THEME 10:

WORD-FORMATION: PREFIXES, SUFFIXES AND COMPOUNDS.

1. INTRODUCTION

a). Neologisms
b). Semantic Transfer

2. WORD FORMATION

3. AFFIXATION

a). Prefixation
b). Suffixation

4. COMPOUNDS

a). Noun Compounds

b). Adjective Compounds
c). Verb Compounds
d). Other Types of Compounds
e). Blends
1. INTRODUCTION

Language is not a static, closed entity. Like any other system related to human
society, the semantic system is continually being extended and realised. New
concepts are introduced. There are various ways in which words can be formed,
which we will briefly mention here.

a). Neologisms:

The idea of neologisms refers to the invention of new lexical items. Very often, a
neologism condenses into a single word the same meaning that could be expressed
otherwise by a whole sentence. For example, copywriter is the person who writes
advertising or publicity material. But at the same time, the new word carries an
additional message, referring to a specific side of the concept; the special
institutional category of person and job relates the word copywriter to the type
of copy which is sent to the printer for dissemination through mass communication
media, often with the purpose of selling a product, and no other type. This
phenomenon can also be found in words like Nazism or Blairism.

Advertising is fond of coining new compounds in order to express a special, newly-

created idea that we will associate with the product, as in sun-kissed or ready-to
eat.

It is usually done in two ways:

 Morphological derivation (base + affix)

 Compound formation (base + base)

b). Semantic Transfer:

This phenomenon occurs mainly because of literature reasons and only in the
semantic specification changes. The most common forms of semantic transfer are:

 Metaphor: the meaning of a lexical item (a piece or lump of mud) is replaced

by another similar to it (a doughnut of mud). The ground for the comparison
has to be interpreted by the hearer.

 Metonymy: a whole expression is replaced by part of it. For example, the

whole town turned out to welcome them (meaning all the people living in the
town); the bomb changed their lives (the invention or the explosion of the
bomb).

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2. WORD FORMATION

As has been pointed out above, there are various reasons for the formation of new
or up-to-date words. Commonly accepted words like the Internet or blog are
relatively recent incorporations. In literature we may want to attract the
attention of the reader by making a special use of language, thus giving us words
or expressions like a Catch-22 situation (from Heller’s novel). But the phenomenon
of word-formation is not new.

Before talking about the processes followed for word-formation we should look at
the structure of a word:

A form to which a rule of word-formation is applied is called base (as distinct

from stem which is the part of the word remaining after every affix has been
removed). For example:

Base Stem
friendly with only one affix friend friend
unfriendly with two affixes friendly friend

In the first example friend is both the base and the stem, but in the second
friendly is not the stem of unfriendly.

The chief processes of English word-formation by which the base may be modified
are:

i). Affixation:

 Adding a prefix to the base, with or without a change of word-class.

For example: author, co-author.

 Adding a suffix to the base, with or without a change of word-class.

For example: drive (verb), driver (noun).

ii). Conversion:

 Assigning the base to a different word-class without changing its form,

that is to say zero affixation.
For example: drive (verb), drive (noun).

iii). Compounding:

 Adding one base to another.

For example: tea + pot = teapot.

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Once the base has undergone a rule of word-formation, the derived word itself
may become the base for another derivation and it is possible to derive words of
considerable morphological and semantic complexity. A moderately complex
example is the word unfriendliness.

There are possibilities for mixing processes of derivation in the same word: for
instance, compounding and affixation are both found in colour-blindness, a word
derived from the compound adjective colour-blind by the same rule which derives
happiness from happy.

3. AFFIXATION

a). Prefixation:

Prefixes are particles that can be added, in initial position, to full words. However,
these particles are not words with an independent existence.

Prefixes have a status which is semi-independent, shown by the following points:

 Prefixes do not fuse with their base:

prefix rebuild not prefix repeat

 Phonemically, prefixes do not vary:

subway, subconscious //

 Most prefixes in English are of foreign origin. All prefixes have some
stress, with the exception of the -a prefix, which is Latin.
For example: amoral.

 Prefixes do not generally alter the word-class of the base, but they alter
the meaning of the word. They can be of various kinds depending on the
meaning they convey. Below, we will examine a selection of these prefixes:

i). Negative Prefixes:

They convey the meaning of ‘the opposite of’:

un is added to native English words. For example, unwise, unwilling.

in is generally preferred before words of Latin origin.
For example, invincible, indelible.
It has three variations, depending on the sound that follows:
il before l. For example, illegal.

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 ir before r. For example, irrational.
im before labials. For example, immature.
dis combines with verbs and nouns. For example, disobey, discontent.
non is usually hyphenated. For example, non-smoker, non-perishable.
a(n) combines with adjectives. For example, asexual, anarchy.

ii). Reversative or Privative Prefixes:

They reverse the action of the base:

un combines with verbs. For example, undo, untie.

dis is added to verbs and adjectives. For example, disconnect, disinterested.
de combines with verbs and nouns. For example, defrost, denationalisation.

iii). Pejorative Prefixes:

They convey the idea of bad(ly), wrong(ly) or false:

mal combines with verbs, participles, adjectives and abstract nouns.

For example, maltreat, malformed, malfunction.
mis combines with verbs, participles and abstract nouns.
For example, misinform, misleading, misconduct.
pseudo means ‘false’ and is added to nouns and adjectives.
For example, pseudo-intellectual, pseudo-scientific.

iv). Prefixes of Degree or Size:

There are many prefixes denoting these ideas of ‘more’ or ‘less’. A selection is
given below:

over expresses ‘excessive’ and combines with verbs and adjectives.

For example, overeat, overconfident.
super means ‘more than’ or ‘special’ and is added to adjectives and nouns.
For example, supernatural, supermarket.
ultra means ‘extreme’ and is generally added to adjectives and nouns.
For example, ultra-modern, ultraviolet.

Other prefixes in this category are arch, co, hyper, mini, out, sub, sur, under.

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v). Prefixes of Attitude and Orientation:

These generally express the idea of ‘for’ or ‘against’:

pro means ‘on the side of’ and combines with adjectives and nouns.
For example, pro-American, pro-student.
anti means ‘against’ and is added to adjectives and nouns.
For example, anti-social, anti-war.

Other prefixes in this category are contra, counter.

vi). Locative Prefixes:

These generally refer to position, but can be used metaphorically:

super means ‘above’ and is added to nouns.

For example, superstructure, superscript.
sub means ‘under’ and combines with adjectives, verbs and nouns.
For example, subnormal, subdivide, subway.

Other prefixes in this category are fore, inter, trans.

vii). Prefixes of Time and Order:

These are self-evident:

ex means ‘former’ and is added to nouns. For example, ex-wife, ex-President.

pre means ‘before’ or ‘in advance’ and is added to nouns, adjectives and verbs.
For example, pre-school, pre-marital, pre-heat.

Other prefixes in this category are fore, post, re.

viii). Number Prefixes:

Again, these are self-evident:

mono means ‘one’ and combines with nouns and adjectives.

For example, monoplane, monosyllabic.
semi means ‘half’ and combines with nouns and adjectives.
For example, semicircle, semi-detached.

Other prefixes in this category are bi, di, poly, multi, demi, tri, uni.

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b). Suffixation:

While prefixes primarily effect a semantic modification of the base, suffixes

have by contrast only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change
the grammatical function of the base.

Although suffixes are by no means uniquely associated with a particular word

class, it is convenient to group them according to the word class that results when
they are added to a base. Unlike prefixation, suffixation with originally foreign
items is often accompanied by stress shifts. For example, ‘photograph -
pho’tography - photo’graphic. In many cases, spelling is also affected. For example,
invade - invasion, able - ability.

Below, we will examine a selection of suffixes according to the word class that
results when they are added to a base:

i). Denominal Nouns (Abstract):

These noun bases become largely noncount abstract by means of the following
suffixes:

age means ‘measure of’ or ‘collection of’. For example, baggage, mileage.
ful means ‘the amount of’. For example, spoonful, cupful.
ism means ‘practice of’. For example, fanaticism, racism.

Other suffixes in this category are dom, ery/ry, hood, ing, ocracy, ship.

ii). Denominal Nouns (Concrete):

These suffixes combine with noun bases to produce concrete and individualising
items:

eer means ‘skilled in’ or ‘engaged in’. For example, mountaineer, racketeer.
ess adds feminine marking to animate nouns. For example, waitress, hostess.
let means ‘small’ or ‘unimportant’. For example, booklet, starlet.

Other suffixes in this category are er, ette, ling, ster.

iii). Deverbal Nouns:

These suffixes combine with verb bases to produce concrete count nouns, largely
of personal reference, or abstract nouns:

ation means ‘the process or state of’. For example, exploration, victimisation.
er/or forms agential nouns. For example, singer, driver.

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ment means ‘the result of’. For example, puzzlement, amazement.

Other suffixes in this category are ant, ee, age, al, ing.

iv). De-adjectival Nouns:

There are two common suffixes by means of which abstract nouns are formed
from adjective bases:

ity is especially associated with adjectives of neo-classical or French origin.

For example, rapidity, respectability.
ness is freely added to any type of adjective. For example, happiness, kindness.

v). Noun/Adjective Suffixes:

A number of suffixes produce items that can be used as nouns and adjectives:

ese means ‘member of a nationality or race’ or ‘in the language or style of’.
For example, Chinese, Portuguese.
ist means ‘skilled in’ or ‘practising’. For example, violinist, masochist.

Other suffixes in this category are (i)an, ite.

vi). Denominal Adjective Suffixes:

There are a large number of suffixes which have the function of forming
adjectives, especially from nouns:

ed is participial and means ‘having’. For example, aged, walled.

ful means ‘full of’ or ‘providing’. For example, useful, successful.
ish means ‘somewhat like’. For example, childish, snobbish.
ly means ‘having the qualities of’. For example, manly, cowardly.

Other suffixes in this category are less, like, y, (i)al, esque, ic, (i)ous.

vii). Deverbal Suffixes:

There are two common suffixes used to form adjectives from verbs:

able combines with transitive verbs to produce gradable adjectives with the
meaning of ‘of the kind that is subject to being V-ed’.
For example, washable, drinkable.
ive is fundamentally related to the active voice.
For example, attractive, possessive.

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viii). Adverb Suffixes:

The three main adverb suffixes are as follows:

ly can generally be added to adjectives and means ‘in a certain manner’ or ‘to
a certain degree’. For example, calmly, extremely.
ward(s) forms non-gradable directional adverbs.
For example, northwards, onwards.
wise is used to form non-gradable adverbs from noun bases and means ‘manner’.
For example, clockwise, crabwise.

ix). Verb Suffixes:

Only a few verb-forming suffixes occur with any frequency in English. They are all
concerned with forming transitive verbs of basically causative meaning:

ate combines with chiefly neo-classical noun bases.

For example, orchestrate, hyphenate.
en combines with adjectives. For example, deafen, sadden.
(i)fy combines with adjectives and nouns. For example, simplify, beautify.
ise/ize combines freely with adjectives and nouns.
For example, modernise(ize), legalise(ize).

4. COMPOUNDS

A compound is a lexical unit consisting of more than one base and functioning both
grammatically and semantically as a single word. In principle, any number of bases
may be involved, but in English compounds usually comprise two bases only.

Compounding can take place within any of the word classes but most common
compounds result in new nouns and, to a lesser extent, adjectives.

Compounds may be written in three different ways:

 as one word. For example, railway, headache.

 with a hyphen. For example, self-control, drinking-water.
 as two or more words. For example, oil well, safety belt.

There are no clear rules that can tell us how the compound should be written. A
compound noun normally has primary stress on the first element and secondary
stress on the secondary element. For example, ‘black ,bird.

Compound adjectives, however, frequently have double stress or primary stress on

the secondary element. For example, ‘hard-‘working, class-‘conscious.

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a). Noun Compounds:

i). Type ‘Subject and Verb’:

Subject + deverbal noun. For example, heartbeat, earthquake.

Verb + subject. For example, flashlight, watchdog.
Verbal noun in -ing + subject. For example, cleaning woman, washing machine.

ii). Type ‘Verb and Object’:

Object + deverbal noun. For example, birth-control, haircut.

Object + verbal noun in -ing. For example, air-conditioning, sightseeing.
Object + agential noun in -er. For example, cigar smoker, window-cleaner.
Verb + object. For example, treadmill, call-girl.
Verbal noun in -ing + object. For example, cooking-apple, drinking-water.

iii). Type ‘Verb and Adverbial’:

Verbal Noun in -ing + adverbial. For example, frying pan, living-room.

Adverbial + verbal noun in -ing. For example, sun-bathing, handwriting.
Adverbial + agential noun in -er. For example, housebreaker, daydreamer.
Adverbial + deverbal noun. For example, night flight, telephone call.
Verb + adverbial. For example, dance hall, plaything.

iv). Verbless Compounds. Type ‘Subject and Object’:

Noun 1 operates noun 2. For example, steam engine, motorcycle.

Noun 1 produces noun 2. For example, bloodstain, hay fever.
Noun 2 produces noun 1. For example, tear gas, gold mine.
Noun 1 has noun 2. For example, table leg, shirt-sleeves.
Noun 2 controls noun 1. For example, chairman, deckhand.

v). Type ‘Subject and Complement’:

Noun 2 is noun 1. For example, drummer boy, killer shark.

Noun is adjective. For example, greyhound, madman.
Noun 2 is like noun 1. For example, tissue paper, butter-bean.
Noun 2 consists of noun 1. For example, breadcrumb, raindrop.
Noun 2 is for noun 1. For example, birdcage, coffee break.

b). Adjective Compounds:

i). Type ‘Verb and Object’:

Object + -ing participle. For example, self-defeating, heart-breaking.

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ii). Type ‘Verb and Adverbial’:

Adverbial + -ing participle. For example, law-abiding, lip-sucking.

Adverbial + ed participle. For example, custom-built, weather-beaten.
Adverb/Adjective + -ing participle. For example, sweet-smelling, well-meaning.
Adverb/Adjective + -ed participle. For example, far-fetched, fresh-baked.

iii). Type ‘Verbless’:

Noun-based adverbial + adjective. For example, tax-free, war-weary.

Noun + adjective. For example, rock-hard, age-old.
Adjective + adjective. For example, Anglo-Irish, grey-green.

c). Verb Compounds:

i). Back-formation:

These occur when a compound verbal noun is shortened to form a verb. For
example, sleep-walking - sleep-walk, brain-washing - brain-wash.

ii). Adverb and Verb:

These are generally formed with the adverbs out, over, and under. For example,
outdo, overcome, underline.

d). Other Types of Compounds:

i). Reduplicatives:

These have two or more constituents which are either identical, as in goody-goody
or only slightly different. They are very often paired words that generally differ
either only in a vowel (tittle-tattle, tick-tock, pitter-patter, mish-mash, shilly-
shally) or a consonant (hoity-toity, lovey-dovey, higgledy-piggledy, helter-skelter,
argy-bargy, pell-mell, walkie-talkie or nitty-gritty).

e). Blends:

Blends are hybrid words.  They are rather like compounds except that only part of
each individual word has been used.

Examples are:

smog (smoke + fog)

brunch (breakfast + lunch)
Oxbridge (Oxford + Cambridge)

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