Highway and Railroad Engineering

(HWYRAILENG)
MODULE #2

Transportation Engineering
 Holy Angel University
School of Engineering and Architecture
Department of Civil Engineering
Transportation Engineering

Route #4
Geometric Design

Introduction
This chapter inspires the students to learn the
standard of geometric design of highways and
railroads

Content This chapter focuses on

 Horizontal Alignments
 Vertical Alignments
 Super Elevation and Earthworks

Objectives After this chapter, the student should be able to

 Learn the importance Alignments in Geometric
Design
 Learn the scope of highway Geometric Design

Related These are supplemental content necessary for this chapter

 Highway Capacity Manual 2010

Readings  DPWH Highway Safety Design Standards

References Nikolaides A. (2015). Highway Engineering - Pavements, Materials and Control

of Quality
Findley D. (2016). Highway Engineering - Planning, Design and Operations
Kadiyali L.R. (2016). Transportation Engineering

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 Route 4 – Geometric Design

Learning Activities
Shown here is the path to be taken Note: Each part of the route can
in order to reach the next route. only be accessed once the previous
Finishing all the routes while one is accomplished.
acquiring satisfactory ratings for
each checkpoint ensures that you
will pass this course.

Link 4
Route #4

CP-3
Link 5

CP-4
Link 6
Route #6
Formative Assessments Submission Dates Type/Format
-Link 4 As specified by instructor Online/PDF
-Link 5 As specified by instructor Online/PDF
-Link 6 As specified by instructor Online/PDF
Summative Assessments Prerequisite/s Type (subject to change as per instructor)
-Checkpoint 3 Route 4 MCQ
-Checkpoint 4 Links 4-6 Individualized Exam

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 Route 4 – Geometric Design
Introduction to Geometric Design

"Design is intelligence made visible."

Alina Wheeler, author

Design of highways basically covers the geometry of the horizontal and vertical
alignments, geotechnical aspects, pavement design, provision of drainage facilities and other
civil structures, but the traffic engineers’ main concern is the safety aspect of the design. Several
factors must be considered when designing a highway that is safe and pleasant to drive on. One
of these factors is the maximum speed that certain geometry may allow. Take the horizontal
curvature of the road, for instance. Without appropriate banking or super elevation, an
over speeding vehicle will likely run out of highway due to the centrifugal force that pulls it away
from the road. Another is the sight distance available to the drivers. The driver must be able to
see ahead in order to brake safely before hitting an object on its path. Or when negotiating an
overtaking maneuver, a driver must be able to pass a slow-moving vehicle on the opposite
direction. When driving at night, the headlight beam can only reach up to a certain distance. The
vertical and horizontal curves must be designed so as not to cause undue reduction in speed of
vehicles.

DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF HIGHWAYS

Design Speed
The elements of a highway are designed according to certain standards. One of these
standards is the design speed, which is defined as the maximum safe speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions are so favorable that the design
features of the highway govern. It is the basis that will literally put shape to the different
elements of the highway. A very smooth curve will require a very high design speed. In general,
poor alignments are normally a result of wrong choice in design speed. Nowadays, however,
design speeds are designated for different types of roadways, from high-speed expressways to
low-speed feeder or barangay roads. The International Bank for Reconstruction and

Development (IBRD) provides guidelines on the use of appropriate design speed for various
terrain and traffic volume. Table 1 shows this guideline.

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Table 1
Design speed for various road classes and terrain conditions

Whenever possible, a certain design speed must be maintained all throughout the
highway. However, if terrain condition or some obstructions would not allow it, the design speed
may be reduced by 10-20 kph at adjacent sections.

Sight Distances
When designing for the alignment of the road, two types of sight distance are normally
checked for adequacy: stopping sight distance (SSD) and passing sight distance (PSD).
Stopping sight distance
Stopping sigh distance is the shortest distance required for a vehicle traveling at the
assumed running speed to stop safely before reaching a stationary object in its path.

Figure 1
Stopping sight distance

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As shown in figure 1, SSD is composed of two distances:

a. d 1 , distance traversed during perception plus brake reaction time. Brake reaction time
consists of perception time of about 1.5 seconds and action time of 1.0 second.
𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑑𝑑1 =
3.6

b. d 2 , distance required for stopping after brakes are applied. Short distance is required
when negotiating an uphill. This is taken care of by the sign of the gradient G.
𝑣𝑣 2 𝑣𝑣 2
𝑑𝑑 = =
2𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔(3.6)2 2𝑔𝑔(3.6)2 (𝑓𝑓 ± 𝐺𝐺)
where v – running speed, kph
t – reaction time, sec
g – 9.8 m/sec2
f – Coefficient of friction (0.29-0.40)
G – gradient (+ for uphill; - for downhill)
Minimum stopping sight distance is normally computed for wet pavement condition.
Table 2 serves as guide for computation of SSD for different design speeds. For design speeds
greater than or equal to 80 kph, the running speed is taken as 85 percent of the design speed. For
design speeds less than or equal to 30 kph, full value of design speed is assumed for running
speed.
Table 2
SSD and f-values for different design speeds

Passing sight distance

For two-lane highways, passing sight distance is the shortest distance required for a
vehicle to safely pull out of a traffic lane, pass a vehicle traveling in the same direction, and
return to the correct lane without interfering either with the overtaken vehicle or opposing traffic.
Along curves, this is the length of the road that must be visibly free of obstructions in order to
permit a vehicle moving at the design speed to pass a slower moving vehicle.

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Figure 2
Passing or overtaking maneuver

As shown in figure 2, PSD is composed of four distances:

a. d 1 , distance travelled during perception and reaction time and during the initial
acceleration to the point on encroachment on the left lane
𝑣𝑣𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡1 𝑎𝑎𝑡𝑡1 2
𝑑𝑑1 = +
3.6 2
b. d 2 , distance travelled while overtaking vehicle occupies any part of the left lane
(opposing lane)
𝑣𝑣𝑡𝑡2
𝑑𝑑2 = ; 𝑡𝑡 = 7.6~11.4𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
3.6 2
c. d 3 , distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing
vehicle.
𝑑𝑑3 = 15 ~ 80𝑚𝑚
d. d 4 , distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the passing
vehicle occupies the left lane
2
𝑑𝑑4 = 𝑑𝑑2
3

In many cases, it is very difficult to meet the full PSD requirement. Table 3 shows the summary of PSD
values for various design speeds. Minimum PSD is often taken as the sum of (2/3) (d 2 ) +d 3 +d 4 .
Comparing these values with SSD, the requirement for passing sight distance is about two to three
times that of SSD. While it is absolute to provide SSD all the time, it will be very expensive to provide
PSD all the time as this would mean very gentle horizontal and vertical curves. In practice, PSD should
be provided in long sections of roads so that drivers will have the opportunity to overtake one-third of
the time.

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Table 3
Passing sight distance values for different design speeds

Minimum Radius of Curvature

Smooth-flowing curves are often desired when designing highways. However, the cost of
providing such curves may be too prohibitive. Existing structures or terrain may prevent the designer
from providing gentle curves. It is therefore necessary to determine the minimum radius
of curvature that may be required for any given desired speed.

Figure 3
Vehicle negotiating a curve and forces acting on it

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Considering all the forces acting on the vehicle when negotiating a horizontal curve
(figure 3), it can be shown that the required minimum radius of curvature is given by
𝑣𝑣 2
𝑅𝑅𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 =
127(𝑒𝑒 + 𝑓𝑓)
v – design speed, kph,
e – superelevation
f – side friction
Table 4 provides the values of f for different design speeds. Values may be interpolated
depending on the design sped used.
Table 4
Values of side friction f

Superelevation
Banking or superelevation is necessary to counteract the centrifugal force that is acting
on the vehicle. The value of maximum superelevation e may range from 6 percent to 12 percent.
Depending on the terrain of the area where the highways will traverse, superelevation can
be attained by any of the following methods (figure 4):
a. pavement revolved about the centerline

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b. pavement revolved about the inner edge of the pavement

c. pavement revolved about the outside edge

Figure 4
Methods of attaining superelevation
Design Volume
In designing roads, the 30th highest peak hour volume has been found to be the most
reasonable hourly volume that provides the best result (see figure 5). The 30th hourly volume is
exceeded only twenty-nine times in a year. Beyond this value on the right, the distribution of
hourly volumes is relatively flat. Another characteristic of this 30th hourly volume is that its
value as a percentage of AADT does not vary much over the years. Depending on the type of
highways, the value of K may range from 7 percent to 15 percent.

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Figure 5
The 30th hourly volume

Normally, highways do not have balanced flow in both directions during peak hours. One
direction is usually heavier than the other. It is therefore necessary to consider the direction of
heavier flow for design. The directional distribution D is defined as the percentage of the
heavier volume over the total highway volume. This directional distribution is relevant only
when designing or analyzing highways with two or more lanes in one direction. For two-lane or
three-lane, two-way highways, the directional distribution are not considered. In the case of two-lane,
two-way highways, the heavier movement will tend to use the other direction for
overtaking. For three-lane, two-way highways, the heavier movement will tend to occupy the
extra third lane.
Given the AADT, the design hourly volume is computed as follows:
DDHV = AADT*K*D (for multilane highways)
or
DHV = AADT*K (for 2-lane or 3-lane, 2-way highways)
where DDHV – directional design hour volume
DHV – design hourly volume
AADT – average annual daily traffic
K – proportion of daily traffic occurring during peak hour, expressed as a decimal
D – proportion of peak-hour traffic travelling in the peak direction, expressed as a
Decimal

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Number of Lanes
The basic task in designing highways is the determination of the number of lanes needed
to meet the given design volume under a specified level of service. The procedure may follow a
trial and error one. Initially the number of lanes is assumed. With this assumption, the
corresponding capacity is obtained from lookup tables. If the desired level of service is known,
then its corresponding volume/capacity ratio will be known. This v/c ratio should be greater than
the value of the ratio of the design hourly volume over the estimated capacity. If the inequality is
satisfied, then the assumed number of lanes is okay; otherwise it is modified depending on the
result of the initial computations. In some cases, correction factors are applied that would reduce
the capacity if some substandard values (width of lane, presence of gradient, etc.) deviate from
the ideal ones.
The Philippine Highway Planning Manual provides a guide on basic capacity for various
road types in tables 5a and 5b.
Table 5a
Basic capacities for highways and urban streets

For multilane highways in flat terrain, such as expressways, the lane capacities (if lane
width is at least 3.5 m) are estimated as follows:

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Table 5b
Basic capacity for multilane highways

Example 1
A proposed highway is to be designed with adequate shoulder and clearance in a level
terrain with the following:
AADT = 40,000 pcu/day
D% = 65%
K = 9%
Estimate the number of lanes that will provide LOS B.
Solution:

A six-lane, two-way highway is needed to provide LOS B.

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It must be noted in the previous example that the design volume (AADT) is already given
in terms of pcu. If the traffic volume provided is in mixed type, passenger car equivalent factors
(PCEFs) have to be applied to obtain the volume pcu. The reader is advised to refer to the PHPM
for the details of these PCEFs. Also, the procedure discussed in the PHPM (which was used in
the previous example) is slightly different from the procedure in the US HCM. Both methods
have capacities in pcu but in the PHPM, the design volume in mixed vehicles is converted to pcu
for the calculation of v/c ration while in the US HCM, mixed vehicles are retained but the value
of capacity is modified or converted to mixed vehicles by applying reduction factor due to heavy
vehicles. The v/c ratio, therefore, is computed based on volume and capacity having the same
unit of mixed vehicles.
HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
Circular Curve
For large radius (as in railroad practice), distances along the arc are considered to be the
same as along the chords.
For highways, usually the distances are considered to be along the arcs, and the
corresponding chord lengths are computed for measurement in the field.

Sharpness of curve
The so-called sharpness of curve can be expressed by using two measurements:
a. Radius, R
b. Degree of curvature, D°
Furthermore, two definitions are used. The arc definition is the one being followed in
highway practice while the chord definition is used for railroad practice. Figure 6 shows the
relations of R and D° for both definitions.

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Figure 6
Arc chord definitions
Stationing
In metric system, the length l used is 20 m for both arc and chord definitions. In English
system, the length l used is 100 ft for both arc and chord definitions.

Example 2
Rewrite the following in station notations:
a. Stake located 10,682.325 m from beginning
b. Stake located 2,345.21 ft from beginning
Solution:
a. For metric system, Sta. 10 + 682.325
b. For English system, Sta. 23 + 45.21
Simple curve
Simple curve is defined as a circular arc between two tangents (figure 7).

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Figure 7
The simple curve
The following notations are used for a simple curve:
PI: point of intersection of two tangents
PC: point of curvature or beginning of curve
PT: point of tangency or end of curve
Δ: external angle of deflection between tangents
T: tangent distance
Lc: long chord connecting PC and PT
E: external distance
M: middle ordinate
L: length of curve from PC to PT
R: radius of curve
From the geometry of the simple curve, the following elements can be derived:
T = Rtan(Δ /2)
Lc= 2Rsin(Δ /2)
E = R[sec(Δ /2)-1]

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M = R[1-cos(Δ /2)]
The length of curve can be computed by ratio and proportion as follows:
Using the degree of curvature D°:
L/l = Δ / D°
where l is one full station
Or by using the radius R:
L/ Δ° = 2πR/360°

Example 3
Bushes grow near a two-lane highway circular curve with R = 160 m (measured from
centerline of the highway). Minimum stopping sight distance is 150 m. Total width of pavement
is 7.0 m. How near the edge of the pavement can you allow the bushes to grow?

Solution

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Therefore, the distance of bush from edge of pavement should be at least
M – 1.75 = 17.44 – 1.75 = 15.69 m
in order to provide a stopping sight distance of 150 m.
Computations of stationing:
The stationing of PC can be obtained by working backward; i.e., after obtaining the
tangent distance T, it is deducted from the stationing of PI:
Sta. PC = Sta. PI – T
The stationing of PT can be obtained by adding the length of curve L to the value of Sta.
PC, or
Sta. PT = Sta. PC + L
Compound Curve
This is defined as a two-arc simple curve having its centers on the same side of the
common tangent (figure 8).

Figure 8
The compound curves

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The elements of a compound curve can be computed depending on the given information.
If Sta. PI, Δ1, Δ2, R1 and R2, are known, then the solution will be the same as that of two simple curves.
The compound curve has seven important parts: T1, T2, Δ1, Δ2, R1, R2 and Δ. However, Δ
= Δ1 + Δ2; therefore there are only six independent variables; four lengths and two angles. For
rigid solution, four parts must be known, including at least one angle and at least two lengths.
Reverse Curve
A reverse curve is a two-arc simple curve having its centers on opposite sides (figure
9). This type of curve is usually inadmissible on high-speed routes because superelevation at
the point of reversal cannot be provided.
Two types of reverse curve may be employed if speed is not critical. The first type is the
case of having parallel tangents as shown in figure 9.

Figure 9
Reverse curve with parallel tangents
The elements of a reverse curve having parallel tangents are computed:

Usually, p is known, and two or more variables must be assumed.

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Example 4
Find the flattest common-radius reverse curve (equal radii) that can be inserted between
parallel tangents 25 m apart without the distance AD exceeding 250 m.
Solution:

The other type of reverse curve is the case of nonparallel tangents as shown in figure
10. The solution is similar to that of compound curves.

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Figure 10
Reverse curve with nonparallel tangents
Broken Back Curve
A broken back curve is characterized by a short tangent between two curves in the same
direction (figure 11). This type of curve should be avoided in design since most drivers do not
expect succeeding curves to be in the same direction.

Figure 11
Broken back curve

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Example 5
The broken back curve shown is to be replaced by a compound curve R2 = 1.8 R1.

Determine:
a. new values of radii
b. new values of tangents
Solution:

For the compound curve:

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Easement Curve or Clothoid
An easement curve or clothoid is usually a spiral that serves as a transition path as the
vehicle enters or leaves a circular curve (figure 12). This type of curve follows a natural path as
the driver turns the steering wheel.

Figure 12
Clothoid or easement curve
One property of the clothoid is that its curvature increases in proportion to the length of
curve, or
1/R = kl or Rl = 1/k
where R – radius of curve
l – length of curve
k – a constant
to be dimensionally correct, let A2 = 1/k (A is called the clothoid parameter).
From this property:
𝑅𝑅 𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
= 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑅𝑅 =
𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙
where ls is the length of clothoid and Rc is the radius of the circular curve.
Also,
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑅𝑅
Hence,
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 =
𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
Integrating
𝑙𝑙2 𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠
𝜃𝜃 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝜃𝜃𝑐𝑐 =
2𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 2𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
For dx and dy:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

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𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
Substituting the expansions of cos θ and sin θ.
𝜃𝜃 2 𝜃𝜃 4
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (1 − + − ⋯)
2! 4!
𝜃𝜃 3 𝜃𝜃 5
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (1 − + − ⋯)
3! 5!
Substituting the value of θ.
𝑙𝑙4
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 (1 − 2 2 + ⋯ )
8𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
𝑙𝑙2 𝑙𝑙6
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ( − + ⋯)
2𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 48𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 3 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 3
Integrating:
𝑙𝑙4
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙 − 2 2 + ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
8𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
3
𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙7
𝑦𝑦 = − + ℎ𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
6𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 336𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 3 𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 3
And
𝑙𝑙2
𝑥𝑥 = 𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 (1 − )
40𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 2
𝑙𝑙2 /56𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐2
𝑦𝑦 = 𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 2 ( )
6𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐
Elements of symmetrical clothoid
Figure 13 shows a symmetrical clothoid, i.e., a circular curve having two clothoids at each end serving
as transition paths. The two clothoids have exactly the same properties.

Figure 13
Symmetrical clothoid

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For good design, ls ≈ lc. Also, clothoid is necessary when ΔR > 0.2 m
Standard for the length of clothoid
1. Based on travel time (enough time for reaction)
𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 ≥ 3 sec 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
2. Based on rate of change of acceleration, p:
𝑣𝑣 2 𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑎 𝑣𝑣 3
𝑎𝑎 = 𝑡𝑡 = 𝑝𝑝 = =
𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 𝑣𝑣 𝑡𝑡 𝑅𝑅𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠
therefore:
𝑣𝑣 3
𝑙𝑙𝑠𝑠 = also known as the Shortt’s formula.
𝑅𝑅𝑐𝑐 𝑝𝑝

Range of values of p:
p = 0.35 ~ 0.50 m/sec3 for expressways
p = 0.60 ~ 0.75 m/sec3 for rural and urban highways
3. Based on aesthetics

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The longitudinal gradient of the superelevation runoff should not exceed 1/200.

Example 6
Given: design speed = 100 kph (f = 0.13)
p = 0.4 m/sec3
Sta. PI = 5 + 105.000
Road width = 14.0 m (4-lane, 2-way)
Normal crown = 1.5 %
Intersection angle = 27°
Design the section of highway.
Solution:
Assume e = 3.5%

For the length of clothoid:

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Computing for the final superelevation:

The other elements of the symmetrical clothoid can be obtained from the set of formulas given.
Parabolic vertical curve has been used to design the profile of highways. It has properties
that make it easy for laying out the alignment of a roadway in the field.
Properties of Parabolic Vertical Curves
a) The rate of change of grade on a vertical curve is constant.

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Consider the general equation of the parabolic curve:

𝑦𝑦 = 𝑎𝑎𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 + 𝑐𝑐
where a, b, and c are constants.
The first derivative dy/dx is the change of grade. The second derivative gives the
rate of change of grade:
𝑑𝑑2 𝑦𝑦
= 2𝑎𝑎 = 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 2
b) Tangents drawn from any two points on a vertical axis parabola always intersect midway
between the points of tangency.

c) Vertical offsets from a tangent to a parabola are proportional to the squares of the
distances from the point of tangency.

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d) If a tangent to the parabola is drawn between the main tangents, the horizontal projection
of the intercept cut off on this new tangent by the main tangents is equal to one-half of
the horizontal projection of the long chord of the parabola.

Types of Vertical Curves

There are two types of vertical curves: crest and sag curves. Figure 14 shows some examples.

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Figure 14
Types of vertical curves
General Equation of Vertical Curve
Consider the vertical curve of length L with gradients of G 1 and G 2 . The beginning and end of the curve
is denoted by BVC and EVC, respectively. The point of intersection of the two gradient lines is denoted
by VPI. If the rectangular coordinates x and y are chosen arbitrarily as shown, then EBVC is the
elevation of Sta. BVC (figure 15).
The equation will then be:

𝑦𝑦 = 0.5𝑟𝑟𝑥𝑥 2 + 𝐺𝐺1 𝑥𝑥 + 𝐸𝐸𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵

𝑟𝑟 = (𝐺𝐺2 − 𝐺𝐺1 )/𝐿𝐿

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Figure 15
Elements of vertical curve
Example 7
Given: Sta. VPI = 20 + 265.000; Elev. VPI = 40 m above sea level G1 = 4.5%; G2 = -3.8%; L =250 m
Compute the station and elevation of the highest point on the crest vertical curve.
Solution:
Using equation

Substituting

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Sight Distances at Vertical Curves

Two sight distances have been discussed in connection with horizontal alignments: the
stopping sight distance and the passing sight distance. Similarly, these two sight distances are the
major factors in determining the required length of vertical curves.
In measuring sight distances, the following heights are assumed in the development of
standards:
a. For SSD, h 1 pertains to the driver’s eye height and h 2 is the height of the object
(hazard) seen along the path of the vehicle.

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Figure 16
Estimation of stopping sight distance
b. For PSD, h 2 is taken as the height of the roof of the vehicle coming in the opposite
direction when the first vehicle initiates its overtaking maneuver.

Figure 17
Estimation of passing sight distance
Sight Distances at Crest Vertical Curves
Given the requirements for sight distances (tables 2 and 3), the required length of the
crest vertical curve may be obtained by considering the following two cases:
a. The sight distance is shorter than the required length of curve (figure 18).
𝐴𝐴𝑆𝑆 2
𝐿𝐿 =
�2ℎ1 + �2ℎ2

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Figure 18
Sight distance less than length of curve
b. The sight distance is longer than the required length of curve (figure 19).
2(�ℎ1 + �ℎ2 )
𝐿𝐿 = 2𝑆𝑆 −
𝐴𝐴

Figure 19
Sight distance greater than length of curve
In sight distance formulas, A is used as a positive number (in decimals) equal to the
change in gradient from G 1 to G 2.
Sight Distances at Sag Vertical Curves
Along an open highway, the length of sag vertical curves is usually based on the length of
the road illuminated by the headlight beam at night. Likewise, two cases have to be considered.
a. Sight distance is shorter than the required length of curve (figure 20)
𝐴𝐴𝑆𝑆 2
𝐿𝐿 = ; 𝛽𝛽 = 1°
2(𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 + 𝐻𝐻)

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Figure 20
Sight distance shorter than the length of curve
b. Sight distance is longer than the required length of curve (figure 21)
2(𝐻𝐻 + 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆)
𝐿𝐿 = 2𝑆𝑆 − ; 𝛽𝛽 = 1°
𝐴𝐴

Figure 21
Sight distance longer than length of curve
The determination of the required length of vertical curve may follow a trial-and-error
method. The designer may initially assume one consistent case. If the outcome of the
consumption using the specified equation is consistent with the assumption, the computed length
of curve is correct. Otherwise, if the outcome contradicts the assumed case, the other equation
must be used.
Example 8
Given: Design speed = 80 kph
G 1 = 2%; G 2 = -2%
Ss = 110 m
Sp = 550 m
Determine the length of vertical curve.
Solution:

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Therefore, to satisfy SSD, the length of vertical curve must be at least 113.615 m.

The assumption is correct, and the required length of curve is 1,205.179 m if PSD is to be
satisfied. This is more than ten times the required length for SSD. In actual design, it is almost
impossible to provide 100 percent PSD throughout the whole stretch of highway. Good design
would provide PSD at least one-third of the time.

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