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Section- A

The Origins of Psychology

While the psychology of today reflects the discipline's rich and varied history, the origins of
psychology differ significantly from contemporary conceptions of the field. In order to gain a full
understanding of psychology, you need to spend some time exploring its history and origins.

How did psychology originate?

When did it begin?
Who were the people responsible for establishing psychology as a separate science?

Why Study Psychology History?

Contemporary psychology is interested in an enormous range of topics, looking a human behavior and mental
process from the neural level to the cultural level. Psychologists study human issues that begin before birth and
continue until death. By understanding the history of psychology, you can gain a better understanding of how these
topics are studied and what we have learned thus far.

Questions in Psychology

From its earliest beginnings, psychology has been faced with a number of different questions. The initial question of
how to define psychology helped establish it as a science separate from physiology and philosophy. Additional
questions that psychologists have faced throughout history include:

• What topics and issues should psychology is concerned with?

• What research methods should be used to study psychology?

• Should psychologists use research to influence public policy, education, and other aspects of
human behavior?

• Is psychology really a science?

• Should psychology focus on observable behaviors, or on internal mental processes?

The Beginnings of Psychology: Philosophy and Physiology

While psychology did not emerge as a separate discipline until the late 1800s, its earliest history can be traced back
to the time of the early Greeks. During the 17th-century, the French philosopher Rene Descartes introduced the idea
of dualism, which asserted that the mind and body were two separate
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entities that interact to form the human experience. Many other issues still debated by psychologists today, such as
the relative contributions of nature vs. nurture, are rooted in these early philosophical traditions.

So what makes psychology different from philosophy? While early philosophers relied on methods such as
observation and logic, today's psychologists utilize scientific methodologies to study and draw conclusions about
human thought and behavior. Physiology also contributed to psychology's eventual emergence as a scientific
discipline. Early physiology research on the brain and behavior had a dramatic impact on psychology, ultimately
contributing to the application of scientific methodologies to the study of human thought and behavior.

Psychology Emerges as a Separate Discipline

During the mid-1800s, a German physiologist named Wilhelm Wundt was using scientific research methods to
investigate reaction times. His book published in 1874, Principles of Physiological Psychology, outlined many of the
major connections between the science of physiology and the study of human thought and behavior. He later opened
the world's first psychology lab in 1879 at the University of Leipzig. This event is generally considered the official
start of psychology as a separate and distinct scientific discipline.

How did Wundt view psychology? He perceived the subject as the study of human consciousness and sought to
apply experimental methods to studying internal mental processes. While his use of a process known as
introspection is seen as unreliable and unscientific today, his early work in psychology helped set the stage for future
experimental methods. An estimated 17,000 students attended Wundt's psychology lectures, and hundreds more
pursued degrees in psychology and studied in his psychology lab. While his influence dwindled in the years to come,
his impact on psychology is unquestionable.

Structuralism Becomes Psychology's First School of Thought

== Edward B. Titchener, one of Wundt's most famous students, would go on to found
psychology's first major school of thought. = According to the Structuralist, human consciousness could
be broken down into much smaller
parts.
= Using a process known as introspection, trained subjects would attempt to break down their
responses and reactions to the most basic sensation and perceptions. = While structuralism
is notable for its emphasis on scientific research, its methods were
unreliable, limiting, and subjective. == When Titchener died in 1927,
structuralism essentially died with him.

The Functionalism of William James

= Psychology flourished in American during the mid- to late-1800s.

== William James emerged as one of the major American psychologists during this period and the publication
of his classic textbook, The Principles of Psychology, established him as the father of American
psychology.

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His book soon became the standard text in psychology and his ideas eventually served as the basis for a new
school of thought known as functionalism.
 == The focus of functionalism was on how behavior actually works to help people live in their
environment.
= Functionalists utilized methods such as direct observation.
== While both of these early schools of thought emphasized human consciousness, their
conceptions of it were significantly different. While the Structuralist sought to break down mental
processes into their smallest parts,
= The functionalists believed that consciousness existed as a more continuous and changing process.
== While functionalism is no longer a separate school of thought, it would go on to influence
later psychologists and theories of human thought and behavior. = Up to this
point, early psychology stressed conscious human experience.

An Austrian physician named Sigmund Freud changed the face of psychology in a dramatic way,
proposing a theory of personality that emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind. ==
Freud's clinical work with patients suffering from hysteria and other ailments. = These led him to
believe that early childhood experiences and unconscious impulses
contributed to the development of adult personality and behavior. == In his book The Psychopathology of
Everyday Life, Freud detailed how these unconscious thoughts and impulses are expressed, often through slips
of the tongue (known as "Freudian slips") and dreams.
== According to Freud, psychological disorders are the result of these unconscious conflicts
becoming extreme or unbalanced. == The psychoanalytic theory proposed by Sigmund Freud had a
tremendous impact on 20th-
century thought, influencing the mental health field as well as other areas including art,
literature and popular culture. While many of his ideas are viewed with skepticism today, his
influence on psychology is undeniable.

The Rise of Behaviorism

The Psychology of Pavlov, Watson, and Skinner

= Psychology changed dramatically during the early 20th-century as another school of thought
known as behaviorism rose to dominance. = Behaviorism was a major change from
previous theoretical perspectives, rejecting the
emphasis on both the conscious and unconscious forces and conflicts. == Instead, behaviorism strove to
make psychology a more scientific discipline by focusing
purely on observable behavior. Behaviorism had its earliest start with the work of a Russian
physiologist named Ivan Pavlov. == Pavlov's research on the digestive systems of dogs led to his
discovery of the classical
conditioning process: == This demonstrated that behaviors could be learned via conditioned associations. =
Pavlov demonstrated that this learning process could be used to make an association between,
environmental stimulus, and a naturally occurring stimulus.

An American psychologist named Watson soon became one of the strongest advocates of behaviorism. Initially
outlining the basics principles of this new school of thought in his 1913 paper

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Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It, Watson later went on to offer a definition in his classic book Behaviorism
(1924), writing:

"Behaviorism...holds that the subject matter of human psychology is the behavior of the human being.
Behaviorism claims that consciousness is neither a definite nor a usable concept. The behaviorist, who
has been trained always as an experimentalist, holds, further, that belief in the existence of
consciousness goes back to the ancient days of superstition and magic."

The impact of behaviorism was enormous, and this school of thought continued to dominate for the next 50 years.
== Psychologist B.F. Skinner furthered the behaviorist perspective with his concept of operant conditioning,
which demonstrated the effect of punishment and reinforcement on behavior.
 == While behaviorism eventually lost its hold on psychology, the basic principles of behavioral psychology are
still widely in use today.
= Therapeutic techniques such as behavior analysis, behavioral modification and token economies are often
utilized to help children learn new skills and overcome maladaptive behaviors, while conditioning is used
in many situations ranging from parenting to education.

Humanistic Psychology
Psychology's "Third Force"

While the first half of the twentieth-century was dominated by psychoanalysis and behaviorism, a new
school of thought known as:
== Humanistic psychology emerged during the second half of the century.
== Often referred to as the "third force" in psychology, this theoretical perspective emphasized
conscious experiences.
== American psychologist Carl Rogers is often considered one of the founders of this school of thought.
= While psychoanalysts looked at unconscious impulses and behaviorists focused purely on
environmental causes, == Rogers believed strongly in the power of free will and self-
determination. = Psychologist Abraham Maslow also contributed to humanistic
psychology with his
famous hierarchy of needs theory of human motivation.

Contemporary Psychology
As you have seen in this brief overview of psychology's history, this discipline has seen dramatic growth and change
since its official beginnings in Wundt's lab.
♦♦♦ The story certainly does not end here. Psychology has continued to evolve since 1960 and
new ideas and perspectives have been introduced. ♦♦♦ Recent research in psychology looks at many aspects
of the human experience, from the
biological influences on behavior to the impact of social and cultural factors. ♦♦♦ Today, the majority of
psychologists do not identify themselves with a single school of thought. Instead, they often focus on a
particular specialty area or perspective, often drawing

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on ideas from a range of theoretical backgrounds. This eclectic approach has contributed new ideas and
theories that will continue to shape psychology for years to come.

Major Schools of Thought in Psychology

When psychology was first established as a science separate from biology and philosophy, the debate over how to
describe and explain the human mind and behavior began. The different schools of psychology represent the major
theories within psychology.

== The first school of thought, structuralism, was advocated by the founder of the first
psychology lab, Wilhelm Wundt. Almost immediately, other theories began to emerge and vie for
dominance in psychology.
 = In the past, psychologists often identified themselves exclusively with one single school of thought. Today,
most psychologists have an eclectic outlook on psychology. They often draw on ideas and theories from
different schools rather than holding to any singular outlook.

The following are some of the major schools of thought that have influenced our knowledge and
understanding of psychology:

Structuralism and Functionalism

Structuralism was the first school of psychology, and focused on breaking down mental processes into
the most basic components. Major Structuralism thinkers include Wilhelm Wundt and Edward
Titchener.
The focus of structuralism was on reducing mental processes down into their most basic elements. Structuralist used
techniques such as introspection to analyze the inner processes of the human mind.

Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of the Structuralist school of thought and was heavily influenced
by the work of William James. Major functionalist thinkers included John Dewey and Harvey Carr. Instead of
focusing on the mental processes themselves, functionalist thinkers were instead interested in the role that these
processes play.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism became a dominant school of thought during the 1950s. It was based upon the work of
thinkers such as:

• John B. Watson
• Ivan Pavlov
• B. F. Skinner

= Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be explained by environmental causes rather than by internal forces.
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= Behaviorism is focused on observable behavior.

== Theories of learning including classical and operant conditioning were the focus of a great deal of research.

Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology founded by Sigmund.

== This school of thought emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior. == Freud believed that the
human mind was composed of three elements: The ID, the Ego and the
Super-ego. == The ID is composed of
primal urges.
= The ego is the component of personality charged with dealing with reality. == The superego is the part of
personality that holds all of the ideals and values we internalize from our parents and culture.
= Freud believed that the interaction of these three elements was what led to all of the complex
human behaviors.

Freud's school of thought was enormously influential, but also generated a great deal of controversy. This
controversy existed not only in his time, but also in modern discussions of Freud's theories. Other major
psychoanalytic thinkers include:

Anna Freud
Carl Jung Erik
Eriksson

Humanistic Psychology

== Humanistic psychology developed as a response to psychoanalysis and

behaviorism.
== Humanistic psychology focused on individual free will, personal growth and the
concept of self-actualization. == While early schools of thoughts were largely
centered on abnormal human
behavior, humanistic psychology differed considerably in its emphasis on helping
people achieve and fulfill their potential. ==
Major humanist thinkers include:

• Abraham Maslow
• Carl Rogers.

== Humanistic psychology remains quite popular today and has had a major influence
on other areas of psychology including positive psychology.
== This particular branch of psychology is centered on helping people living happier, more fulfilling
lives.
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Gestalt psychology

== Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology based upon the idea that we experience things as unified
wholes.
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= This approach to psychology began in Germany and Austria during the late 19th century in
response to the molecular approach of structuralism. == Instead of breaking down thoughts
and behavior to their smallest elements, the gestalt
psychologists believed that you must look at the whole of experience. ==
According to the gestalt thinkers, the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Cognitive Psychology

== Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology that studies mental processes including
how people think, perceive, remember and learn. == As part of the larger field of cognitive science, this
branch of psychology is related to other
disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy and linguistics. == Cognitive psychology began to emerge
during the 1950s, partly as a response to behaviorism. == Critics of behaviorism noted that it failed to account
for how internal processes influenced
behavior.
== This period is sometimes referred to as the "cognitive revolution" as a wealth of research on topics such as
information processing, language, memory and perception began to emerge.
== One of the most influential theories from this school of thought was the stages of cognitive development
theory proposed by Jean Piaget.

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Section-B

Q: (a) What Is Psychology?

(b) Briefly discuss early Schools of Psychology.

Defining Psychology:

1. The word "psychology" is the combination of two terms - study (ology) and soul
(psyche), or mind. The derivation of the word from Latin gives it this clear and obvious
meaning. Psychology is the STUDY OF MIND.
2. American Psychological Association define it as:
"Psychology is the study of the mind and behavior."

Psychology evolved out of both philosophy and biology. Discussions of these two subjects date as far back as the
early Greek thinkers including Aristotle and Socrates.

Psychology as a Separate Science:

The emergence of psychology as a separate and independent field of study was truly born when Wilhelm Wundt
established the first experimental psychology lab in Leipzig, Germany in 1879.

• Wundt's work was focused on describing the structures that compose the mind.
• This perspective relied heavily on the analysis of sensations and feelings through the use of
introspection.
• Introspection is a highly subjective process in which properly trained individuals would be able to
accurately identify the mental processes that accompanied feelings, sensations and thoughts.

Schools of Thought

Throughout psychology's history, a number of different schools of thought have formed to explain human
thought and behavior. These schools of thought often rise to dominance for a period of time. While these schools of
thought are sometimes perceived as competing forces, each perspective has contributed to our understanding of
psychology. The following are some of the major schools of thought in psychology.

• Structuralism
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• Functionalism
• Psychoanalysis
• Behaviorism
 Contribution by Mr. Hayat Shah

• Humanism
• Cognitivism

Structuralism
1. Structuralism was the first school of psychology and focused on breaking down mental
processes into the most basic components.
2. Researchers tried to understand the basic elements of consciousness using
a method known as introspection.
3. Wilhelm Wundt, founder of the first psychology lab, was an advocate of this position and
is often considered the founder of structuralism.
4. Despite the fact that it was his student, Edward B. Titchener who first coined the term to
describe this school of thought.
5. While Wundt's work helped to establish psychology as a separate science and contributed
methods to experimental psychology and Titchener development of structuralism helped establish
the very first "school" ofpsychology, the structuralism did not last long beyond Titchener's death.

Major Structuralist Thinkers

1. Wilhelm Wundt
2. Edward B. Titchener

Criticisms of Structuralism
1. By today's scientific standards, the experimental methods used to study the structures of
the mind were too subjective—the use of introspection led to a lack of reliability in results.
2. Other critics argue that structuralism was too concerned with internal behavior, which is
not directly observable and cannot be accurately measured.

Strengths of Structuralism
1. Structuralism is important because it is the first major school of thought in
psychology.
2. Structuralism also influenced experimental psychology.

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Functionalism
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1. Functionalism formed as a reaction to the structuralism and was heavily influenced by the work of
William James and the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin.
2. Functionalists sought to explain the mental processes in a more systematic and
accurate manner.
3. Rather than focusing on the elements of consciousness, functionalists focused on
the purpose of consciousness and behavior.
4. Functionalism also emphasized individual differences, which had a profound impact on education.

Major Functionalist Thinkers

• William James
• John Dewey
• Harvey Carr
• John Angell

Criticisms of Functionalism

"It is literature. It is beautiful, but it is not psychology," said Wilhelm Wundt of

functionalist William James' The Principles of Psychology.

Strengths of Functionalism

1. Influenced behaviorism and applied psychology.

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Influenced the educational system, especially with regards to John Dewey's belief that children should
learn at the level for which they are developmentally prepared.

Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud (1856- 1939) was the founder of psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic approach to
psychology.

This school of thought emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on behavior.

Freud believed that the human mind was composed of three elements:
> The Id,
> The Ego,
> The Superego.
 Contribution by Mr. Hayat Shah

Freud's theories of psychosexual stages, the unconscious, and dream symbolism remain a popular topic
among both psychologists and laypersons.

Major Thinkers Associated With Psychoanalysis

• Sigmund Freud
• Anna Freud
• Erik Erikson

Key Psychoanalysis Terms

Case Study -
1. An in-depth study of one person.
2. Much of Freud's work and theories were developed through individual case studies.
3. In a case study, nearly every aspect of the subject's life and history is analyzed to seek patterns
and causes for behavior.
4. The hope is that learning gained from studying one case can be generalized to many others.

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Unfortunately, case studies tend to be highly subjective and it is difficult to generalize results to a
larger population.

Conscious -
1. In Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality, the conscious mind includes
everything that is inside of our awareness.
2. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about in a rational
way.

Defense Mechanism -
1. A tactic developed by the ego to protect against anxiety.
2. Defense mechanisms are thought to safeguard the mind against feelings and thoughts
that are too difficult for the conscious mind to cope with.
3. In some instances, defense mechanisms are thought to keep inappropriate or
unwanted thoughts and impulses from entering the conscious mind.

Ego -
1. The ego is the part of personality that mediates the demands of the id, the
superego and reality.
2. The ego prevents us from acting on our basic urges (created by the id), but also works to achieve
a balance with our moral and idealistic standards (created by the superego).

Id -
1. The personality component made up of unconscious psychic energy that works to satisfy basic
urges, needs and desires.

Superego -
1. The component of personality composed of our internalized ideals that we have acquired from
our parents and from society.
 Contribution by Mr. Hayat Shah

2. The superego works to suppress the urges of the id and tries to make the ego behave morally
rather than realistically.

Unconscious -
1. A reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges and memories that outside of our conscious awareness.
2. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain,
anxiety or conflict.
3. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and
experiences even though we are unaware of these underlying influences.

Criticisms of Psychoanalysis

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• Freud's theories overemphasized the unconscious mind, sex, aggression and childhood
experiences.
• Many of the concepts proposed by psychoanalytic theorists are difficult to measure and quantify.
• Most of Freud's ideas were based on case studies and clinical observations rather than empirical,
scientific research.

Strengths of Psychoanalysis

• While most psychodynamic theories did not rely on experimental research, the methods
and theories of psychoanalytic thinking contributed to experimental psychology.
• Many of the theories of personality developed by psychodynamic thinkers are still
influential today, including Erikson's theory of psychosocial stages and Freud's psychosexual
stage theory.
• Psychoanalysis opened up a new view on mental illness, suggesting that talking about
problems with a professional could help relieve symptoms of psychological distress.
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Behaviorism
What Is Behaviorism?

Basic Assumptions:
1. Behaviorist School of Psychology was founded by John B.Watson.
2. Based on the belief that behaviors can be measured, trained, and changed.
3. Behaviorism was established with the publication of Watson's classic paper in 1913: "Psychology
as the Behaviorist Views It."
4. According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with
no consideration of internal mental states.
5. This school of thought suggests that only observable behaviors should be studied, since internal
states such as cognitions, emotions and moods are too subjective.
6. Behaviorism, also known as behavioral psychology, is a theory of learning based upon the idea
that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with
the environment. Behaviorists believe that our responses to environmental stimuli shape our
behaviors.

There are two major types of conditioning:

Classical conditioning:
It is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring
stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally
occurring stimulus. Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes

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to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then
known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response.

Operant conditioning:
Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a
method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant
conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.

Major Thinkers in Behaviorism

• Ivan Pavlov
• B. F. Skinner
• Edward Thorndike
• John B. Watson
• Clark Hull

Important Events in Behaviorism

> 1863 - Ivan Sechenov's Reflexes of the Brain were published. Sechenov introduced

the concept of inhibitory responses in the central nervous system.

> 1900 - Ivan Pavlov began studying the salivary response and other reflexes.

> 1913 - John Watson's Psychology as a Behaviorist Views It was published. The
article outlined the many of the main points of behaviorism.

> 1920 - Watson and assistant Rosalie Rayner conducted the famous "Little Albert"

Experiment.

> 1943 - Clark Hull's Principles of Behavior was published.

> 1948 - B.F. Skinner published Walden II in which he described a utopian society

founded upon behaviorist principles.

> 1959 - Noam Chomsky published his criticism of Skinner's behaviorism, "Review of
Verbal Behavior."

> 1971 - B.F. Skinner published his book Beyond Freedom and Dignity, in which he
argued that free will is an illusion.

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Criticisms of
Behaviorism
1. Many critics argue that behaviorism is a one-dimensional approach to understanding human behavior
and that behavioral theories do not account for free will and internal influences such as moods,
thoughts and feelings.

2. Behaviorism does not account for other types of learning, especially learning that occurs without the
use of reinforcement and punishment.

3. People and animals are able to adapt their behavior when new information is introduced, even if a
previous behavior pattern has been established through reinforcement.

Strengths of Behaviorism

1. Behaviorism is based upon observable behaviors, so it is easier to quantify and collect data and
information when conducting research.

2. Effective therapeutic techniques such as intensive behavioral

intervention, behavior analysis, token economies and discrete trial training are all rooted in
behaviorism. These approaches are often very useful in changing maladaptive or harmful behaviors
in both children and adults.

Final Thoughts

While behaviorism is not as dominant today as it was during the middle of the 20th-century, it still
remains an influential force in psychology. Outside of psychology, animal trainers, parents, teachers and
many others make use of basic behavioral principles to help teach new behaviors and discourage unwanted
ones.

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 Humanistic Psychology
The "Third Force" In Psychology

During the 1950s, humanistic psychology began as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism, which
dominated psychology at the time. Psychoanalysis was focused on understanding the unconscious
motivations that drive behavior while behaviorism studied the conditioning processes that produce behavior.
Humanist thinkers felt that both psychoanalysis and behaviorism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the
most tragic of emotions or failing to take into accounts the role of personal choice. Humanistic psychology
was instead focused on each individual's potential and stressed the importance of growth and self-
actualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately good and that
mental and social problems result from deviations from this natural tendency.
During the late 1950s, Abraham Maslow and other psychologists held meetings to discuss the development of
a professional organization devoted to a more humanist approach to psychology. They agreed that topics such
as self-actualization, creativity and individuality and related topics were the central theme of this new
approach. In 1961, they officially established the American Association for Humanistic Psychology. In 1962,
Abraham Maslow published Toward a Psychology of Being, in which he described humanistic psychology as
the "third force" in psychology. The first and second forces were behaviorism and psychoanalysis
respectively.

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However, it is not necessary to think of these three schools of thought as competing elements. Each
branch has contributed to our understanding of the human mind and behavior. Humanistic psychology
added yet another dimension that takes a more holistic view of the individual.

Major Thinkers in Humanistic Psychology

• Abraham Maslow
• Carl Rogers
• Rollo May
• Erich Fromm
•
Important Events in Humanistic Psychology

1. 1943 - Abraham Maslow described his hierarchy of needs in 'A Theory of Human Motivation'
published in Psychological Review.
2. 1951- Carl Rogers published Client-Centered Therapy, which described his
humanistic, client-directed approach to therapy.
3. 1961 - The American Association for Humanistic Psychology is formed and the
Journal of Humanistic Psychology was established.
4. 1962 - American Association for Humanistic Psychology was formed.
5. 1971 - Humanistic psychology becomes an APA division.

Criticisms of Humanistic Psychology

1. Humanistic psychology is often seen as too subjective; the importance of individual

experience makes it difficult to objectively study and measure humanistic
phenomena. How can we objectively tell if someone is self-actualized?
The answer, of course, is that we cannot. We can only rely upon the individual's own assessment of
their experience.
2. Another major criticism is that observations are unverifiable; there is no accurate
way to measure or quantify these qualities.

Strong Points of Humanistic Psychology

1. One of the major strengths of humanistic psychology is that it emphasizes the role of the individual.
This school of psychology gives people more credit in controlling and determining their state of
mental health.
2. It also takes environmental influences into account. Rather than focusing solely on our internal
thoughts and desires, humanistic psychology also credits the environment's influence on our
experiences.

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3. Humanistic psychology continues to influence therapy, education, healthcare and other areas.
4. Humanistic psychology helped remove some of the stigma attached to therapy and made it more
acceptable for normal, healthy individuals to explore their abilities and potential through therapy.

Humanistic Psychology Today

Today, the concepts central to humanistic psychology can be seen in many other areas including other
branches of psychology, education, therapy, political movements and other areas.
For example, transpersonal psychology and positive psychology both draw heavily on humanist
influences.

The goals of humanistic psychology remain as relevant today as they were in the 1940s
and 1950s.
As Maureen O'Hara, former president of the Association of Humanistic Psychology, explained, "As the
world's people demand freedom and self-determination, it is urgent that we learn how diverse
communities of empowered individuals, with freedom to construct their own stories and identities, might
live together in mutual peace. Perhaps it is not a vain hope that is life in such communities might lead to
the advance in human consciousness beyond anything we have yet experienced."

Cognitive Psychology

What Is Cognitive Psychology?

The term "cognitive psychology" was first used in 1967 by American psychologist Ulric Neisser
in his book Cognitive Psychology. According to Neisser, cognition involves "all processes by which the
sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored, recovered, and used."
Given such a sweeping definition, it is apparent that cognition is involved in everything a human being
might possibly do; that every psychological phenomenon is a cognitive phenomenon."

1. Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that studies mental processes

including how people think, perceive, remember and learn.
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,

2. The core focus of cognitive psychology is on how people acquire, process and store
information.
3. There are numerous practical applications for cognitive research, such as improving memory,
increasing decision-making accuracy and structuring educational curricula to enhance learning.
4. Until the 1950s, behaviorism was the dominant school of thought in psychology.
Between 1950 and 1970, the tide began to shift against behavioral psychology to focus
on topics such as attention, memory and problem-solving.
5. Often referred to as the cognitive revolution, this period generated considerable research including
processing models, cognitive research methods and the first use of the term "cognitive psychology."
6. It is concerned with these processes even when they operate in the absence of relevant stimulation, as
in images and hallucinations.
How is Cognitive Psychology Different?

• Unlike behaviorism, which focuses only on observable behaviors, cognitive

psychology is concerned with internal mental states.
• Unlike psychoanalysis, which relies heavily on subjective perceptions, cognitive psychology uses
scientific research methods to study mental processes.

Who Should Study Cognitive Psychology?

Because cognitive psychology touches on many other disciplines, this branch of psychology is frequently
studied by people in a number of different fields. The following are just a few of those who may benefit
from studying cognitive psychology.
• Students interested in behavioral neuroscience, linguistics, industrial-organizational psychology,
artificial intelligence and other related areas.

• Teachers, educators and curriculum designers can benefit by learning more about how people
process, learn, and remember information.

• Engineers, scientists, artists, architects and designers can all benefit from
understanding internal mental states and processes.

Major Topics in Cognitive Psychology

• Perception
• Language
• Attention
• Memory
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• Problem-Solving
• Decision-Making and Judgment
• Intelligence

Important People in the History of Cognitive Psychology

• Gustav Fechner
• Wilhelm Wundt
• Edward B. Titchener
• Hermann Ebbinghaus
• William James
• Wolfgang Kohler
• Edward Tolman
• Jean Piaget
• Noam Chomsky
 The Biological Perspective

The study of physiology played a major role in the development of psychology as a separate science.
Today, this perspective is known as biological psychology.
Sometimes referred to as biopsychology or physiological psychology, this point of view emphasizes the
physical and biological bases of behavior.

This perspective has grown significantly over the last few decades, especially with advances in our ability
to explore and understand the human brain and nervous system.

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Tools such as MRI scans and PET scans allow researchers to look at the brain under a variety of
conditions. Scientists can now look at the effects of brain damage, drugs, and disease in ways that were
simply not possible in the past.

Neuroscience and Biological Psychology

While our mind plays a role in our physical well-being, our biological processes also influence our mental
health. Learn more about how the brain and nervous system impact our behavior, thoughts, and feelings.

Biopsychology is a branch of psychology that analyzes how the brain and neurotransmitters influence our
behaviors, thoughts and feelings. This field can be thought of as a combination of basic psychology and
neuroscience. Many psychology programs use alternate names for this field, including biopsychology,
physiological psychology, behavioral neuroscience and psychobiology. Biopsychology's often look at
how biological processes interact with emotions, cognitions and other mental processes. The field of
biopsychology is related to several other areas including comparative psychology and evolutionary
psychology.

If you are interested in the field of biopsychology, then it is important to have an

understanding of biological processes, anatomy and physiology. Three of the most important
components to understand are the brain, neurotransmitters and the nervous system.

The Brain and Nervous Systems

The Central Nervous System is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The outermost part of the brain is
known as the cerebral cortex. This portion of the brain is responsible for functioning in cognition,
sensation, motor skills, and emotions.

The brain is comprised of four lobes:

1. Frontal Lobe:
Also known as the motor cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in motor
skills, higher lever cognition and expressive language.

2. Occipital Lobe: Also known as the visual cortex, this portion of the brain is
involved in interpreting visual stimuli and information.

3. Parietal Lobe:

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as the somatosensory cortex, this portion of the brain is involved in the processing of other tactile
sensory information such as pressure, touch and pain.

4. Temporal Lobe:
Also known as the auditory cortex, this portion of the brain is
involved in the interpretation of the sounds and language we hear.

Another important part of the nervous system is the Peripheral Nervous System, which is divided into
two parts:

1. The Somatic Nervous System: Controls the actions of skeletal muscles.

2. The Autonomic Nervous System: Regulates automatic processes such as heart rate, breathing,
and blood pressure. There are two parts of the autonomic nervous system:

• The Sympathetic Nervous System: Controls the "fight or flight" response. This reflex
prepares the body to respond to danger in the environment.
• The Parasympathetic Nervous System: This system works to bring your body back to

its normal state after a fight or flight reflex.

Neurotransmitters

Also important in the field of biopsychology are the actions of neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters carry information between neurons and enable chemical messages to be sent from one
part of the body to the brain, and vice versa.

There are a variety of neurotransmitters that affect the body in different ways. For example, the
neurotransmitter dopamine is involved in movement and learning. Excessive amounts of dopamine have
been associated with psychological disorders such as schizophrenia, while too little dopamine is
associated with Parkinson's disease. A biopsychologist might study the various transmitters to determine
their effects on human behavior.
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