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NASA TECHNICAL NOTE NASA TN D-708'0

APOLLO EXPERIENCE REPORT -

PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION

by Robert A. English, Richard E. Benson,

]· Vernon Bailey, and Charles M. Barnes

Manned Spacecraft Center

Houston, Texas 77058

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION • WASHINGTON, D. C. • MARCH 1973

 1. 2.

I
Report No. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient's Catalog No.

NASA TN D-7080
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date

APOLLO EXPERIENCE REPORT March 1 973

PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION 6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.

Robert A. English, Kelsey-Seybold Clinic, Richard E. Benson, MSC S-329
J. Vernon Bailey, and Charles M. Barnes, MSC
1 0. Work Unit No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address 914-50-95-06-72
Manned Spacecraft Center
11.
Houston, Texas 77058 Contract or Grant No.

13. Type of Report and Period Covered

12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address
Technical Note
National Aeronautics and Space Administration 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
Washington, D. C. 20546

15. Supplementary Notes

The MSC Director waived the use of the International System of Units (SI) for this
Apollo Experience Report because, in his judgment, the use of SI units would impair
the usefulness of the report or re�u.lt in excessive cost.
- -

16. Abstract

Radiation protection problems on earth and in space are discussed. Flight through the Van Allen
belts and into space beyond the geomagnetic shielding was recognized as hazardous before the
advent of manned space flight. Specialized dosimetry systems were developed for use on the
Apollo spacecraft, and systems for solar-particle-event warning and dose projection were de-
vised. Radiation sources of manmade origin on board the Apollo spacecraft present additional
problems. Methods applied to evaluate and control or avoid the various Apollo radiation hazards
are discussed.

17. Key Words (Suggested by Author(s) ) 18. Distribution Statement

· Lunar Radiation
·Van Allen Belt
· Apollo Radiation
· Space Dosimetry
· Radiation Protection
19. Security ·aassif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price

19 $3.00
None None
--

• For sale by the National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia 22151
 CON T E N TS

Section Page

SU M M AR Y . 1

IN TR ODUCTION . 1

PROBL E MS R EL A TIN G T O T H E SPAC E R ADI ATION E N VIR ON M E N T 2

Van Allen Belts . . . . 3

Solar-Particle Events 5

Cosmic Rays . •.
7

Neutrons . . . 8

O V ERALL R ADIA TION SP ECTRU M 8

PR OBL E MS I N V OL VIN G R ADI A TIONS OF MANMAD E ORI GI N 9

Radioluminescent Switch Tips . 9

Radioluminescent Panels . 10

Radioluminescent Lighting 10

CONCLUDI N G R E M ARKS 10

R EF ER E NC ES . . 12

BIBLI O GR AP H Y . 13

APP E NDIX- SOLAR-PAR TICL E- M O NI T OIU NG N E1W ORK SYS T E M • . 15

iii
 T ABL ES

Table Page

I A V ER A G E R ADI A TION D OS ES OF T H E FLI G H T CR EWS

F OR T H E AP OLLO MISSI ONS . . . . . . . . . 3

II S OL AR-FLAR E RUL ES F OR APOLLO MISSI ONS 6

FI GUR ES

Figure
Page

1 Radiation-dose estimates for particle events between

June 196 8 and December 1969 . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Isodose profile showing high-dose region over the South

Atlantic (values are in mrads/day at an altitude of
2 10 km) . . . . . . . 4

3 Van Allen belt dosimeter . . . . . . 5

4 Nuclear-particle-detection system . 5

5 Personal radiation dosimeter . . . . 8

6 Passive dosimeter with component parts 9

7 Radiation-survey meter . . . . . . . . . . 9

iv
 APOLLO EXPERIENCE REPORT

PROTECTION AGAINST RADIATION

By Robert A . English,* Richard E. Benson,

J. Vernon Bailey, and Charles M. Barnes
Manned Spacecraft Center

SUMMARY

Radiation was not an operational problem during the Apollo Program. Doses
received by the crewmen of Apollo missions 7 to 1 5 were small because no major
solar -particle events occurred during those missions. One small event was detected
by a radiation sensor outside the Apollo 12 spacecraft, but no increase in radiation dose
to the crewmen inside the spacecraft was detected. Solar -particle releases are random
events, and it is possible that a flare, with the accompanying energetic nuclear parti­
cles, may hinder future flights beyond the magnetosphere.

Radiation protection for the Apollo Program was focused on both the peculiarities
of the natural space radiation environment and the increased prevalence of manmade
radiation sources on the ground and on board the spacecraft. Radiation-exposure risks
to crewmen were assessed and balanced against mission gain to determine mission
constraints. Operational radiation evaluation required specially designed radiation­
detection systems on board the spacecraft in addition to the use of satellite data, solar
observatory support, and other liaison.

Control and management of radioactive sources and radiation-generating equip­

ment have been important in minimjzing radiation exposure of ground-support person­
nel, researchers, and the Apollo flight and backup crewmen. Problems of radiation
protection that influence space flights as well as ground operations are discussed and
the solutions documented.

INTRODUCTION

The Apollo experience in radiation protection includes two distinct areas: space,
where the largest and most critical radiation sources are virtually uncontrollable, and
earth , where most radiation sources of appreciable strength are manmade and con­
trollable. The basic philosophy of radiation protection in these two areas remains the

*Kelsey-Seybold Clinic, Houston, Texas.

same; that is, to avoid harmful effects of radiation by limiting the radiation dose to the
lowest level judged consistent with the achievement of beneficial goals.

PROBLEMS RELATING TO THE SPACE RADIATION ENVIRONMENT

Although the Apollo missions have placed men outside the protective geomagnetic
shielding and have subjected them to types of ionizing radiation seldom encountered in
earth environment, radiation doses to Apollo crewmen have been minimal (table 1).
Spacecraft transfer from low earth orbit to translunar coast necessitates traverse of
the regions of geomagnetically trapped electrons and protons known as the Van Allen
belts. When beyond these belts, the spacecraft and crewmen are continuously subjected
to high-energy cosmic rays (ref. 1) and to varying probabilities of particle bursts from
the sun (fig. 1 ).

- Total dose within command module

P'ZlZZZI Total dose within lunar module

on lunar surface

� Total dose within space suit on

lunar surface

108 p /cm
2
2x �
1.5 x 108 p/cm2

.....- 3 x 107 p /cm2 7 x 107 p /cm

2
1.5 x 106 / 2
p cm -

1.2 x 107 p/cm 2 1.5 x 107 p /cm

2
\
10I .--- 1.1 x 107 p/cm2
3.1 x 106 / 2
p cm -

3 x 106 /
2
p cm -
1.0 x,107 p /cm2-
1.1 x 107
2
p cm - /
6. x 106
2 p cm / 2

E
�
0
�
"'
10
"
:;<
/ 2
/
"'
I x 106 p cm I x 106 p cm
2

r-- 9

2 I I I I I
Aug
I I I I
tct Nov
I
Dec\: I I I I
Feb . � � I
Ju :
I

C
June July Sept Apr Ma e Sept Oct No
1968 1969
Apollo 7 A
, olioS A ollo 9 A olio 10 �
Apollo II Apollo 12

Figure 1.- Radiation-dose estimates f or particle events between June 1968 and
December 1969.
2
 In table I, the tabulated radiation doses are the averages of all readings on the
thermoluminescent dosimeters for the respective mission. Individual dosimeter read­
ings have varied approximately 20 percent from the average because of variations in
the shielding effectiveness of the Apollo spacecraft and the differences in duties, move­
ments , and locations of the crewmen. Doses to blood-forming organs are approximate­
ly 40 percent lower than the values measured at the body surface. In comparison with
the doses actually received, the maximum operational dose ( MOD) limit for each of the
Apollo missions was set at 400 rads ( X-ray equivalent) to skin and 50 rads to the blood­
forming organs.

TABL E I. - A V ERA G E RADIA TIO N DOS ES O F

T H E FLI G H T CR E WS F OR T H E

APOLLO MISSI ONS

Apollo mission Skin dose, rads

7 0.16
8 .16
9 .20
10 . 48
11 .18
12 . 58
13 .24
14 1. 14
15 . 30

Van Allen Belts

The problem of protection against the natural radiations of the Van Allen belts
was recognized before the advent of manned space flight. The simplified solution is to
remain under the belts (below an altitude of approximately 300 nautical miles) when in
earth orbit and to traverse the belts rapidly on the way to outer space. In reality, the
problem is somewhat more complex. The radiation belts vary in altitude over various
parts of the earth and are absent over the north and south magnetic poles. A particu­
larly significant portion of the Van Allen belts is a region known as the South Atlantic
anomaly (fig. 2). Over the South Atlantic region, the geomagnetic field draws particles
closer to the earth than in other regions of the globe. The orbit inclination of a space­
craft determines the number of passes made per day through this region and, thus,
determines the radiation dose that will accompany these passes for a set altitude and
spacecraft shielding.

3
 A major complication concerning
radiation stability within the belts (includ­
ing the South Atlantic anomaly portion) is a
result of high-altitude nuclear detonations.
�- 0 In 1962, the United States detonated a
"'
1. 5-megaton thermonuclear device (Proj­
ect Starfish) in a portion of the Van Allen
belt region and caused the radiation levels
within the belts to rise significantly. By
1969, the high -energy electron component
Longitude, deg of the injected radiation had decayed to only
one-twelfth of the 1962 intensity. The
Figure 2. - Isodose profile showing high­ small amount of time spent in earth orbit
dose region over the South Atlantic and the rapid traverse of the radiation belts
(values are in mrads/day at an altitude during Apollo missions have minimized
of 210 km). astronaut radiation dose from the remain­
ing Starfish electrons. However, recur-
renee of high-altitude nuclear testing would
have a significant impact on Apollo earth-orbit operations, and this possibility has been
factored into radiation-protection planning for Apollo space missions. Sources of
current intelligence information on nuclear-device testing are available to the N AS A,
and these sources are ready to assist in the real-time management of any contingency
that might be caused by the high-altitude detonation of a nuclear device.

Particles within the Van Allen belts spiral around the earth magnetic lines of
force and, therefore, display directionality. This directionality varies continuously in
angular relationship to the trajectory of the spacecraft. Therefore, dosimetry instru­
mentation in the Van Allen belts must use relatively omnidirectional radiation sensors
so that the radiation flux will be measured accurately. The Van Allen belt dosimeter
( VABD) (fig. 3) was designed specifically for Apollo dosimetry within these radiation
belts and has proved satisfactory because dose values derived from its greater than
180° radiation acceptance angle have correlated well with doses indicated by postflight
analyses of passive dosimeters worn by the crewmen. The nuclear-particle-detection
system (NPDS) (fig. 4) was designed to have a relatively narrow acceptance angle and
was intended to measure the isotropic proton and alpha particles derived from solar­
particle events. Experience with the NPDS within the highly directional radiation fields
of the Van Allen belts has emphasized the difficulty in determining true flux levels using
a detector of narrow angle response. There are two problems in determining flux levels.
First, orientation of the spacecraft relative to the direction of the impinging particles
is not precisely known at all times. Second, even if orientation were precisely known,
inaccuracy would result from the high statistical error inherent with low counting rates
when the detector is pointed away from the direction of particle flux.

A compromise in VABD design was required for Apollo flammability considera­

tions, and this compromise resulted in the use of aluminum as a replacement for
tissue-equivalent plastic in the ionization-chamber walls. Aluminum is a satisfactory
replacement for tissue-equivalent plastic only if electron secondary radiation (brems­
strahlung) is a small portion of the total radiation dose (as in the Apollo Program).
Chambers of tetrafluoroethylene plastic would be preferable to aluminum if flammabil­
ity remains a design factor for future missions. A detailed discussion of radiation do­
simetry considerations for post-Apollo missions is contained in references 2 and 3.

4
 Figure 3. - Van Allen belt dosimeter.

Solar-Particle Events
Detector Detector elements
assembly.
6 00-by
No major solar-particle events have
2.!8-in. diameter· ----! occurred during an Apollo mission (fig. 1).
!.L n.
diameter Although much effort has been expended in
t
the field of solar-event forecasting, indi­
Tungsten absorber vidual eruptions from the solar surface are
impossible to forecast. The best that can
be provided at this time is an estimate of
particle dose, given visual or radio­
frequency ( R F) confirmation that an
eruption has occurred. A system of solar­
monitoring stations, the Solar Particle
Alert Networ k (SPA N), provides a NASA­
sponsored networ k of continuous data on
solar-flare activity. The various compo­
nents of this networ k are described in the
appendix. Approximately 20 percent of the
largest solar flares (importance 2 bright
or larger) will result in particle fluxes in
the earth/moon region that can be related
in intensity to early R F or visual charac­
Figure 4. - Nuclear-particle-detection teristics. A warning interval of from less
system. than one to several hours (typically, 2 to

5
4 hours) is obtained between the R F /visual indication and the appearance of particles
in the earth/moon region. Because only approximately 20 percent of the flares result
in particle events, it is not necessary to change normal mission procedures on the
basis of R F or visual observations alone. Rather, radiation sensors on board solar­
orbit and earth-orbit satellites, as well as on board the Apollo spacecraft itself, are
used to confirm the particle event. Only after the appearance of particles is confirmed
would action be taken to protect the crewmen. For a typical event, approximately
8 hours would be available from the time particles are confirmed to the time of peak
radiation dose. Details concerning effects of solar-particle events on various phases
of an Apollo mission are shown in table IT.

TABLE II.- SOLAR-FLARE RULES FOR APOLLO MISSIONS

Condition Mission phase Rule Comments

Major solar flare has been All Continue mission.

predicted.

Major solar flare has occurred.

Unconfirmed particle event All Continue mission. Report: particles have not
has occurred. been confirmed. No mis­
sion impact is indicated.

Confirmed particle event Prelaunch Hold until data analysis

and SPAN or real-time indicates that the MOD
analyses indicate the will not be exceeded.
MOD will be exceeded
during the mission. Earth parking Continue mission. If data Translunar injection is no-go
analysis indicates that only if firm computation
the MOD will be exceeded before go/no-go indicates
by a significant amount more than the MOD.
before mission comple­
tion, translunar injec­
tion is no-go.

All other phases Continue mission. Consid­

eration will be given to
early (or extended)
transearth injection and
inhibiting crew transfer
to the lunar module.

Confirmed particle event Translunar coast Continue mission. Consid­ Crew should begin personal
and spacecraft telemetry eration should be given dosimeter and radiation
or personal radiation to entering in next best survey meter read-outs.
dosimeter read-out preferred target point A projection of greater
projections indicate the if the total dose can be than the MOD is not re­
MOD will be exceeded reduced significantly quired for crew read-outs.
during the mission. without increasing total
risk to the crew.

Lunar orbit Continue mission. Consider Hatch-down attitude may be

extending lunar orbit stay used to reduce the total
time if the total dose to dose.
the crew would be re­
duced significantly by If a particle event is con­
lunar shielding. firmed, the crew will
transfer from the lunar
module to the command
and service module.

Lunar stay Consider reducing the lunar Comparison of command and

stay time or extravehic- service module and lunar
ular activities if the total surface personal radiation
dose to the crew can be dosimeters is advised.
r educed significantly
Without increasing the
total risk to the crew.

All other phases Continue mission.

6
 In terms of hazard t o crewmen in the heavy, well-shielded c ommand m odule,
even the largest solar-particle event on rec ord (N ovember 12, 1960) w ould n ot have
caused any impairment of crewmember functi ons or ability of the crewmen t o c omplete
their missi on safely. It is estimated that within the c ommand m odule during this event
the crewmen w ould have received a d ose of 60 to 100 rads t o their s kin and 10 to 30 rads
t o their bl ood-forming organs (bone and s pleen) (refs. 4 and 5). Other estimates have
indicated that s kin d ose fr om this event c ould have been as high as 270 rads. Radiation
d oses t o crewmen while inside the thinly shielded lunar m odule or during an extravehic­
ular activity ( E V A) w ould be significantly higher f or such a particle event. The radia­
ti on specialists at the Missi on C ontr ol Center Space Environment C ons ole, with the
assistance of SPA N and the other m onit oring system described in the appendix, must
advise the Flight Direct or and Flight Surgeon of the radiati on risks that w ould be in­
v olved with the event. If d oses are projected to be detrimentally high, it w ould be ad­
vised that the astr onauts n ot stay in the lunar module or perf orm E V A during this type
of particle event. Rules that ap ply t o lunar m odule stay or E V A during such an event
are indicated in table II under the mission phases "Lunar orbit" and "Lunar stay."

Cosmic Rays

Cosmic-ray fluxes have pr ovided average dose rates of 1.0 mr/hr in cislunar
space and 0.6 mr/hr on the lunar surface. These values are expected t o d ouble at the
l ow p oint in the 11-year cycle of s olar-flare activity (s olar minimum) because of de­
creased s olar magnetic shielding of the central planets. The effect of high-energy
(but l ow d ose rate) c osmic rays on humans is un kn own but is c onsidered by m ost au­
th orities t o be of relatively minor c onsequence f or exp osures of less than a few years.
Experimental evidence of the effects of these radiati ons is dependent on the develop­
ment of highly advanced particle accelerat ors or the advent of l ong-term manned mis­
sions outside the geomagnetic influence.

One particular effect p ossibly resulting from cosmic rays has been the light­
flash phen omenon reported on the Ap oll o 11 and subsequent missions. Alth ough ioniz­
ing radiati ons can produce visual ph osphenes (subjective sensati ons best described as
flashes of light) of the types reported, a definite c orrelation has not been established
between cosmic rays and the observation of flashes. The light flashes have been de­
scribed as starlike flashes or streaks of light that apparently occur wi thin the eye.
The flashes are observed only when the s pacecraft cabin is dark or when blindfolds are
pr ovided and the crewmen are c oncentrating on detecti on of the flashes. There is a
p ossibility that visual flashes may indicate the occurrence of damage to the brain or
eye; h owever, n o damage has been observed am ong crewmen wh o have experienced the
light -flash phenomenon.

Additi onal investigations during future Apoll o missions are planned to pr ovide a
better understanding of the cause of the visual light flashes and any possible detrimen­
tal c onsequences. These investigati ons will include careful observations and reporting
pr ocedures t o define the frequencies and characteristics of the visual events. C orrela­
ti on of visual events wi th cosmic-ray flux rates will be determined by real-time record­
ing of cosmic-ray interactions near the crewmen's heads during peri ods of light-flash
observati on.

7
 Neutrons

Neutrons created by cosmic rays in collision with lunar materials were postulated
to be a potential hazard to Apollo crewmen (ref. 6). It has been proposed that the neu­
tron hazard be evaluated by the use of whole-body activation measurement of crewmen
to determine the extent of neutron-induced sodi.um-24 and by use of neutron-resonant
metal foils that have a known activation response for the type of neutrons expected.
Both methods for neutron-dose assessment have been used at the NAS A Manned Space­
craft Center (MSC). Whole-body counting and neutron-resonant foil techniques had
been initiated on the Apollo 11 mission. The results of these analyses indicated that
neutron doses were significantly lower than had been anticipated. Activation products
were below the limits of detection by whole-body spectroscopy, and activities were ex­
tremely low even in the neutron-resonant foils (ref. 7). The whole-body and neutron­
resonant foil methods of neutron-dose determination have been retained because of the
remaining potential for neutron production by solar-event particles or for excessive
crewman exposure to neutrons from the SNAP-27 radioisotope thermal generator used
to power the Apollo lunar surface experiments packages.

OVERALL RADIATION SPECTRUM

During a complete Apollo mission, astronauts are exposed to widely varying

fractions of radiations from the Van Allen belts, cosmic rays, neutrons, and other
subatomic particles created in high-energy collisions of primary particles with space­
craft materials. In addition, the individual responsibilities of the crewmen differ, and,
therefore, radiation exposure may differ.

To allow accurate determination of radiation exposure of the crewman, each

carries a personal radiation dosimeter (P RD) (fig. 5) and three passive dosimeters
(fig. 6). The PRD provides visual read-out of accumulated radiation dose to each
crewman as the mission progresses. The PRD is approximately the size of a ciga­
rette pack, and pockets are provided in the flight coveralls, as well as in the space-
suit, for carrying the PRD. The passive
dosimeters are placed in the garments that
are worn throughout the mission. The pas­
sive dosimeters contain lithium fluoride
thermoluminescent dosimetry powder, nu-
Sensor clear emulsions, neutron-dosimetry foils,
7 l ee tissue-equivalent
and foils for detection of high-atomic-weight
. -

ion chamber
tv 1gnt
e
0.4 lb
cosmic particles. These detector materials
Volune
are analyzed after each mission, and an
m3
).46
Range
accurate determination of the radiation dose
to 1000 rads
0
mcrements
in 0.01-rad
to various portions of the body (ankle, thigh,
Operating life
zooo n r
and chest) is facilitated. In addition, the
passive dosimeter provides detailed infor­
mation on the types of radiation to which
each astronaut is exposed.

A radiation-survey meter (RS M)

Figure 5. - Personal radiation dosimeter. (fig. 7) is taken on each Apollo mission.

8
 Sensor
Range: linear
lO-cc tissue-equivalent
OtolOO

I
ion chamber
0 to 10
Weight radsihr
0 to 1
1.60 lb
0 to 0.1
Volume
Operating life
3
23 in 1200 hr

Figure 7.- Radiation-survey meter.

The RS M is a direct-reading dose-rate

instrument that allows the crewmen to de­
termine radiation levels in any desired loca­
tion in their compartment. The crewmen
would use the RS M to find a habitable low­
dose region within the spacecraft in the
event of a radiation emergency. If desired,
Figure 6.- Passive dosimeter with the RS M can be stowed in its wall bracket
component parts. with its meter turned on, so that continuous
onboard dose-rate read-out may be obtained.

PROBLEMS INVOLVING RADIATIONS OF MANMADE ORIGIN

Protection against manmade sources of radiation is a ground-support function

concerned mainly with the protection of the ground personnel, the general public, and
the environment against detrimental effects of ionizing radiation. Much of this effort
is routine health-physics procedure governed by U. S. Atomic Energy Commission reg­
ulations (ref. 8) and U. S. Department of Labor standards (ref. 9}. However, certain
problems involving spacecraft radioluminescent sources apply directly to the Apollo
experience and are discussed in detail.

Radioluminescent Switch Tips

Lunar module switch tips contain microspheres of promethium-147 bound with a

phosphor that produces light by interaction with the short-range promethium-147 beta
radiation. Originally, many switch tips were manufactured as type 19, and acrylic
plastic enclosed the microspheres. The acrylic plastic sealed in the radioactive mate­
rial and also shielded out the ionizing radiations while allowing the passage of light.
Later, the fire hazard from the acrylic plastic was recognized, the encapsulating mate­
rial was changed to Kel- F plastic, and an epoxy plug was used to seal the radioactive
microspheres in a cylindrical hole within the Kel- F. The Kel- F/epoxy tips are desig­
nated type 39.

9
 Type 19 tips were used on board the lunar module simulators where no flammabil­
ity hazard existed because the atmosphere was not oxygen enriched. Flight vehicles
were equipped with type 39 tips. Both types of tips failed (leakage of more than
3
5 x 1 o picocuries) because of radiation self-degradation of the encapsulation materials
and subsequent leakage of promethium-147. No personnel injury was caused by these
failures. However, cleanroom facilities were shut down for a period of 14 hours before
the launch of the Apollo 10 mission when several leaking tips onboard the lunar module
required last-minute replacement.

The problem of leakage was solved by encapsulating the microspheres in glass

before sealing with epoxy in Kel-F. The resultant tip is designated type 59. The new
type 59 tip has replaced all type 19 simulator tips and all type 39 flight-qualified tips.

Radio I uminescent Panels

Promethium-147 microspheres were used in a luminescent paint applied to panels

on the lunar communications relay unit and on the lunar roving vehicle. A thin coating
of acrylic plastic was applied over the paint as a sealant. When the panels arrived at
the MSC for testing, it was found that the acrylic coating was too thin to reduce radia­
tion levels to limits acceptable for handling. The problem was solved by applying a
layer of 1/1 6-inch Kel-F plastic over the panels during testing procedures. The plastic
layer reduced the soft X-ray dose from an initial value of approximately 13 rads/hr at
a distance of 2 inches from the panels to an acceptable value of less than 0. 3 rad/hr.
The panels were not considered hazardous to the crewmen during missions because the
space suits provide more than the equivalent shielding of 1/1 6-inch Kel-F. Therefore,
plastic covers were not required on flight units.

Radioluminescent Lighting

The portable life support system (PLSS} worn by the crewmen on the lunar surface
has a remote control unit (RCU) that contains the controls and the quantity gages for the
PLSS. The requirement for lighting the RCU was met by using small hydrogen-3-
activated, glass-encapsulated, radioluminescent light sources imbedded in the polycar­
bonate plastic top cover of the unit. These light sources were modified commercially
available units (Beta lights). No external radiation was detected in association with
the Beta lights. These lights have performed satisfactorily where indirect lighting can
be used. Also, the Beta lights eliminate the external radiation problems and the effect
on scientific measurements that occur when the promethium-147-activated systems are
used.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

Apollo missions have not undergone any major space radiation contingency.
However, the development of spacecraft dosimetry systems, the use of a space radia­
tion surveillance network, and the availability of individuals with a thorough knowledge

10
 ---- - ----

of the space radiation environment have assured that any contingency would be recog­
nized immediately and would be coped with in a manner most expedient for both crew­
member safety and mission objectives.

Routine radiation-protection problems dealing with manmade radiation sources

have been solved by using standard health-physics procedures. Spacecraft
radioluminescent-light-source problems were solved by improvement in shielding and
containment of the promethium-147 isotope. It has been shown on the Apollo missions
that the spacecraft and its crewmen have successfully avoided the large radiation doses
that, before the Apollo missions, had been cited as a possible deterrent to manned
space flight. Radiation doses to Apollo crewmen have been significantly lower than
the yearly average of 5 rem set by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission for workers
who use radioactive materials in factories and institutions across the United States.
More significantly, Apollo astronaut doses have been negligible in terms of any medical
or biological effects that could impair the function of man in the space environment.
Close coordination among mission planners, the Radiation Safety Committee, the Radio­
logical Health Team, and the Radiation Constraints Panel ensures that radiation expo­
sures under nominal conditions will continue to remain minimal.

Manned Spacecraft Center

National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Houston, Texas, October 24, 1972
914- 50-9 5-06-72

11
 REFERENCES

1. Holly, F. ; and Trafton, L. : The Space Radiation Environment. Aerospace Med.,

vol. 40, no. 12, sec. II, Dec. 1969, pp. 1441-14 5 5.

2. Schneider, Marion F.; and Janni, J. F.: A Comprehensive Review of the Space
Radiation Environments and Radiation Instrument Systems for the Space Shuttle
and Space Station. AFWL TR-71-124, Feb., 1972.

3. Space Science Board, Radiobiological Advisory Panel, Committee on Space

Medicine: Radiation Protection Guides and Constraints for Space- Mission and
Vehicle-Design Studies Involving Nuclear Systems. National Acad. Sci.
(Washington, D. C. ), 1970.

4. Jones, Robert K.; Adams, Duane E.; and Russell, Irving J.: The Radiobiological
Consequences of Dose Distributions Produced by Solar-Flare- Type Spectra. In
Second Symposium on Protection Against Radiations in Space, NAS A SP-71, 196 5,
pp. 8 5-9 5.

5. Langham, Wright H. , ed.: Radiobiological Factors in Manned Space Flight.

National Acad. Sci., National Res. Council Pub. 1487 (Washington, D. C. ), 1967.

6. Kastner, Jacob; Oltman, B. G.; Feige, Yehuda; and Gold, Raymond: Neutron
Exposure to Lunar Astronauts. Health Phys., vol. 17, no. 5, Nov. 1969,
pp. 732-733.

7. English, R. A. ; and Liles, E. D.: Iridium and Tantalum Foils for Spaceflight
Neutron Dosimetry. Health Phys. , vol. 22, May 1972, pp. 503- 50 6.

8. Anon.: Standards for Protection Against Radiation. Title 10, Code of Federal
Regulations, part 20, rev. July 1 5, 1971.

9. Anon.: Occupational Safety and Health Standards. Title 29, Code of Federal
Regulations, part 1910, May 1971.

12
 B I BLIOGRAPHY

Grahn, Douglas: Radiation. Bioastronautics Data Book. N AS A SP-300 6, 1964.

Grigor'yev, Yu. G., et al. : Radiation Safety Criteria for Prolonged Spaceflights.
N AS A T T F-9429, 196 5.

Hess, Wilmot N: , ed. : A AS- N AS A Symposium on the Physics of Solar Flares.

N AS A SP- 50, 1964.

Langham, Wright H. , ed. : Radiobiological Factors in Manned Space Flight. NAS-NRC

Pub. 1487, 1967.

Reetz, Arthur, Jr. , ed. : Second Symposium on Protection Against Radiations in

Space. N AS A SP-71, 196 5.

Reetz, Arthur, Jr. ; and O'Brien, Keran, eds. : Protection Against Space Radiation.
N AS A SP-1 69, 1968.

Rittenhouse, J. B.; and Singletary, J. B. , eds. : Space Materials Handbook. Third

ed. , N AS A SP-30 51, 1969.

Schambra, Philip E.; Stapleton, George E.; and Barr, Nathaniel, eds. : Space
Radiation Biology. Supplement 7, Radiation Research, Academic Press (New York),
1967.

13
 APPENDIX

SOLAR-PART! CLE-MONITORING NETWORK SYSTEM

SOLAR PARTICLE ALERT NETWORK

The Solar Particle Alert Network (SPA N ) consists of three multiple-frequency

radio telescopes and seven optical telescopes that are operated under contract to the
N AS A. The SP AN provides data for determining the severity of solar-particle events
and the resultant possible radiation hazards to the crewmen. Solar-event data, when
used for mission support, are sent by teletype directly to the Space Environment Con­
sole (S EC ) at the Manned Spacecraft Center Mission Control Center. Radiation experts
at the S EC evaluate the data and concurrently increase their watch of earth-based, sat­
ellite and spacecraft radiation sensors to determine early signs of particle-flux
increct.se in the earth /moon region.

SOLAR FORECAST CENTER

The Solar Forecast Center (SFC ) is located in the North American Air Defense
Command, Cheyenne Mountain Complex, Colorado Springs, Colorado, and is manned
by personnel of Detachment 7, Fourth Weather Wing, Ent Air· Force Base, Colorado.
Detachment 7 includes .a worldwide Solar Observing and Forecasting Network (S OF N ET )
as well as the SFC. Personnel of the Fourth Weather Wing augment the staffs of sev­
eral solar observatories. These observatories are located at Sacramento Peak, New
Mexico; Sagamore Hill, Massachusetts; South Point, Hawaii {SP A N site ); Athens,
Greece; Manila, Philippines; Teheran, Iran (SPA N site ); and Los Angeles, California.
The personnel at these SOF N ET observatories, along with personnel at several other
cooperating observatories and agencies, maintain a continuous surveillance of the sun
and send real-time solar and geophysical data to the SFC. These data are received
24 hours a day at the SFC and are plotted and analyzed by the solar forecasters on duty.
On the basis of analysis of these reports, the SFC issues four routine forecasts each
day, an extended period forecast each week, and special-activity alerts. During Apollo
mission periods, these forecasts and alerts are sent to the S EC to aid support personnel
in keeping track of solar activity.

SPACE DISTURBANCE FORECAST CENTER

The Space Disturbance Forecast Center {SDFC ) is a part of the Space Disturbance
Laboratory, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, and is located at
Boulder, Colorado. The SDFC operates one of the seven SP A N optical telescopes and
serves as a collection point for data from a number of monitoring stations located near
Boulder. The SDFC is operated 24 hours a day and provides support to various Govern­
ment agencies in the form of solar forecast prepared and sent out every 12 hours. In

14
------ - - - - - - -- ------ -----

addition to the 12-hour forecasts, the SDFC will transmit other solar-activity data to
the S EC during mission periods. Data will be transmitted by way of teletype through
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center or by telephone directly to the S EC.

OPTICAL TELESCOPE SYSTEM

The optical telescope system is used to observe and locate the major centers of
activity on the solar disk. Solar eruptions or flares occurring in these active regions
can be observed for characteristics associated with particle-producing events. When
a solar-flare event occurs, it is recorded by a camera that photographs the solar disk
as viewed through the telescope. Observations ar� reported routinely to the SDFC in
Boulder; and, during mission-support periods, telephone or radio reports are made
directly to the S EC in Houston.

RAD I 0-FREQUENCY TELESCOPE SYSTEM

The RF telescope system will detect and record the intensity of solar radio emis­
sions in the microwave region at frequencies of 1420, 2 69 5, and 499 5 megahertz.
Observations are reported to the SDFC or, for optical events, to the S EC. The time­
integrated radio emissions vary with the solar cycle. During periods of marked solar
activity, outbursts of radio energy from two times to more than 50 times the normal
background signal may occur for short periods usually lasting less than 3 hours. The
simultaneous detection of an RF burst-at all three frequencies indicates the reception
of synchrotron emission from electrons accelerated in the solar magnetic fields. Pro­
ton acceleration and release of protons and other charged nuclear particles by the
solar event are implied when the RF synchrotron emission is detected. Approximately
20 percent of such particle releases result in the appearance of particles in the earth/
moon region.

RIOMETER SYSTEM

The riometer (relative ionospheric opacity meter) system is a highly sensitive,

ultrastable system operated for the NASA under support agreements for measuring in­
tensities of electromagnetic fields. The riometer measures the changes in absorption
of cosmic radio noise as it traverses the ionosphere. Such changes are caused by var­
iations in electron density within the ionosphere brought about by solar atmospheric
disturbances or high-altitude nuclear events. The electron density profile is a function
of the spectrum of protons incident on the atmosphere causing ionization. Therefore,
by using riometers at different frequencies, estimates can be made of proton flux and
spectra. When required for mission support, the system reports directly to the S EC.

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