number and arrangement of different amino acids within a protein form the codes
that contain hereditary information. In contrast, only 4 different nucleotides make up the DNA found in
cells, and they are believed to form chains only in certain ratios. As a result, the number of different
combinations that DNA can carry is much smaller than the number that proteins can carry.
DNA Hypothesis Genes are made only of DNA. DNA is found exclusively in the cell’s nucleus, whereas
proteins are found throughout the nucleus and cytoplasm. Additionally, the amount of protein in a cell
varies from cell type to cell type, even within the same animal. Though DNA is less abundant than proteins,
the amount is consistent from cell type to cell type within the same animal, except for the gametes (the
reproductive cells). Gametes have half the amount of as other cells in the body. Gametes also have half the
typical number of chromosomes. Thus, the amount of DNA in cell is correlated with the number of
chromosomes in the cell. No such correlation is found for proteins.
Question numbers 1to 7 are related to this Passage II.
1. Which of the following statements is most consistent with the DNA Hypothesis? The amount of DNA
will generally increase from cell type to cell type as the number of:
A. Amino acids in the nucleus increases from cell type to cell type.
B. Amino acids in the nucleus increases from cell type to cell type.
C. Chromosomes in the nucleus increases from cell type to cell type.
D. Chromosomes in the nucleus increases from cell type to cell type.
2. By referring to the observation that DNA is found exclusively in the nucleus while proteins are found
throughout the cell, the scientist supporting the DNA Hypothesis implies that genes are made only of
DNA because which of the following are also found only in the nucleus?
A. Chromosomes B. Gametes C. Vitamins D. Fatty acids
3. According to the passage, a difference between DNA and proteins is that both types of molecules:
A. Proteins are found only in gametes while DNA is not.
B. Proteins and DNA are abundant in the cytoplasm.
C. Proteins contain 20 different amino acids while DNA contain 4 types of nucleotides.
D. Protein contain nitrogen base while DNA contain peptides.

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4. According to the Protein Hypothesis, which of the following observations provides the strongest
evidence that genes are composed of proteins?
A. Proteins composed of 20 amino acids.
B. Protein is composed of smaller subunits than are DNA.
C. Proteins are abundant in the nucleus only.
D. The concentration of proteins is generally consistent from cell to cell.
5. Mitochondria are organelles located in the cytoplasm that are responsible for energy transformation
in a cell. After the 1940s, it was observed that mitochondria contain their own genes. This observation
contradicts evidence stated in which hypothesis?
A. The Protein Hypothesis, because if genes are made of proteins, the observation would show that
proteins are present inside the nucleus.
B. The DNA Hypothesis, because if genes are made of DNA, the observation would show that DNA is
present outside the nucleus.
C. The DNA Hypothesis, because if genes are made of DNA, the observation would show that DNA is
present inside the nucleus.
D. The Protein Hypothesis, because if genes are made of proteins, the observation would show that
proteins are present outside the nucleus.
6. The scientist who describes the DNA Hypothesis implies that the Protein Hypothesis is weakened by
which of the following observations?
A. Proteins are found only in the nucleus.
B. Protein molecules are composed of many subunits.
C. For a man, the amount of protein in different types of cells is not the same.
D. For a man, the amount of protein in the gametes is half that found in other types of cells.
7. Which of the following illustrations of a portion of a
protein molecule is consistent with the description in
the passage?

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