MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

MATRIX
A rectangular array of mn numbers in the form of m horizontal
lines (called rows) and n vertical lines (called columns), is called
a matrix of order m by n, written as m × n matrix.
 a11 a12 a13 a1n 
a a22 a23 a2n 
A   21
 
 
am1 am2 am3 amn 

TYPES OF MATRICES
Zero Matrix or Null Matrix
A matrix each of whose elements is zero, is called a zero matrix
or a null matrix.
Square Matrix
A matrix in which number of rows is equal to the number of
columns, say n, is called a square matrix of order n.
Diagonal Matrix
A square matrix A = [aij]n × n is called a diagonal matrix if all the
elements except those in the leading diagonal are zero, i.e., aij = 0
for i j. In other words
A  diag.a11 a22 a33 ann 

Unit Matrix
A square matrix in which every non-diagonal element is zero and
every diagonal element is 1, is called a unit matrix or an identity
matrix. Thus, a square matrix A  a  is a unit matrix if
ij nn

1
 0 when i  j
aij  
1 when i = j

ALGEBRA OF MATRICES
Addition of Matrices
Let A and B be two matrices each of order m × n. Then the sum
matrix A + B is defined only if matrices A and B are of same
order. The new matrix, say C = A + B is of order m × n and is
obtained by adding the corresponding elements of A and B.

Subtraction of Matrices
Let A and B be two matrices of the same order. Then by A – B,
we mean A + (–B). In other words, to find A – B we subtract each
element of B from the corresponding element of A.

Multiplication of Matrices
Two matrices A and B can be multiplied only if the number of
columns in A is same as the number of rows in B

TRANSPOSE OF A MATRIX
Let A be an m × n matrix. Then, the n × m matrix obtained by
interchanging the rows and columns of A is called the transpose
of A, and is denoted by A or A1. Thus,
(i) if order of A is m × n, then, the order of A is n × m.
(ii) (i, j)the element of a = (j, i)the element of A.

2
 3 1  2 4
2
For example, if A
3 
, then A '   3 2 
4 2
 1 3  32

SYMMETRIC MATRIX
A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if A'  A. That is, the
matrix A  a  is said to be symmetric provided aij = aji for all i and
ij nn

j.

SKEW SYMMETRIC MATRIX

A square matrix A is said to be skew symmetric, if A = – A. That
is, the matrix A  a  is skew-symmetric if a  a for all i and j.
ij nn ij ji

ORTHOGONAL MATRIX
A square matrix of order n × n is said to be orthogonal if
AA '  In  A ' A.

MINOR
If m – p rows and n – p columns from matrix Am × n, are removed,
the remaining square submatrix of p rows and p columns is left.
The determinant of a square submatrix of order p × p is called a
minor of A of order p.
(i) every element of the matrix is the minor of order.
(ii) 21 32 , 32 06 , 24 31 , 01 04 etc. are minors of order 2.
3 1 0 2 1 0 2 3 1
(iii) 1 3 6, 4 3 6, 4 1 3 etc. are the minors of order 3.
1 2 0 8 2 0 8 1 2

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RANK OF A MATRIX
A positive integer r is said to be the rank of a non zero that A, if
(i) there exists atleast one minor in A of order which is zero,
(ii) every minor in A of order greater than r is zero, k is written
as (A) = r.
The rank of a zero matrix is defined to be zero.

Properties of Rank of a Matrix

(i) Rank of a matrix remains unaltered by elementary
transformations.
(ii) No skew-symmetric matrix can be of rank 1.
(iii) Rank of matrix A = Rank of matrix A.

SOLUTION OF A SYSTEM OF LINEAR EQUATIONS BY

MATRIX METHOD
Consider a system of linear equations
a11x1  a12 x 2  ....  a1n x n  b1
a21x1  a22 x 2  ....  a2n x n  b2

an1x1  an2 x 2  ....  ann x n  bn

We can express these equations as a single matrix equation

 a11 a12 a1n   x1   b1 
a a2n   x 2  b2 
 21 a22 
    
    
an1 an2 ann   xn  bn 
A X B

Let A  0,so that A–1 exists uniquely. Pre-multiplying both sides

of AX = B by A–1, we get
A  AX   A B or  A A  X  A B
1 1
1 1

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or IX  A B or X  A B.
1 1

Hence X  A B is the unique solution of AX = B, |A|  0.

1

DETERMINANTs

MINOS AND COFACTORS

Minor of an Element of a Determinant
If we take an element of the determinant and delete the row and
the column containing that element, the determinant left is called
the minor of the element. It is denoted by Mij
For example, given the 3 × 3 determinant
a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 .
a31 a32 a33

a22 a23
Then the minor of a11 of M11 
a32 a33
;

a21 a23
the minor of a12 is M12 
a31 a33
and so on.

Cofactor of an Element of a Determinant

The cofactor Cij of an element aij (the element in the ith row and
jth column) is defined as Cij = (–1)i+jMij. It is denoted by Cij. Thus,
Mij , when i + j is even
Cij  
 –Mij , when i + j is odd

For example, the cofactor of a12 in the 3 × 3 determinant

a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33

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 a21 a23 a21 a23
is C12   1
1 2
 .
a31 a33 a31 a33

PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
1. The value of the determinant remains unchanged if rows are
changed into columns and columns are changed into rows,
2. If two adjacent rows (columns) of a determinant are
interchanged, the value of the determinant so obtained is the
negative of the value of the original determinant, i.e.
3. If two rows or columns of a determinant are identical then
its value is zero, i.e.,
4. If each element of a row or column of a determinant is
multiplied by a constant k then the value of the new
determinant is k times the value of the original determinant,
i.e.
5. If any two rows or columns of a determinant are
proportional, then its value is zero, i.e.

SOLUTION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS BY

DETERMINANTS
1. Cramer’s Rule: Solution of system of linear equations in
two unknowns
The solution of the system of equations
a1x  b1y  c1

a2 x  b2 y  c 2
D1 D2
is given by x
D
and y
D
, where

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 a1 b1 c1 b1
D , D1 
a2 b2 c2 b2

and D2 
a1
a2
c1
c2
, provided D  0.

2. Cramer’s Rule: Solution of system linear equations in

three unknowns
The solution of the system of equations
a1x  b1y  c1z  d1

a2 x  b2 y  c 2 z  d2

a3 x  b3 y  c 3 z  d3

is given by
D1 D D3
x
D
,y 2
D
and z
D
, where
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1 a1 b1 d1
D  a2 b2 c 2 ; D1  d2 b2 c 2 ; D2  a 2 d2 c 2 ; D3  a 2 b2 d2
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3 a3 b3 d3

provided D  0.
(i) If D  0, the system has only trivial solution (x = y = z = 0),
and
(ii) If D = 0, the system has infinitely many solutions.