Psychological Traffic Calming TRL 2005

‘Psychological’ traffic calming
Prepared for Traffic Management Division, Department

for Transport
J Kennedy, R Gorell, L Crinson, A Wheeler and M Elliott
TRL Report TRL641

First Published 2005
ISSN 0968-4107
ISBN 1-84608-640-X
Copyright TRL Limited 2005.
This report has been produced by TRL Limited, under/as part of

a contract placed by the Department for Transport. Any views
expressed in it are not necessarily those of the Department.
TRL is committed to optimising energy efficiency, reducing

waste and promoting recycling and re-use. In support of these
environmental goals, this report has been printed on recycled
paper, comprising 100% post-consumer waste, manufactured
using a TCF (totally chlorine free) process.
ii
CONTENTS
Page
Executive Summary 1
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Background 5
1.2 Outline of project 5
1.3 Structure of report 6
2 Review 6
2.1 Psychological principles 6
2.2 Design elements 6
3 Focus groups and questionnaire surveys using

photomontage techniques 7
3.1 Methodology 7
3.2 Focus groups 7
3.3 Questionnaire surveys 7
3.4 Scenario 1: Village with parked cars 8
3.5 Scenario 2: Village gateway 8
3.6 Scenario 3: Town centre 8
3.7 Scenario 4: Distributor road 12
3.8 Scenario 5: Village with church 12
3.9 Scenario 6: Village with telephone box 15
3.10 Summary and discussion 15
3.10.1 Summary of focus groups 15
3.10.2 Summary of questionnaire survey 15
3.10.3 Discussion 15
4 Driving Simulator trial 15

4.1 The TRL Driving Simulator 15
4.2 The models 17
4.3 The measures 17
4.4 Participants 20
4.5 Analysis 20
4.6 Mean speeds on control sections 20
4.7 Mean speeds at measures 20
4.8 Experience and gender effect 22
4.9 Occurrence number effect 22
4.10 Speed choice of driver effect 24
4.11 Lateral displacement 24
4.12 Summary of simulator results 24
iii
Page
5 On-road schemes 25
5.1 Schemes developed but not implemented 25
5.1.1 Proposed Sustrans cycle route along a narrow rural road 25
5.1.2 Spine road on housing estate 25
5.1.3 Narrow urban residential / shopping road 25
5.1.4 Village on a main A-road 25
5.2 Latton 26
5.2.1 The village 26
5.2.2 The scheme 27
5.2.3 Traffic flows, speeds and accidents 33
5.2.4 Public opinion survey 34
5.2.5 Summary of Latton results 37
6 Summary and discussion 37

6.1 Summary 37
6.2 Discussion 38
7 Acknowledgements 38
8 References 38
Abstract 40
Related publications 40
iv
Executive Summary
Background gateway, a town centre and a distributor road.

The direct link between reduced speeds and reduced Photomontage was used to illustrate the various traffic
accidents is well-established. Physical traffic calming calming ideas in a series of plates. The plates were used as
measures, generally defined as those which introduce either a basis for two focus group discussions and, with some
vertical or horizontal deflection to vehicles as they pass refinements, in face-to-face interviews of a sample of 100
along a road, are in widespread use. There are, however, respondents, who were asked about their speed choice. The
several problems associated with physical measures: focus groups were held early in the project and were used
to gauge reactions to the initial ideas, with the
z They may be unpopular.
questionnaire survey intended to give a better idea of the
z They can lead to a style of driving involving a high speed reductions that might be obtained. The more
degree of acceleration and deceleration, which in turn can promising ideas were tested on the TRL Driving
result in increased vehicle emissions, although reductions Simulator.
in traffic flow may compensate for such increases. Following on from this, the aim was to liaise with local
z Vehicles traversing vertical deflections can generate authorities to identify trial sites for installation and
increased noise nuisance. monitoring of the measures developed, including
z If crossed at inappropriate speeds, road humps can measurement of traffic speeds and flows, and public
damage vehicles and cause excessive discomfort to their attitude surveys. In the event, although schemes were
occupants. developed at a number of sites, only one has been
z The construction of physical measures can be costly, implemented, in the village of Latton in Wiltshire.
limiting their application.
z The uses of physical measures are limited and the Review of psychological measures
required associated signing can be a cause of unwanted Various broad psychological design principles were
visual intrusion. established. Reduced speeds might be generated by: more
complex environments (greater cognitive load); enclosing
TRL was commissioned by the Charging and Local
a distant view; breaking up linearity; creating uncertainty;
Transport Division (now the Traffic Management
increasing roadside activity; emphasising a change of
Division) of the Department for Transport (DfT) to
environment (e.g. village boundary); or making use of the
develop and test traffic calming techniques which make
properties of natural traffic calming (e.g. winding road).
greater use of psychological (non-physical) measures than
Perceptual techniques which make the environment seem
hitherto, but which still have a significant speed-reducing
more complex or less safe (i.e. they increase perceived risk
capability. Urban Designers David Huskisson Associates,
and not actual risk) have the potential for success.
under sub-contract to TRL, assisted in the development of
Psychological traffic calming works with a number of
new ideas and produced sketches and photomontage
design elements, such as: context; scale; proportion;
material. This is the final report on the project.
roadside activity; and road surfacing.
In addition to being effective in reducing speed, traffic
The measures developed for investigation were based as
calming measures used in a rural context in particular need
far as possible on these broad principles and design
to be aesthetically acceptable. A constraint on rural
elements. They included, for example, techniques to
measures developed was to avoid visually intrusive
visually or physically narrow the road; use of road
signing, markings, brightly coloured surfacing and
markings and features to highlight potential hazards or
physical measures, in favour of more sensitively designed
changes in the environment; use of road markings/
signing, fewer markings, and surface treatments in keeping
coloured surfacing to create the perception of an uneven
with the colour or character of local building materials.
road; and the use of planting to change the forward view.
Methodology
Focus groups and questionnaire survey
The research methodology adopted was as follows. At the
The main findings from the focus groups and questionnaire
start of the project, a review of psychological measures
survey were as follows:
was undertaken to look at the cognitive mechanisms
involved in drivers’ responses to different situations. This z The concept of psychological measures was generally
was intended to facilitate the development of measures welcomed in the focus groups, with the main disadvantages
with greater potential for success. A variety of traffic seen as the cost of some of the measures illustrated, and the
calming ideas were then developed, designed to influence possible reduction in effectiveness over time.
speeds through psychological mechanisms for a range of z Whilst the focus groups participants thought the use of
different scenarios. A photograph of a particular scene coloured surfacing would reduce speeds, it had little effect
without any traffic calming measures was taken as a on estimated speeds in the questionnaire survey. Features
baseline scenario and suitable traffic calming ideas that had a physical effect (causing horizontal deflection)
developed. The scenes selected comprised three villages, a were more successful than those which did not.
1
z A combination of measures tended to produce bigger Latton scheme
estimated speed reductions than individual measures. In Latton, the scheme was implemented in spring 2004. It
z Using edge markings to visually narrow the road extends for about 800m on the C419, formerly a trunk road
reduced estimated speeds. The reduction was greatest carrying heavy traffic, now bypassed. Although the
where the edging was textured and therefore appeared to scheme was intended to reduce speeds and increase
be unsuitable for driving on. perceived safety, there was no history of accidents at the
z Physically narrowing the road by adding a footway site. The main components of the scheme were:
reduced mean estimated speeds. z Stone gateways where the speed limit was reduced from
z The presence of pedestrians in the plates tended to reduce 40mph to 30mph.
mean estimated speeds. However, participants in the z Build-outs with planting to create new parking bays on
focus groups were concerned about the safety alternate sides of the carriageway.
implications of encouraging people to sit by the roadside.
z Removal of centre white line.
z The most effective measures included ‘Red brick
z Enhancement at and around the main junction, with
narrowing’ and ‘Tree build-outs’ shown below.
paved build-outs, a paved section of footway, and
The ‘Red brick narrowing’ was continuous, narrowed paving around the stone monument.
the road both physically and visually, and created z Buff surfacing near the bus stops and the main junction,
uncertainty as it was not clear to motorists whether it was a a section considered most likely to be crossed by
footway or part of the road. The lack of a centre line meant pedestrians.
that drivers were concerned about meeting other vehicles
z New bus bay.
head-on. The ‘Tree build-outs’ are examples of a repeated
measure that narrowed the road at regular intervals, z Lowering of the lighting columns to a height more
creating a degree of uncertainty as to road width. They appropriate for a minor road.
also reduced forward visibility. The build-outs gave a gentle chicane effect, resulting in
physical and visual narrowing of the road. The road
Simulator study remained at least 5.5m wide at all points. The planting on
The main findings from the Driving Simulator trials were the build-outs and use of the parking bays were intended to
as follows: limit the forward visibility and break up the sightlines.
z Continuous or repeated measures were required to sustain Inbound mean speeds fell by 8mph and 4mph at the
speed reductions. For example, the village gateway alone gateways, to 37mph. There was a similar decrease in 85th
had little effect on speed within the village. percentile speeds, to about 45mph. In the village, two-way
mean speeds fell by 7-8mph to 31mph and 85th percentile
z Coloured surfacing alone, however elaborate, did little
speeds fell by 8-10mph to 37-38mph. This was despite
to slow traffic.
under-use of the parking bays that allowed two large
z Uncertainty appeared to reduce speed; for example, vehicles to pass alongside each other by partially
build-outs were particularly effective where there was straddling the parking bay. The under-use also meant that
another vehicle approaching. forward visibility was not reduced as much as intended,
z In general, the faster drivers showed the greater speed particularly whilst the planting on the build-outs is
reductions when traversing the more effective measures. immature. Although within the village over half of
z The most effective measures were the ‘Red brick vehicles still exceeded the new 30mph speed limit during
narrowing’ or ‘Tree build-outs’, as above, and ‘Build- the ‘after’ survey, the proportion exceeding 40mph fell
outs’ involving the use of bollards rather than trees. from 50% to around 10%.
2
A total of 91 residents, representing a high proportion of Overall, the project has shown that there is no simple,
households within the village, took part in a public opinion unique, widely applicable psychological measure. Rather it
survey of the scheme. The main findings were that over is a matter of applying psychological principles to each
three-quarters of the respondents supported the scheme new situation in a holistic manner. There will continue to
and liked its appearance, with about half of respondents be situations where physical measures are needed.
thinking it was safer to cross the road than before. Opinion However, psychological schemes can be effective, their
was divided over the removal of the centre white lining, effect can be lasting (at least over a period of months) and
with the one-third of respondents against it concerned they are highly acceptable to local people.
about opposing vehicles in the centre of the road.
Discussion
The most effective measures in the off-road trials were
those with a physical as well as a psychological effect. A
combination of measures that was either repeated at
suitable intervals or continuous was more effective and an
isolated measure. In the on-road trial in Latton, the gentle
chicane effect over the length of the scheme, the reduction
in forward visibility and an element of uncertainty from
the lack of a centre line, narrowed carriageway and parked
cars all combined to reduce speeds; in addition, the
measures changed the feel of the road from a trunk road to
a local road and emphasised the presence of the village.
Much greater speed reductions have been produced in
Latton than are generally attained in this type of scheme
and there was a large decrease in the proportion of drivers
exceeding 40mph. Although a small part of this reduction
must be attributed to the lowering of the speed limit, it is
not considered that a reduction in the speed limit alone
would have given more than about a 3mph reduction in
mean speed. Even greater speed reductions might have
been attained had the planting been more mature and/or
the flows greater. The parking bays are often under-used
and this allows two large vehicles to pass alongside each
other by partially straddling the parking bay. It also means
that forward visibility is not reduced as much as intended,
particularly whilst the planting is immature. Although the
costs were higher than for some schemes of this type, they
were not excessive at around £40,000.
It has been demonstrated that it is possible to design an
effective traffic calming scheme that is aesthetically
pleasing without resort to measures such as road humps,
chicanes or one-way working. The reasons for success are
likely to have been:
z Consistent treatment of a whole length of road.
z Centre of village treated in addition to gateways.
z Visual and physical road narrowing.
z Limiting of forward visibility / breaking up of sightlines
to increase driver awareness / cognitive load.
z Removal of white line in conjunction with the physical
narrowing at parking bays, to create uncertainty.
A key element in developing the scheme was an
understanding of the theoretical mechanisms that help to
explain and predict the effects of the road environment on
drivers’ speed choice. This was combined with an
understanding of ‘natural’ traffic calming, alterations to
the environmental context of the scheme and extensive
consultation with the main stakeholders.
3
4
1 Introduction 1999a and 1999b; Traffic Advisory Leaflets 10/97, 02/98,
08/98, 13/99).
1.1 Background z DfT / Countryside Traffic Measures Group (CTMG)
The direct link between reduced speeds and reduced study of measures designed with sensitivity to the rural
accidents is well-established (see, for example, Taylor et al., environment (e.g. Kennedy and Wheeler, 2001).
2000; Taylor, 2001) and it is the most serious accidents z Investigations of how naturally occurring features, or
which have the greatest potential to be affected by aspects of urban design, can be used to develop
reductions in vehicle speeds that are too fast for the ‘psychological’ measures for speed reduction (e.g.
prevailing conditions. Physical traffic calming measures, Scottish Executive Development Department, 1999,
generally defined as those which introduce either vertical Highways Agency, 2002; Chinn et al., 2002; Chinn and
or horizontal deflection to vehicles as they pass along a Elliott, 2002a and b).
road, are in widespread use. These measures – for From some of these studies have emerged non-physical
example, road humps, speed cushions, speed tables and measures which are now in common use – for example,
chicanes – have been shown to generate substantial various village gateway treatments, such as the use of
reductions in vehicle speeds and accidents. The most coloured surfacing, and painted speed limit ‘roundels’. They
notable evidence of this is from the monitoring of 20mph have included ‘perceptual’ measures which are designed to
zones, in which mean speed reductions of about 10mph convey a greater level of risk than actually prevails – for
have been generated, resulting in a reduction in injury example, visually narrowing the carriageway through road
accidents of more than a half (Webster and Mackie, 1996). markings / use of coloured surfacing. However, some of the
However, there are a number of concerns associated measures have produced only a limited effect on speeds,
with the application of physical measures, as follows: with 85th percentile speeds remaining above the prevailing
z They may be unpopular. speed limit, whilst some others with a greater speed-
z They can lead to a style of driving involving a high reducing capability are visually intrusive.
degree of acceleration and deceleration, which in turn The idea of ‘self-explaining’ roads i.e. ones on which
can result in increased vehicle emissions although drivers naturally adopt the correct speed originated in the
reductions in traffic flow may compensate for such Netherlands (e.g. Theeuwes, 1998). Another initiative is
increases (Cloke et al., 1999). ‘shared space’, where the whole of the road space is
z Vehicles traversing vertical deflections can generate available to all road users including cyclists and pedestrians.
increased noise and vibration; whilst the latter is The main uses have been in Home Zones (e.g. Layfield et al.,
generally imperceptible, the former has been shown to 2003, Tilly et al., 2005, Webster et al., 2005, Traffic
Advisory Leaflets, 10/01 and 08/02), where there are likely
be a source of nuisance (see for example, Abbott et al.,
to be physical constraints to reduce speeds sufficiently to
1997, Traffic Advisory Leaflet 10/00).
allow children to play in the street, and in Quiet Lanes
z If crossed at inappropriate speeds, road humps can damage (Kennedy et al., 2004a and b, Traffic Advisory Leaflet
vehicles and cause excessive discomfort to their occupants. 03/04). The latter are lanes that already have low flows
z The construction of physical measures can be costly, and low speeds, the intention being to maintain these
limiting their application. conditions and increase driver awareness of the possibility
z The use of physical measures is governed by Highways of non-motorised users. In the Netherlands, more radical
Regulations and because of their nature, they can only experiments have been undertaken with ‘naked streets’,
be used in a limited range of situations, and/or with notably by Hans Monderman. This concept relies on the
prominent signing warning of their presence. Such removal of signage, traffic signals and footways to
signing can be a cause of unwanted visual intrusion. encourage drivers and pedestrians to interact with each
other. However, concerns remain regarding the legibility
A number of UK research projects in recent years have and safety of such designs for vulnerable users,
sought to develop traffic calming measures which particularly those with sensory or mobility impairments,
overcome some or all of these difficulties, whilst still and the effects where there are higher levels of traffic, or
retaining the capability to reduce vehicle speeds. In higher proportions of heavy vehicles.
addition, a more holistic approach to traffic calming, In addition to being effective in reducing speed, traffic
aimed at using measures that are appropriate to the calming measures need to be aesthetically acceptable;
context, has been undertaken for a range of situations on particularly those developed for use in a rural or historic
both urban and rural roads. Key examples are: context. It is important to avoid unnecessarily visually
z Department for Transport (DfT) Village Speed intrusive signing, markings, brightly coloured surfacing
Reduction (VISP) initiative and study of traffic calming and physical measures. Surface treatments and physical
on major roads (e.g. Wheeler et al., 1993, 1994, 1996, measures should be designed to be in keeping with the
1997; Wheeler and Taylor, 1999; DfT Traffic Advisory colour or character of local building materials.
Leaflets 01/94, 02/97, 01/00 and 11/00).
z DfT Bypass Demonstration Project (Ross Silcock, 1995). 1.2 Outline of project
z DfT / English Historic Towns Forum study of traffic TRL was commissioned in 2001 by the Charging and
calming in Historic Core Zones (e.g. Wheeler, 1997, Local Transport Division (now the Traffic Management
5
Division) of the Department for Transport to develop and z More complex environments tend to be associated with
test traffic calming techniques which make greater use of slower driving speeds, the likely mechanisms being
psychological (non-physical) measures than hitherto, but increases in cognitive load and perceived risk.
which still have a significant speed-reducing capability. z Natural traffic calming such as a hump back bridge or a
The intention was to take the development of traffic winding road can be very effective in reducing speeds,
calming measures a step further than previous UK as well as being more acceptable to drivers. Carefully
research. The speed-reducing measures needed to be designed schemes, using the properties of natural traffic
inexpensive to install, not (visually or otherwise) calming, have the potential to achieve a similar effect.
environmentally intrusive, but still effective in reducing z Emphasising changes of environment e.g. highway /
speeds. village boundary can increase awareness and/or reduce
Professional Urban Designers David Huskisson speed.
Associates (DHA), under sub-contract to TRL, had a key
z Enclosing a distant view and/or breaking up linearity
role in assisting with the development of new approaches
and presentation of material for discussion. They also can reduce speeds.
produced ideas and sketches for on-road schemes. z Creating uncertainty can reduce speeds.
The project involved: z Combinations of measures tend to be more effective
z A review of psychological measures (Elliot et al., 2003) than individual ones, but can be visually intrusive and
which looked at the cognitive mechanisms involved in may be costly.
drivers’ responses to different situations in order to z Roadside activity e.g. parked vehicles, the presence of
facilitate the development of measures with greater pedestrians or a cycle lane can reduce speeds.
potential for success. z Vertical objects in the visual periphery such as buildings
z Reviews of other rural measures. or a row of trees might enhance the perception of speed
z Identification of further innovative measures, through by providing vertical contrast.
consultation and brainstorming with professionals, Perceptual techniques which make the environment seem
followed by group discussions with members of the public. more complex or less safe therefore have the potential for
z Assessment of a selection of psychological and other success. It is important to ensure that measures that increase
measures using photomontage techniques and the TRL perceived risk do not increase actual risk.
driving simulator.
z Liaison with local authorities to identify trial sites on the 2.2 Design elements
public highway and assist with the detailed design of Psychological traffic calming works within a number of
suitable measures. design elements, such as:
z Monitoring of selected schemes before and after z Context.
installation. z Scale.
z Interpretation of the results and recommendations. z Proportion.
z Roadside activity.
1.3 Structure of report
z Road surface.
This is the final report on the project. Section 2 describes
the review of psychological principles, whilst Section 3 Context relates to the type of road and its historical
outlines the methodology used to develop suitable character. Scale is related to road width, whilst proportion is
measures. Section 4 presents the results from focus group determined by the height of enclosing features such as
buildings or trees. These three elements act together to set
discussions and a questionnaire survey respectively, both
the dimensions of the road corridor, which may in itself give
designed to establish subjects’ opinions of the effect on
some natural traffic calming, or may need to be modified.
speed of different road features. Section 5 describes a trial
For example, if the road is unnecessarily wide for the traffic
using the TRL Driving Simulator to assess the speeds
it carries, then some form of physical or visual narrowing
adopted with different measures. Section 6 describes the
might be needed. The alignment of the road, especially the
on-road schemes developed. Results are summarised in
horizontal alignment, has a large effect on speed. Limiting
Section 7, with discussion and conclusions in Section 8.
forward visibility is one way of reproducing the effect of a
bend without having to engineer it.
Roadside activity might be cars parked at the roadside
2 Review (parallel or en echelon), pedestrians on the pavement,
delivery vehicles or a bus or cycle lane.
2.1 Psychological principles Coloured surfacing is a technique that is widely used
An important difference from earlier work is that the project either to highlight a particular road feature where drivers
started by looking at psychological principles. Elliott et al. need to take extra care or to delineate the road space (e.g.
(2003) reviewed the cognitive mechanisms involved in by use of cycle or bus lanes). It can also be used to visually
drivers’ responses to speed-reducing factors and assessed narrow the road. Textured surfacing has a more limited
how psychological measures might achieve a reduction in application, as rough road surfaces can be noisy and
speed. Various broad principles were established: uncomfortable. Rumblewave surfacing (Watts et al., 2002
6
and Traffic Advisory Leaflet 1/05) is designed to generate in Section 4), TRL maintains a database of over 1000
noise for the driver (i.e. inside the vehicle) but not for subjects, that is people who do not have a direct
residents or pedestrians (i.e. outside the vehicle); it can be involvement in the work of TRL, but are available for
used over short lengths as an alerting device. Textured participation in simulator experiments and are also willing
surfacing used in the centre or along the edge of a road can to take part in other trials, such as focus groups.
serve as a reminder to drivers to keep away from this area. Two focus groups were held in June 2002, one in the
Several UK local authorities have tested the removal of evening and the second in the morning. Ten participants
centre white lining (Debell, 2003). attended each, of whom equal numbers were male and
female and a range of ages was represented. All were
regular drivers, with a spread of experience.
3 Focus groups and questionnaire A projector was used to show 31 plates with and without
traffic calming features relating to the five different
surveys using photomontage techniques scenarios listed in Section 3.1 and described below in
Sections 3.4 to 3.8. The plates were first presented in
3.1 Methodology random order and the participants were asked to look at
The research methodology adopted was to use a range of each and write down how fast they would drive if they
different scenarios for which a variety of traffic calming encountered the scene in real life. Estimated speeds for
ideas were developed, based on the psychological each scenario with and without the various traffic calming
principles outlined in Section 2.1. A photograph of a features were then compared. Because of the small sample,
particular scene without any traffic calming measures was no tests were undertaken of the statistical significance of
the differences in speed.
taken as a baseline scenario. Photomontage was used to
The participants were then asked to discuss the plates in
illustrate the various ideas. The methodology was similar
each scenario in terms of speed, safety and aesthetics and
to that adopted by Uzzell and Leach (2001) and in an
to comment on any other issues arising.
earlier TRL project (Chinn and Elliott, 2002a and b;
Chinn et al., 2002) for the Highways Agency, although the
TRL project used sketches rather than photomontage. 3.3 Questionnaire surveys
The plates resulting from the photomontage were used For the questionnaire survey, 100 members of the general
as a basis for the focus group discussions and public representative of the general population were
questionnaire survey. The more interesting ideas were interviewed face-to-face to establish their opinions on
subsequently tested in the driving simulator trial and the driving speeds in the different scenarios with the various
on-road measures. traffic calming features. The sample of respondents was
selected at random from the electoral register in the area
The road scenarios selected initially were as follows:
close to TRL. Approximately equal numbers of men and
1 Village with parked cars. women were interviewed and a good age range was
2 Village gateway. obtained. All drove a motor vehicle.
3 Town centre. Most of the plates from the focus groups were also used
in the questionnaire survey, but a few were omitted to cut
4 Distributor road. down the total number and an additional village scenario
5 Village with church. was added. This gave a total of six scenarios, each with
The plates were discussed with two focus groups at an five plates, illustrated in the following sections. The results
presented are for the plates that were common to both the
early stage of the project. Subsequently a slightly revised
focus group and the questionnaire survey (except for
set of plates and a sixth scenario were used as the basis of
Scenario 5, where several changes were made following
a questionnaire survey in face-to-face interviews of a
the focus groups), plus the new scenario.
sample of 100 respondents. The sixth scenario was: Respondents were asked three questions relating to
6 Village with phone box. speed choice about each plate:
The descriptions ‘with parked cars’, ‘with church’ and i The speed at which they themselves would drive?
‘with phone box’ are simply included as aides-memoir and ii The speed at which most other drivers would drive?
are not intended to imply that these features have any iii What would be a safe speed?
significance in the context of the traffic calming.
The plates were presented to respondents in four
different random orderings, to reduce the possibility of
3.2 Focus groups responses being affected by the ordering.
Two focus groups were used to gauge the response to the The overall effects of the different countermeasures on
traffic calming measures illustrated in the photomontage, mean speed ratings were tested for statistical significance
in order to establish which types of non-physical traffic using repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA).
calming were likely to be most effective. Once identified, There were some differences between the three types of
these potential measures were evaluated in more detail. speed ratings respondents were required to make. Overall,
It was important to ensure that the participants were respondents reported that:
representative of the population as a whole and had no z Most other drivers would drive significantly faster than
direct involvement in the design of traffic calming they themselves would (statistically significant at the 5%
schemes. For its work using a driving simulator (described level).
7
z The speed at which most other drivers would drive down traffic because some participants associated it with
would be significantly greater than what they schools and children. The participants thought that the
themselves considered to be a safe travelling speed patches of coloured surfacing in Plates 4 and 5 would be
(statistically significant at the 1% level). the least effective in slowing down drivers, suggesting
z There were no statistically significant differences that they merely looked as if the road had been re-
between respondents’ estimated speed and their ratings surfaced. There was concern that the effectiveness of the
of what they considered to be a safe speed – in other measures would not be sustained over time.
words, for each plate, respondents said they would drive
at a speed consistent with what they considered to be 3.5 Scenario 2: Village gateway
safe for the road conditions.
Figure 2 illustrates the five plates for Scenario 2, the
The ‘speed of most other drivers’ was consistently about ‘Village gateway’. Plate 1 is the baseline before any
4 to 5mph higher than their own estimated speed and this measures were added. Plate 2 shows a gateway and
difference was statistically significant. In this report, only trimmed verge, Plates 3 and 4 add patches of coloured
the first speed i.e. (i), the speed at which drivers said they surfacing in the distance to enclose the forward view. The
themselves would drive, is given. additional red patch at the gateway in Plate 4 and the more
elaborate surfacing in Plate 5 are intended to emphasise the
3.4 Scenario 1: Village with parked cars transition from highway to village. Plate 5 shows
additional trees and a neatly trimmed hedge that exposes
Figure 1 illustrates the five plates for this scenario. Plate 1
more of the housing behind it, again to emphasise the
represents the baseline situation before traffic calming
measures have been applied. Plates 2 to 5 have various change in environment.
measures added and the centre line removed for all or part The mean speed attributed to Plate 1 was 42mph in the
of the road. focus groups and 39.6mph in the questionnaire survey
Plate 2 emphasises the driveways (‘Curved edging to (Table 2). All of the measures suggested worthwhile speed
mark driveways’), with the intention of creating improvements in the focus groups, although not
uncertainty by reminding drivers of the possibility of an surprisingly, the plates with the most measures were
emerging vehicle. Plate 3 has red brick edging with the associated with the lowest mean driving speeds. However,
appearance of cobbles that narrow the road (‘Red brick the participants in the questionnaire survey thought that the
narrowing’) both physically and visually, and the band of gateway alone would have little effect.
red across the road acts as a gateway for the village centre. The participants in the focus groups agreed that the
Plates 4 (‘Coloured patch’) and 5 (‘Curved patch’) have openness of the road in Plate 1 encourages the driver to
patches of coloured surfacing intended to remind the driver speed. Although Plate 5 was associated with the lowest
to slow down, with the ‘curved’ patch in Plate 5 giving the mean speed, some participants suggested that the road
illusion of excessive camber. looks open and would encourage drivers to speed up,
As noted above, each driver in the focus groups was whilst others thought it would slow traffic because it
asked to write down the speed they would adopt if driving emphasises the village entry and the trees give a narrowing
through the scene shown in each plate and respondents in effect. The measures in Plate 5 were regarded as the safest
the questionnaire survey were asked two further questions for pedestrians. The participants identified the measures in
relating to safe speeds and those of other drivers. Plate 3 as the most cost effective. The measures in Plate 5
The mean and standard deviation of the estimated speed were considered the most attractive, but participants
each driver would adopt for each plate in Scenario 1 is thought they would be very expensive.
shown in Table 1 for the focus groups and the It was suggested that changing the speed limit from 40
questionnaire survey separately. to 30mph would encourage people to slow down,
Overall, the ‘Red brick narrowing’ in Plate 3 was although regular drivers would take little notice of a
predicted to have the greatest effect on speed, with an change in speed limit.
estimated reduction of about 5mph compared to the
baseline scenario. 3.6 Scenario 3: Town centre
The participants in the focus groups thought that the Figure 3 illustrates the plates for Scenario 3. Plate 1 is the
‘Red brick narrowing’ in Plate 3 would slow drivers baseline. Plate 2 shows a mock road hump, intended as an
down due to the narrowing. There was concern that the informal crossing, with the aim of making drivers slow
paving stones would be a safety hazard if they became down both because the feature looks like a hump and
loose. The participants liked these measures better than because of the possibility of pedestrians crossing there.
the other measures in Scenario 1, commenting that they Plate 3 shows the same mock hump with an island with a
made the area look more attractive. The bench at the side tree in the background which the driver will have to
of the road in Plate 2 (‘Curved edging’) was introduced negotiate, adding to the complexity of the scene. Plates 4
as a calming measure, but was considered by some and 5 emphasise the hump in different ways.
participants to be a safety hazard because it encouraged The mean estimated speed associated with all the plates
pedestrians to sit by the roadside. The white fencing in was less than 25mph (Table 3). Speed reductions in the
Plate 4 was highlighted as a good mechanism for slowing questionnaire surveys were modest, up to 3mph.
8
1: Baseline 2: Curved edging to mark driveways
3: Red brick narrowing 4: Coloured patch
5: Curved patch
Figure 1 Plates for Scenario 1: Village with parked cars

Table 1 How fast would you drive in Scenario 1: Village with parked cars
Focus groups (20) Questionnaire survey (100)
Study (sample size) Mean Standard Difference Mean Standard Difference

speed deviation from base speed deviation from base
Picture Description (mph) (mph) (mph)1 (mph) (mph) (mph)2
1 Baseline 36.0 6.4 31.1 5.0

2 Curved edging to mark driveways 32.5 5.4 -3.5 28.6 5.4 -2.5
3 Red brick narrowing 30.6 5.6 -5.4 26.5 5.6 -4.6
4 Coloured patch 31.5 6.1 -4.5 30.0 4.5 -1.1
5 Curved patch 31.1 5.3 -4.9 29.1 4.1 -2.0
1
Sample too small for statistical testing.
2
Differences in italics are statistically significant at the 5% level or better.
9
1: Baseline 2: Gateway
3: Gateway and patches 4: Alternative gateway and patches
5: Gateway and continuous coloured surface with patches
Figure 2 Focus group plates for Scenario 2: Village gateway
Table 2 How fast would you drive in Scenario 2: Village gateway

1 Baseline 42.1 7.7 39.6 5.1

2 Gateway 38.2 6.8 -3.9 38.6 5.4 -1.0
3 Gateway and patches 38.6 6.8 -3.5 37.9 5.4 -1.7
4 Alternative gateway and patches 37.4 6.5 -4.7 36.6 5.4 -3.1
5 Gateway and continuous coloured 35.7 7.5 -6.4 35.4 5.7 -4.3
surface with patches
1
2
10
1: Baseline 2: Mock hump
3: Mock hump with island 4: Mock hump with holes
5: Mock humps with brown holes
Figure 3 Focus group plates for Scenario 3: Town centre
Table 3 How fast would you drive in Scenario 3: town centre

1 Base line 23.7 4.4 22.1 5.8

2 Mock hump 19.7 4.4 -4.0 21.2 6.0 -0.9
3 Mock hump and island 18.7 5.6 -5.0 19.5 6.5 -2.6
4 Mock hump and ‘holes’ 18.3 5.6 -5.4 19.8 6.3 -2.3
5 Mock hump, brown ‘holes’ 20.3 5.9 -3.4 20.5 6.3 -1.6
1
Sample too small for statistical testing. One participant consistently chose a very low speed because of the car in the foreground and was excluded.
2
11
Participants in the focus groups remarked that the 41mph, with a reduction of about 6mph associated with the
presence of pedestrians in Plate 1 would cause drivers to measures in the two other plates.
slow down, without the need for traffic calming measures. The participants in the focus groups found all the
The measures in Plate 2 were considered the most measures for this scenario confusing. Most remarked that
attractive in Scenario 3. Participants commented that the road users may try to follow the wavy edging. It was
false hump looked like a pedestrian crossing and might considered that the schemes would be effective in reducing
encourage pedestrians to walk out in front of cars. speed initially, making drivers more cautious. Some
participants remarked that the curves would distract the
driver, making the driver a danger to other road users.
3.7 Scenario 4: Distributor road
In Scenario 4, the ‘Distributor road’, the measures were all
3.8 Scenario 5: Village with church
variants of wavy edge lines, intended to create uncertainty
and to visually narrow the road. For the focus groups, the The plates for this scenario are illustrated in Figure 6.
wavy edge line patterns were random. For the Plate 1 is the baseline. The measures in Plates 2 and 3
narrow the road physically by adding a footway and a
questionnaire survey, they were re-drawn to show two
ditch respectively. The footway is retained in Plate 4 and
different symmetrical cases (plan views as in Figure 4) the
the driveways are also emphasised to create uncertainty; a
‘snake’ and the ‘boa constrictor’.
patch of grass with a bench in the distance emphasises the
Figure 5 illustrates the five plates for this scenario. In
narrowing of the road at that point. The measures in Plate 5
these plates, the main difference between measures
extend those in Plate 4 with more coloured surfacing and
appears in the effect on the centre lines. Plate 1 is again the
benches with pedestrians.
baseline. Plates 2 and 3 illustrate the ‘snake’, with and Mean estimated speeds are shown in Table 5. Participants
without a centre line. Plate 4 is the same as Plate 2, but the in the focus groups thought that the residential feel in
colour is continued onto the pavement. Plate 5 shows the this scenario would be enough to cause drivers to slow
‘boa constrictor’ with a centre line. down. They commented that narrowing the road reduces
The baseline was the same for both the focus groups and speeds. Accentuating driveways may make drivers more
the questionnaire survey and two of the plates were cautious because they are aware that a vehicle may
sufficiently similar for the differences to be ignored. reverse from them.
Estimated speeds associated with all plates in the In terms of estimated speed reduction, the footway was
questionnaire survey and for those common to the focus more effective than the ditch, although both narrowed the
groups are shown in Table 4. road to the same extent.
Results from the questionnaire surveys showed The measures in Plate 5 gave the greatest reduction in
relatively modest estimated speed reductions of up to mean estimated speeds, of about 8mph. The focus group
about 3mph, compared with a baseline of 38mph, whereas participants liked the appearance of these measures, but
in the focus groups, the average speed for the baseline was highlighted the cost implications.
'Boa constrictor' with 'Snake' with 'Snake' with

white centre line no centre line wavy centre line
Figure 4 Plan view of ‘Boa constrictor’ and ‘Snake’ road markings
12
1: Baseline 2: Snake, no centre white line
3: Snake, wavy centre white line 4: Snake with red pavement, no centre white line
5: Boa constrictor, red pavement, straight centre white line
Figure 5 Questionnaire survey plates for Scenario 4: Distributor road
Table 4 How fast would you drive in Scenario 4: Distributor road

1 Baseline 41.0 9.8 38.0 6.7

2 Snake, no centre line 35.0 10.0 -6.0 35.3 7.1 -2.7
3 Snake, wavy centre white line – – – 35.4 6.5 -2.6
4 Snake with red pavement, no centre line – – – 35.2 6.5 -2.8
5 Boa constrictor with centre line 34.6 9.8 -6.4 36.0 6.8 -2.0
1
2
13
1: Baseline 2: Footway
3: Ditch 4: Footway and driveways
5: Footway and continuous coloured surface
Figure 6 Focus group plates in Scenario 5: Village with church
Table 5 How fast would you drive in Scenario 5: Village with church

1 Baseline 33.7 9.1 32.5 6.5

2 Footway 30.9 8.3 -2.8 30.4 5.6 -2.1
3 Ditch 35.1 9.4 +1.4 30.0 6.6 -2.5
4 Footway and driveways 27.9 7.6 -5.9 25.9 6.1 -6.6
5 Footway and coloured surface 25.0 7.4 -8.7 24.1 6.1 -8.4
1
Based on 19 participants - sample too small for statistical testing.
2
14
3.9 Scenario 6: Village with telephone box The greatest reductions in estimated speed were
Figure 7 shows the plates used for Scenario 6, ‘Village obtained with the ‘Footway and continuous coloured
with telephone box’. This scenario was not used in the surface’ in the ‘Village with church’ scenario (8.3mph),
focus groups. Plate 1 is the baseline. Plate 2 shows build- the ‘Build-outs with posts, lines on the road surface’ and
outs on both sides of the road, each with a tree protected ‘Build-outs with trees, no centre line’ in the ‘Village with
by a fence. Plate 3 shows the same build-outs, but with telephone box’ scenario (7.1mph and 5.4mph
posts rather than trees. Plate 4 is the same as Plate 2, but respectively), and the ‘Red brick narrowing’ in the
there is no centre white line, and the build-outs with ‘Village with parked cars’ scenario (4.6mph).
coloured surfacing are emphasised. Plate 5 is identical to In contrast to the focus groups, coloured surfacing alone
Plate 3, but horizontal lines on the road surface are added did little to slow vehicles. It was again found that features
with a physical impact were more successful than those
to emphasise the posts.
without.
Table 6 shows that estimated speeds were significantly
lower (p<0.001 in all cases) by between 4 and 7mph. The
biggest estimated speed reduction was associated with the 3.10.3 Discussion
measures in Plate 5. The mean estimated speeds in the focus groups are based
on the small numbers of participants, but those in the
3.10 Summary and discussion questionnaire survey were more broadly based. Neither is
necessarily realistic. However, unpublished research at
3.10.1 Summary of focus groups TRL found good correlation between mean estimated
The focus groups considered that road narrowing reduced speed from video clips and actual observed mean speeds
speeds and this was generally consistent with the on the same road. Chinn et al. (2002) found good
participants’ average estimated speed. For example, with agreement between speed ratings for sketches and speeds
the ‘Red brick narrowing’ in Plate 3 in the ‘Village with obtained using the TRL Driving simulator.
parking’ scenario, participants’ mean estimated speed was
6mph below the baseline speed. In the ‘Village with
church’ scenario, adding a footway narrowed the road and 4 Driving Simulator trial
was more effective at reducing estimated speeds than a
The TRL Driving Simulator was used to assess the more
ditch, but a footway combined with other measures gave
promising measures examined through the focus groups
greater estimated speed reductions.
and questionnaire surveys. The advantage of using the
The use of continuous coloured surfacing produced
simulator was the greater realism and the ability to
mixed responses from the participants. In the ‘Gateway’
consider the effect of a measure on downstream speeds.
scenario, participants thought that continuous coloured
Some variations were made to the previous measures for
road surfacing highlighted the transition from rural road to
practical reasons: for example, the mock road humps from
village, accentuated the village characteristics and made the Town Centre scenario were not included.
the area more aesthetically pleasing (‘Village gateway’
scenario, Plate 5 and ‘Village with church’ scenario,
Plate 5, in Figures 2 and 6 respectively). 4.1 The TRL Driving Simulator
Patches of coloured surfacing were not considered very The simulator consists of a real car (Rover 414) surrounded
effective by the participants, but in terms of estimated by four large projection screens (one in front, one behind
speeds, they were just as effective as continuous coloured and two either side). The car remains static as high-
surfacing, whilst being less expensive. Curved edging to resolution images are projected on to the screens. The
mark driveways had slightly less effect on estimated speed images are generated by computer and respond to the
than the patches of coloured surfacing which stretched steering, gears and pedals of the car. As the car is ‘driven’,
across the road. the images change creating the illusion that the car is
The use of shrubs and trees to reduce forward visibility moving. Hydraulic equipment is used to induce some
was a concern to some of the participants. pitch, roll and heave to the car. However, these movements
In all cases, where pedestrians were illustrated in the are limited and cannot reproduce the full range of forces
plates, such as in the ‘Town Centre’ scenario or sitting on a that occur, for instance, during emergency braking. In
bench, the participants commented they would drive more order to generate the illusion of movement, a 3D computer
cautiously. However, they were concerned about the safety model is constructed.
implications of encouraging people to sit by the roadside. Simulator trials have several advantages over public
Participants commented that psychological measures are road trials:
likely to become less effective over time. z novel measures can be assessed safely and cheaply;
z a larger number of measures and variants can be tested
3.10.2 Summary of questionnaire survey much more quickly and cheaply;
Respondents considered that most other drivers would z a range of combinations of measures can easily be
drive significantly faster than they would, and that their tested;
own speed corresponded to a safe speed for the scenario z the conditions are controlled (i.e. comparison of the
shown. The results from the questionnaire survey generally effectiveness of measures is not hampered by variations
reinforced the findings on speed from the focus groups. in other factors, as happens in public road trials).
15
1: Baseline 2: Build-outs with trees, centre line
3: Build-outs with posts, centre line 4: Build-outs with trees, no centre line
5: Build-outs with posts, lines on road surface, no centre line
Figure 7 Questionnaire survey plates for Scenario 6: Village with telephone box
Table 6 How fast would you drive in Scenario 6: Village with telephone box
Questionnaire survey (100)
Study (sample size) Mean Standard Difference

speed deviation from base
Picture Description (mph) (mph) (mph)1
1 Baseline 34.9 6.1

2 Build-outs with trees, centre line 30.9 5.7 -4.0
3 Build-outs with posts, centre line 30.9 6.1 -4.0
4 Build-outs with trees, no centre line 29.5 6.0 -5.4
5 Build-outs with posts, lines on road surface, no centre line 27.8 6.4 -7.1
1
16
It is important to consider the interpretation of the Routes A and B each tested three village measures.
results, especially as there are no data from existing After the start-up section, each route had eight villages,
installations against which the results could be checked. each having one of the three measures or acting as a
Lockwood (1997) investigated the accuracy of the control. Each measure was repeated twice and there were
simulator in predicting the speed reduction at trial traffic two control villages. The villages were each 2km long and
calming measures on public roads in rural or semi-rural were separated by rural single carriageway sections.
areas. The report concluded that the relative effects of Route C tested three measures on an urban distributor
signing/marking measures could be broadly reproduced in road. The start-up section had villages separated by
the simulator. Therefore it would be reasonable to expect sections of rural single carriageway. The urban sections
that during the current trial, the relative effectiveness of with measures were separated by similar sections of
the different measures being evaluated will be established, distributor road with no measures. Each of the measures
although it should be noted that one of the three models and the control appeared twice.
used simulated an urban environment.
Images of the measures as modelled on the simulator are
During the current trial, the simulator generated vehicles
shown in Figure 8, Figure 9 and Figure 10.
travelling in the opposite direction to the subject’s vehicle.
These vehicles were intended to give the impression of
traffic on the carriageway. However, the amount of Measure V1: Gateway only (Figure 8)
computer power required severely limited the amount of This measure featured a gateway with the village name
traffic generated, and so the rural context may have been plate and speed limit signs. For the purposes of the
better represented than the urban context. No traffic was simulator trial the plate displayed a simple village name up
generated in the same direction as the driven vehicle. This to eight characters long. The gateways were placed at the
was to avoid the driver being influenced by the car in front entry to the 30mph zone. They had the appearance of
when novel measures were encountered. being constructed out of Cotswold stone and were similar
to those developed in the photomontage for the focus
4.2 The models groups and questionnaire surveys (Figure 2, Plate 2).
It was important to build a plausible computer model of
the environments being simulated. The models comprised Measure V2: Gateway with patches at intervals through
relatively short sections of road which were used in village (Figure 8)
different combinations to form three routes. Two of these This measure featured the gateway used in V1 with the
routes (designated A and B) consisted of a series of centre line removed and with a red centre strip, red edging,
villages joined by sections of rural road while the third and long patches of contrasting surfacing repeated at
(Route C) consisted of urban roads connected by rural intervals through the village. Edges and centre red strips
links. The treatments being evaluated were then modelled were each 0.5m wide. The gateway strip (between the gate
and applied to some of the road sections. These sections posts) was 5m long. The patches were 100m long with
formed an approximate arc, with gentle curves which gaps of 100m between them. Both edge and centre red
ensured that the route did not become monotonous. There strips were started 50m in advance of the gateway.
was a control section for each measure.
Measure V3: Gateway with coloured surfacing continued

4.3 The measures
through village (Figure 8)
The measures were applied to the three routes as shown in This measure was similar to V2. However, the coloured
Table 7. Two versions of each route were developed, each surfacing was continued throughout the village and a
version testing the same measures but presented in a
second colour was applied to the road surface to form a
different order.
series of rectangles on each side of the road. Each
Table 7 Description of measures tested in simulator trial rectangle was intended to emphasise a private drive.
Reference Description Route Measure V4: Red brick narrowing continued through
village (Figure 9)
V1 Gateway only A
In this measure, the red brick footway was extended into
V2 Gateway with patches at intervals through village A
the road, giving a narrowing effect. The use of textured
V3 Gateway with coloured surface continued surfacing was intended to discourage drivers from
through village A encroaching onto it as well as to visually narrow the road.
V4 Red brick narrowing continued through village B Posts were used to indicate a boundary between the
V5 Build-outs with trees and lines on road surface B pedestrian and car areas.
V6 Curved patch B
Measure V5: Trees build-outs with horizontal markings
DR1 Wavy red edge markings – boa constrictor, with
centre line C (Figure 9)
This measure incorporated a series of build-outs, each
DR2 Wavy red edge markings – snake, no centre line C
featuring a small shrub or tree protected by four wooden
DR3 Build-outs with bollards and lines on road surface C bollards. Each bollard was emphasised by a buff line on
17
Entry to control village Gateway (V1)
Gateway with patches (V2) – view at gateway Gateway with patches (V2) – view in village
Gateway and coloured surface (V3) – view at gateway Gateway and coloured surface (V3) – view in village
Figure 8 Route A
the road surface, emerging from the build-out. These had a Measure DR1: Wavy red edge markings – ‘Boa constrictor
length of about one third of the width of the road and a with centre line’ (Figure 10)
width of about 300mm. The build-outs were spaced at 70m This measure consisted of wavy red edging on both sides
intervals over a distance of more than 1000m. of the road. The pattern was symmetrical about the centre
of the road, and the white centre line was retained (Figure 4).
Measure V6: Curved patch (Figure 9) The edging had a minimum width of 1m and a maximum
This measure was intended to give the impression that width of 1.5m on each side. The wavelength (distance
there was excessive camber on the road. This was intended between maximum narrowings) was 30m.
as an illusion. In reality the camber of the road surface
would be unchanged.
18
Red brick narrowing (V4) – view at gateway Red brick narrowing (V4) – view in village
Tree build-outs (V5) Curved patch (excessive camber) (V6)
Control section corresponding to curved patch
Figure 9 Route B
Measure DR2: Wavy red edge markings – ‘Snake with no Measure DR3: Build-outs with bollards and horizontal
centre line’ (Figure 10) markings (Figure 10)
This measure was similar to DR1, but the pattern on one This measure consisted of build-outs at regular 70m
side of the road was displaced so that it was no longer intervals, on both sides of the road. There were four black
symmetrical about the centre line, the maximum on one bollards on each build-out. Corresponding to the bollards
side occurring at the same point as the minimum on the were buff lines of block paving emerging from the build-
other (Figure 4). The centre white line was removed, as it outs, as in measure V5.
was considered that drivers would only be able to follow a
curved centre line on the simulator if a very long
wavelength was used.
19
‘Boa constrictor’ (DR1) ‘Snake’ (DR2)
Build-outs (DR3)
Figure 10 Route C
4.4 Participants applies (60mph). The speed reductions along the rural
A total of 72 drivers took part in the trial. All were members single carriageway sections are due to bends in the route.
of the public who were familiar with the TRL driving
simulator and had not taken part in a similar traffic calming 4.6 Mean speeds on control sections
trial. Routes A1, A2, B1 and B2 were each driven by 12 Each driver on Routes A and B drove through a control
subjects split into equal numbers of men and women, with a village with no measures twice. Although a total of 36
good age range. One-third of the drivers were inexperienced, subjects drove Route C, only 12 drove through both
having held a driving licence for 5 years or less. The control sections of distributor road. The mean speed of the
remainder had at least 10 years driving experience. 12 drivers was compared for the two control sections. For
Initially, 24 drivers drove Route C with the same split most of the section, the speed was between 0.5mph and
between male and female and experienced and 1.0mph higher at the second control section than at the
inexperienced drivers. Preliminary analysis of the data first. The difference at each point was applied to the first
indicated that the drivers had stopped before they had control section for the 24 drivers who did not complete the
completed the second control section. Twelve additional second control. The data were then analysed as for Routes
subjects were therefore recruited to drive the whole of A and B; however, because of the problems with this data
Route C. The second variant of route C was not used. set, no statistical tests were used to test for the significance
of changes in speed. The speed limit was 30mph.
4.5 Analysis
The speed and lateral displacement of each subject were 4.7 Mean speeds at measures
measured on the simulator up to 60 times a second. The The ‘speed relative to control’ for each driver was calculated
results were converted to values every 5m along the routes. by subtracting the mean speed at a point in the control section
Figure 11 shows an example of the speed profile of an from the mean speed at the equivalent point on the section
individual driver over the whole of Route B2. The low with a measure. The mean speed relative to control was then
speed regions indicate the villages (30mph speed limit), calculated as the mean for all drivers. A negative speed
and the high speed regions are the rural single carriageway relative to control indicates a reduced speed at the measure.
sections linking the villages where the national speed limit Results are shown in Table 8 and illustrated in Figures 12-17.
20
70
60
50
Speed (mph)
40
30
20
10
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000 25000 30000 35000 40000 45000 50000
Distance from start of route (m)
Figure 11 Speed profile for driver 24 (Route B2)
Table 8 Mean speeds and minimum mean speed
Minimum mean speed

Mean speed relative relative to control
Mean speed (mph) to control (mph)
Distance from start of village / Distance Speed
start of distributor measures (m) 0 300 1000 0 300 1000 (m) (mph)
Route A
Village control 40.0 34.0 35.6
Gateway and coloured surface 39.6 32.6 33.8 -0.4 -1.4 -1.7 80 -3.1
Gateway and patches 39.1 33.5 34.3 -0.9 -0.5 -1.3 90 -3.0
Gateways only 39.6 34.4 34.9 -0.4 0.4 -0.6 65 -1.3
Route B
Village control 41.3 33.8 33.7
Curved patch 40.3 33.5 34.4 -1.0 -0.2 0.8 490 -3.0
Red brick narrowing 37.4 30.0 30.7 -3.9 -3.7 -3.0 115 -4.7
Tree build-outs 38.2 29.6 30.6 -3.2 -4.2 -3.1 1250 -7.0
Route C
Distributor road control 34.0 33.5 33.1
Build-outs 31.7 29.2 30.1 -2.4 -4.4 -3.0 330 -4.6
Boa constrictor, centre line 33.2 32.0 32.3 -0.9 -1.5 -0.8 145 -2.2
Snake, no centre line 33.2 31.4 31.3 -0.8 -2.1 -1.8 880 -2.8
Table 8 shows the results at the village gateway (0m) On Route B, the most effective measure was the ‘Tree
and at 300m and 1000m into the village. The figures in build-outs’, followed by the ‘Red brick narrowing’.
italics are statistically significant at at least the 5% level. Figure 12 and Figure 13 show the mean speed profile and
The table also gives the minimum mean speed relative to the mean speed relative to control for the measures trialled
control (the greatest effect) and the distance into the on Routes B1 and B2. The maximum mean speed
village at which this occurred. The latter was a statistically reduction for the ‘Tree build-outs’ was 7.0mph, 1250m
significant reduction in speed for all the measures tested. into the village. At this point (and at some other build-
outs), some of the drivers slowed down to allow a vehicle
On Route A, a reduction in speed compared with the
in the opposite direction to drive through the build-out
control was achieved with all three measures. At the village
(even though there was enough room for both vehicles to
gateway (0m), the measures gave reductions of 0.4 to pass). The greatest reduction for the ‘Red-brick narrowing’
0.9mph, none of which was statistically significant. The was 4.7mph, 115m into the village.
greatest reduction in mean speed (3.1mph) for the ‘Gateway On Route C, the ‘Build-outs’ were the most effective
and coloured surface’ occurred 80m into the village. At measure, giving a reduction of at least 2mph for the length
1000m into the village, the reduction was 1.7mph, which of the section, with a maximum reduction of 4.6mph, at
was still statistically significant. Similar results were 330m from the start of the section. The two wavy edge
obtained for the ‘Gateway and patches’, but the ‘Gateway markings gave similar, but slightly lower speed reductions,
only’ gave a maximum reduction of only 1.3mph. the maximum being 2.8mph for the ‘Snake’.
21
Village Control Red brick narrowing Tree Buildouts Curved patch
70
65
60
Mean speed (mph)

55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
-1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Distance from start of village (m)
Figure 12 Mean speed profile for Route B
Red brick narrowing Tree Buildouts Curved patch
2
Mean speed relative to control (mph)
0
-1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
-2
-4
-6
-8
Figure 13 Mean speed profile relative to control for Route B
4.8 Experience and gender effect inexperienced drivers and 4mph for experienced drivers
Figure 14 shows the mean speed profile for drivers through were achieved. The inexperienced drivers braked earlier,
the control village by gender and experience. At 1000m in advance of the gateway, but further along the village,
before the village gateway, the fastest group was the they reduced speed less.
experienced males, with a mean speed of 66.4mph. At the
village gateway, the fastest group was the inexperienced 4.9 Occurrence number effect
males, with a mean speed of 44.1mph. The inexperienced Each subject drove through each measure (and the control
males were also the fastest group throughout most of the other than on Route C) twice. For each subject, the mean
village, having reduced their speed from the village speed relative to the control for the first and second drive
approach rather less than the experienced males. through the measure was calculated by subtracting his/her
Figure 15 shows the mean speed relative to control for mean speed for the two control sections from the speed at
the ‘Gateway and patches’ by gender. An initial reduction the measure. Subjects were generally slower on the first
of around 3mph was achieved for both males and females, occurrence of each measure. However, the ‘Red brick
but further into the village, the effect for the males was narrowing’, the ‘Tree build-outs’ and the ‘Build-outs’, i.e.
smaller, whereas for the females a speed reduction was the measures with relatively large effects on speed, broadly
sustained 1500m into the village. retained their effectiveness. This is shown for the ‘Red
Figure 16 shows the mean speed profile relative to brick narrowing’ in Figure 17.
control for the ‘Gateway and coloured surface’ measure
by experience. Reductions of about 3mph for
22
Experienced Male Experienced Female
Inexperienced Male Inexperienced Female
70
65
60
55
Mean speed (mph) 50
45
40
35
30
25
20
-1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Figure 14 Mean speed profile for control village by experience and gender
Male Female
4
3
0
-1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000
-1
-2
-3
-4
Figure 15 Mean speed profile relative to control for ‘gateway and patches’ by gender
Experienced Inexperienced
6
0
-1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000
-2
-4
-6
Distance from start of section (m)
Figure 16 Mean speed profile relative to control for ‘gateway and coloured surface’ by experience
23
First occurrence Second occurrence
4

2
0
-1000 -500 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
-2
-4
-6
-8
Figure 17 Mean speed profile relative to control for ‘red brick narrowing’ by occurrence
4.10 Speed choice of driver effect 4.11 Lateral displacement

Since increased accident frequency is particularly Lateral displacement (i.e. the horizontal position adopted
associated with the speeds of the fastest drivers (Taylor et al., by drivers, relative to the centre of the road) in Route A
2000; Taylor, 2001), measures that influence the speed of was similar to the control section for all of the measures,
these drivers are likely to be the most successful in despite the lack of a centre white line. In Routes B and C,
reducing accidents. the lateral displacement from the centre of the road was
The mean speed of each driver through both control less with the ‘Build-outs’ and the ‘Red brick narrowing’,
the ‘Boa constrictor’ and the ‘Snake’ than the other
villages was calculated. For Route A (A1 and A2
measures. This is illustrated for Route C in Figure 18 (the
combined), the fastest 8 drivers were grouped as ‘fast’, the
more negative the lateral displacement in this figure, the
slowest 8 as ‘slow’ and the middle 8 as ‘medium’. The
further from the centre of the road was the vehicle). The
same procedure was used for Routes B and C. ‘Boa constrictor’ with centre line appeared to have slightly
Table 9 shows the effect of the different measures by less effect on lateral displacement compared to the control
speed group relative to the control at 300m into the than the ‘Snake’ with no centre line, probably because
measure. Where there was a substantial speed reduction, drivers followed the centre line. The frequency of the
generally it was the case that the fast drivers reduced speed ‘Snake’ was such that it was difficult for drivers to follow
the most. the curved edge of the pattern. Drivers tended to move
closer to the centre of the road with the ‘Red brick
Table 9 Mean speeds 300m into measure by speed group narrowing’ (not shown in Figure 18) than either the ‘Boa
Constrictor’ or the ‘Snake’, but less than the ‘Build-outs’.
Mean speed
Driving closer to the centre of the road increases perceived
Mean speed relative to control
(mph) (mph) risk and may therefore slow drivers down.
Med- Med-
4.12 Summary of simulator results
Measure Fast ium Slow Fast ium Slow
The main findings from the Driving Simulator trials were
Route A as follows:
Village Control 42.4 30.8 28.8
Gateway and coloured surface 38.3 30.9 28.7 -4.2 0.2 -0.1 z Using edge markings to visually narrow the road
Gateway and patches 39.0 32.2 29.4 -3.4 1.4 0.6 reduced speed. The reduction was greatest where the
Gateway only 41.0 33.1 29.0 -1.4 2.4 0.2 edging appeared to be unsuitable for driving on.
Route B z Continuous or repeated measures were required to
Village Control 41.9 31.8 27.6 sustain speed reductions. For example, the village
Red brick narrowing 36.3 28.8 24.90 -5.5 -3.0 -2.7 gateway alone had little effect on speed within the
Tree build-outs 36.5 28.5 23.6 -5.3 -3.3 -4.0 village.
Curved patch 41.9 31.7 27.0 0.0 -0.1 -0.6
z Coloured surfacing alone, however elaborate, did little
Route C to slow traffic.
Distributor road control 37.8 32.8 30.0
Build-outs 32.4 28.1 26.9 -5.3 -4.6 -3.1 z Uncertainty appeared to reduce speed; for example,
Boa constrictor 36.5 30.6 28.8 -1.2 -2.2 -1.2 build-outs were particularly effective where there was
Snake 35.9 30.0 28.3 -1.9 -2.8 -1.7 another vehicle approaching.
24
Distributor Road Control Buildouts
Boa constrictor, centre line Snake, no centre line
0.0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
-0.5
Lateral diplacement (m)

-1.0
-1.5
-2.0
-2.5
-3.0
-3.5
Figure 18 Mean lateral displacement profile for Route C
z In general, the faster drivers showed the greater speed 5.1 Schemes developed but not implemented
reductions when traversing the more effective measures. Schemes developed, but not implemented, were as follows:
z The most effective measures were the ‘Red brick
narrowing’ or ‘Tree build-outs’ and ‘Build-outs’ 5.1.1 Proposed Sustrans cycle route along a narrow rural
involving the use of bollards rather than trees. The ‘Red road
brick narrowing’ was continuous, narrowed the road The scheme involved the use of mock cattle grids, repeated
both physically and visually and created uncertainty as it at regular intervals. The cattle grids were comprised of
was not clear to motorists whether it was a footway or mock gates and innovative road surfacing (Figure 19).
part of the road. The lack of a centre line meant that
drivers were concerned about meeting other vehicles
5.1.2 Spine road on housing estate
head-on. The ‘Build-outs’ and ‘Tree build-outs’ were
examples of a repeated measure that narrowed the road The estate had extensive on-street parking (which led to
at regular intervals, creating a degree of uncertainty as poor visibility for drivers turning onto the spine road) and
to road width. The trees or bollards on the build-outs two deceptive bends where there had been accidents. The
were intended to reduce forward visibility and to proposed measures involved suitable bend treatment,
provide vertical contrast, whilst the presence of lines on including reducing the forward visibility, some en echelon
the road surface emphasised the narrowing effect and parking and junction treatment. The latter is illustrated in
the presence of the vertical features. Drivers tended to Figure 20.
place their vehicles closer to the centre of the road
alongside all of these measures compared with the 5.1.3 Narrow urban residential / shopping road
control sections. The road was on the edge of a proposed home zone and
had a history of accidents involving non-motorised users.
The scheme used a mixture of traditional and
5 On-road schemes psychological traffic calming, with two raised junctions
close to shops, some en echelon parking where the road
Following on from the off-road trials, the aim was to liaise was wider, coloured edging to visually narrow the road
with local authorities to identify trial sites for the measures and junction treatment to improve the visibility of drivers
developed. Monitoring was to include measurement of turning out of side roads whose view was blocked by
traffic speeds and flows, and public attitude surveys. The parked cars. Figure 21 shows some design ideas.
original aim was to undertake trials at three urban and three
rural sites. In the event, although schemes were developed at 5.1.4 Village on a main A-road
a number of sites, only one has so far been implemented on The road was narrow but heavily trafficked with a
the road, in the village of Latton in Wiltshire (described perceived speeding problem, although there had been no
below in Section 6). There were various reasons for the accidents in the three years prior to scheme development.
other schemes not being implemented: two schemes were It had a narrow footway on one side only. The scheme
delayed indefinitely, one scheme was implemented only in involved realigning a junction to give space for a
part and the other was changed by the local authority to pedestrian refuge and innovative use of road surfacing to
more conventional traffic calming. emphasise accesses.
25
Larger post Cross rail for strength and to
at corners create impression of a gateway
with reflectors
Resin bound gravel (light buff
colour) with darker bands
Existing surfacing retained as clear

untextured surface for cyclists 'way through'
Before Suggested measure (to be repeated at intervals)
Figure 19 Proposed Sustrans route
Before Proposed junction treatment
Figure 20 Spine road with parking problems
Before Design ideas
Figure 21 Narrow urban road
5.2 Latton The road is wide and straight (except for a slight curve
at the southern end) and carries very little traffic. It has one
5.2.1 The village
main junction, with Gosditch, the main access to much of
Latton is a small village on the C419, formerly the A419, the remainder of the village. The layout of the village (and
which now bypasses the village. It is about halfway traffic monitoring positions) is shown in Figure 22.
between Swindon and Cirencester, close to the local Before scheme installation, the C419 carried just under
market town of Cricklade. 2,000 vehicles per day, with some gravel traffic to and from
26
N
Traffic monitoring position
Church
Upcott
Gosditch
Mobile Home Park
Croft Lane
Limes Place
New housing Lakeside

development Foxcott
Collett Place
New 4
1 2 3 Housing
Gateway
Gateway C419 Ermin Way
Figure 22 Village layout and traffic monitoring positions
local pits. The village speed limit was 40mph within, and z Lowering of the lighting columns to a height more
just outside, the built-up area, and extended for about 1km. appropriate for a minor road.
85th percentile speeds were considerably in excess of this.
A plan of the scheme is shown in Figure 23.
Until recently, almost all of the village population lived
off the main road. In 2003, between the ‘before’ and
‘after’ monitoring, a large housing development was Gateways
completed at the northern end of the village, along with a The sketch for the gateway design, produced by DHA, is
smaller development at the opposite end. Both shown in Figure 24. Originally a wall curving inwards to a
developments access the main road directly. There is also second lower pillar was proposed but this was abandoned
some new development along the main road itself. in favour of the existing design due to budgetary
constraints. It was thought that planting, particularly
5.2.2 The scheme shrubs, could achieve a similar effect.
The scheme was implemented in spring 2004. Its main aim Sited about 100m closer to the village than the original
was to reduce speeds in order to increase perceived safety 40mph terminal signs, the as-built version of the gateways
through the village. The Parish Council had received money comprised a stone feature incorporating signing, a build-
for traffic calming from the developer of one of the new out and hatching on each side of the carriageway (Figure 25).
housing schemes and was also keen to increase formal The stone features, built of reconstituted limestone blocks
parking provision on this road. The total cost was of local origin, each consist of a 1m square pillar about
approximately £40,000. It was implemented in March 2004. 2.2m high with a planter extending rearwards.
The scheme extends for about 800m. It was designed by A 30mph sign on a grey background with the village
TRL in conjunction with David Huskisson Associates, name and ‘please drive carefully’ message was mounted
Wiltshire County Council, Latton Parish Council and other on each pillar, with a ‘national speed limit’ sign on the
consultants. The main components were: back. Yellow backed signing, 30mph roundel markings
z Stone gateways where the speed limit was reduced from and coloured surfacing were all considered to be too
40mph to 30mph; the gateways were placed where they visually intrusive. Rumble strips were considered too
linked visually to the start of the housing to mark the noisy, as they would have been within 200m of housing
transition to the village. (Webster and Layfield, 1993, TAL 11/93).
z Build-outs with planting to create new parking bays on The gateway build outs were kerbed and surfaced in
alternate sides of the carriageway. asphalt. They were 7.5m long and 1.0m wide, reducing the
carriageway width to about 6m. The hatching emphasised
z Removal of centre white lining.
the narrowing and made it more visible, especially at night.
z Enhancement at and around the main junction, with Inside the south gateway, the hatching on the nearside was
paved build-outs, a paved section of footway, and extended to the first build-out. For vehicles entering via
paving around a stone monument.
the north gateway, other than a new parking bay on their
z Buff surfacing near the bus stops and the main junction, a offside, the first feature encountered is the buff surfacing.
section considered most likely to be crossed by pedestrians. Note that the hatching by the gateway features should
z New bus bay and shelters. have a dashed boundary line.
27
28
N
New housing development To mobile home park

South Gateway
Gosditch
Stone
Lakeside Existing parking bay
monument New bus shelter
New parking bay New parking bays
To North Gateway New bus bay
C419 Emin Way
Stone feature
New parking bays
Buff surfacing
New parking bay Bus bay
KEY
New bus shelter
New paved area
Bridleway Build-out
with planting
Tarmac
Figure 23 Plan of the scheme

Stone finials optional to ends of wall
Village sign secured onto pier
Reproduced by kind permission of David Huskisson Associates

Feature 'Gateway wall' of local stone.
Approximate maximum height 1.8 - 2.0m
sweeping down to 1.0 - 1.2m
Reflectors built into wall face
Stone or cobble infill paving between

base of wall and kerb
Possible roadside planting to reinforce Buff coloured surface

gateway on this side of roadway
OPTION C
N1 GATEWAY LOOKING NORTH
Figure 24 Sketch of proposed gateway
29
Before After
(a) South gateway
(b) North gateway (after)
(c) Close-up of stone feature at south gateway with planter
Figure 25 Gateways in Latton
30
Removal of centre white lining considerations, shrubs were selected as the most suitable
In the village, the centre line was removed between the alternative. To date the planting remains too low to
gateways (Figure 25a and Figure 27). This technique was directly affect forward visibility. The five new bays
first used with the intention of slowing drivers at Starston provide about 250m of parking space.
in Norfolk and has subsequently been used in a number of At the junction with Collett Place, a new (asphalt) build-
villages in Wiltshire and Norfolk (Debell, 2003). Centre out was installed on one side of the junction mouth with
lining helps to identify the carriageway width and is hatching on the other and the give-way lines were brought
thought to help drivers judge how much space there is to forward (Figure 27d). At the junction with Gosditch, pink
pass one another. Lack of a centre line can make drivers block paving was used as part of the enhancement works
concerned about meeting other vehicles head-on, thus shown in Figure 27e.
increasing perceived risk, which can reduce speeds.
Features around Gosditch junction
Build-outs and parking bays Before scheme installation, the junction of Gosditch was
Kerbed build-outs, between 1.8m and 2.0m wide, were flared and split by a partially grassed island with a stone
installed on alternate sides of the carriageway to create monument and a seat. Large direction signs indicated
parking bays. The design sketch for the build-outs is shown ‘Latton village only’.
in Figure 26 and examples are plated in Figure 27. As part of the scheme, the island was extended to the
The parking bays gave a gentle chicane effect (Figure original edge-of-carriageway markings at the junction, the
27b and 27c), although the minimum road width at any markings also defining the limit of the build-outs on each
point was 5.5m. ‘Heritage style’ black marker posts with side (Figure 28), visually narrowing the road and reducing
red reflectors near the base were installed on the build- the junction splay. The enlarged island was completely
outs; the majority were fitted with small 200mm ‘keep resurfaced in block paving (Figure 29), the seat
right’ signs. (Note that this is below the legal minimum of refurbished and the direction signing removed as this was
270mm for such signs). not only too large, but also now inappropriate since the
To reduce costs, hatched areas were used rather than extensive new development along the C419 itself. Had
physical build-outs at the far end (in the direction of travel) funds permitted, local stone would have been more
of all but one of the parking bays (and also the new bus appropriate than block paving.
bay). The build-outs included low level planting (Figure 27c), The more extensive grassed area on the north side of the
intended to reduce forward visibility. It had originally been junction was retained, with paving installed outwards from
intended to use trees, but because of maintenance the original kerb line forming a new footway and a parking
Reproduced by kind permission of David Huskisson Associates
Planting at 1.0m height to 1.5m height to obscure

forward view of the road at the driver's eye level
Kerb build-out 1.8m wide
S17 VILLAGE CENTRE
Figure 26 Sketch of proposed build-out
31
Before After
(a) Removal of centre lining within village. Also shown: hatching between sough gateway and first build-out, with new parking bay beyond
Before After
(b) Build-outs with planting north of the junction with Collett Place (looking south)
(d) Build-out at junction with Collett Place
(c) Build-out with parking bay beyond
(e) Paved build-out at the junction with Gosditch
Figure 27 Parking bays and build-outs in Latton
32
Before After
Figure 28 Enhancement at junction of Gosditch with new parking bay in foreground and extended island
Before After
Figure 29 Enhancement at junction of Gosditch showing sign removal and seat refurbishment
bay between two build-outs (Figure 28). One purpose of 5.2.3 Traffic flows, speeds and accidents
this bay, with another further to the north, was to cater for Seven days of traffic flow and speed data were collected
visitors to the new housing development which had limited using automatic traffic classifiers (ATCs) with tube
parking facilities. detectors before (January 2003) and after (November
A new bus bay on the southbound side of the road was 2004) scheme installation (which took place in spring
created to the south of the Gosditch junction, again having 2004). The tubes were placed just inside each gateway and
the effect of narrowing the road. Two new bus shelters at two locations in the village, as shown in Figure 22.
were provided, one by the developer of the new housing Two-way traffic flows in the ‘after’ survey were 2,200
development, the other by the Parish Council. per day, averaging about 16% higher than in the ‘before’
survey (Table 10). The increase was probably due to a
Buff surfacing combination of effects: the new housing in the village, the
national trend over the 22 month period, and differences in
Buff anti-skid surfacing was laid for 85m between the
flow between the months of January and November
southern side of the junction with Gosditch and the
(typically November flows are about 7% higher than those
pedestrian access to the new housing development. This
in January). The classification of vehicles gave a total of
was intended to serve as a general warning to drivers and
8% heavy goods vehicles on weekdays in the ‘before’
defines the section on which pedestrians were considered
survey and 10% in the ‘after’ survey, surprisingly high in
most likely to cross the road e.g. from the new housing
view of the bypass.
development or the remainder of the village to the
Mean and 85th percentile speeds are shown in Table 11,
northbound bus bay.
Figure 30 and Figure 31.
Following scheme installation, inbound mean speeds fell
Reduction in height of lighting columns by 8mph and 4mph at the north and south gateways
The lighting columns were reduced in height by about respectively, to 37mph at both (‘before’ speeds being
40% to make them look less ‘urban’ and thus more in lower at the south gateway). There was a similar decrease
keeping with the village. in 85th percentile speeds, to about 45mph. In the village,
33
Table 10 Vehicle flows (mean over 7 days) 50
Before After
Mean speed (mph)

40
Mean daily (24 hour)
two-way flow1 30
‘Before’ ‘After’ 20
Location January November Change
10
Days 2003 2004 (%)
0
Site 1: Inside north gateway N gateway Gosditch Collett Place S gateway
Weekdays 1905 2256 +18.4
Weekend 1373 1523 +10.9
Figure 30 Mean (two-way) speeds through Latton
Site 2: Just north of Gosditch
Weekdays 1905 2229 +17.0
Weekend No data2 1474 –
60
Before
85th percentile speeds (mph)

After
Site 3: Just north of Collett Place
50
Weekdays 1936 2216 +14.5
Weekend 1436 1518 +5.7 40
Site 4: Inside south gateway 30

Weekdays 2001 2288 +14.3
Weekend 1480 1528 +3.2 20
1
‘Before’: 15-21 January 2003 (4-6 February 2003 at Site 2); ‘after’: 10
6-12 November 2004 (11-18 December at Site 3). Dates in brackets
0
are of repeated monitoring following detector tube damage.
2
N gateway Gosditch Collett Place S gateway
Detector tube damage during repeat monitoring.
Figure 31 85th percentile (two-way) speeds through Latton

Table 11 Vehicle speeds (mean over 7 days)
Vehicle speed (mph)1

30mph within the village over half of vehicles still
‘Before’ ‘After’ Change exceeded 30mph during the ‘after’ survey, but the
January 2003 November 2004 (mph) proportion exceeding 40mph fell from 50% to around
Location
Direction Mean 85%ile Mean 85%ile Mean 85%ile
10%. Greater speed reductions were possibly prevented by
a low level of opposing traffic and under-use of the
Site 1: Inside north gateway parking bays which allowed drivers to straddle the parking
Northbound 43.5 51.4 36.8 44.1 -6.7 -7.3 bays in order to pass each other.
Southbound2 44.8 53.0 36.7 45.2 -8.1 -7.8
Table 12 Vehicles exceeding 30mph and 40mph within
Two-way 44.2 52.2 36.7 44.5 -7.5 -7.7
the village
Site 2: Just north of Gosditch
Northbound 39.1 47.6 31.2 38.0 -7.9 -9.6 Percentage >30mph Percentage >40mph
Southbound 39.7 49.0 30.4 37.4 -9.3 -11.6
Location ‘Before’ ‘After’ ‘Before’ ‘After’
Two-way 39.4 48.3 30.8 37.8 -8.6 -10.5
Gosditch 86.3 52.2 50.4 10.3
Site 3: Just north of Collett Place Collett Place 87.9 49.0 38.0 7.8
Northbound 35.6 44.1 30.0 35.8 -5.6 -8.3
Southbound 39.0 46.8 30.9 37.1 -8.1 -9.7
There were no reported injury accidents in Latton in
Two-way 37.4 45.5 30.5 36.7 -6.9 -8.8 the three years prior to scheme implementation and there
had been none following implementation to the latest
Site 4: Inside south gateway date for which data was available at the time of writing
Northbound2 41.4 49.0 36.8 44.5 -4.6 -4.5
Southbound 40.4 47.6 37.1 44.1 -3.3 -3.5
(31 December 2004).
Two-way 40.9 48.3 36.9 44.3 -4.0 -4.0 5.2.4 Public opinion survey
1
See Note 1 for Table 10. The aim of the survey was to establish people’s
2
Inbound (towards village). perceptions of the measures and their effectiveness, or
otherwise, in reducing any traffic problems in the village,
two-way mean speeds fell by 7-8mph to 31mph and 85th after scheme installation. Views on the appearance of the
percentile speeds fell by 8-10mph to 37-38mph. scheme were also sought. The survey was undertaken in
The proportions of vehicles exceeding 30mph and the afternoon and early evening, to ensure that the sample
particularly 40mph were very much reduced, as shown in was representative, with a weekend visit also used to
Table 12. In spite of the reduction in the speed limit to obtain a sufficient response.
34
Sample 9% of respondents thought that it had decreased as a result
A total of 91 village residents were interviewed. This total of the scheme, with 4% thinking the opposite. Nearly a fifth
includes one couple who made a joint response. Of the (19%) of respondents perceived a reduction in traffic noise
remainder, 46% were male and 54% female. All were along the main road (ignoring the traffic from the bypass),
familiar with the village prior to scheme installation. whilst a tenth (11%) perceived an increase.
About a quarter (24%) of respondents lived on the main
road. Almost half (44%) were aged 40-59, about a quarter Perceived effect on safety
each were aged 25-39 and 60+, with 4% under 25. These The 79 respondents who said they regularly walked along
proportions are broadly similar to those for the North the main road were asked whether, when crossing it, they
Wiltshire adult population as a whole (6% under 25, 31% now felt safer, less safe, or about the same compared with
aged 25-39, 37% aged 40-59 and 26% over 60). Over half before scheme installation. About half (49%) claimed that
of the respondents were employed (full time, part time, they felt no difference, but almost as many (43%) felt safer
self-employed), with almost a quarter (23%) retired. One- and only one felt less safe.
third of the respondents had children aged under 16. Half (50%) of all respondents felt that it was now safer
Two-thirds (67%) of respondents had heard about the for children to cross the main road; just over a third (36%)
scheme prior to installation, mainly from the Parish felt there was no difference; and only 6% felt that it was
Council, friends and relatives and the media (local less safe. However, respondents with children were
newspapers, church magazines). These respondents were slightly less positive (Table 14).
fairly equally divided between those who thought there
had been enough, and those who thought there had been Table 14 Perceived safety of children walking across
too little, consultation. the main road since scheme installation
Respondents
Overall support for the scheme Respondents without
Over three-quarters (77%) of respondents supported the with children children
scheme as a whole, with less than a fifth (17%) against it. Perceived change under 16 under 16 All respondents
The main concerns were that traffic speeds were still too
Safer 10 33% 35 58% 45 50%
high, that the parking bays reduced visibility for traffic The same 16 53% 16 27% 32 36%
emerging from side roads and accesses, and that the Less safe 3 10% 3 5% 6 6%
removal of the centre white lining led to confusion over Don’t know 1 3% 6 10% 7 8%
right of way, with some drivers hogging the centre of the
Total 30 100% 60 100% 90 100%
road and others encroaching on the parking bays when
there was an oncoming vehicle.
Three-quarters of respondents liked the visual
appearance of the scheme as a whole with 17% disliking it. Speed limit reduction
The most common reason given for liking its appearance Figure 32 shows that almost all respondents (93%) thought
was that it was ‘in keeping’ with the village. Reasons that reducing the speed limit from 40mph to 30mph was a
given for disliking the appearance of the scheme included good idea. The most common reasons given were that this
that it was not ‘in keeping’ with the village or that it was had reduced the speed of traffic and increased safety (in
dangerous/had not improved safety. general, for children and for the elderly). The 4% who
thought it was a bad idea said it had made no difference, that
Perceived effect on traffic speed, volume and noise ‘lorry drivers ignored it’; that ‘the speed limit should be
lower’; that ‘there was no warning’ or that there was a need
Table 13 shows respondents’ perception of the scheme’s
for other traffic calming measures (see additional comments
effect on traffic. Two-thirds of respondents (67%) thought
that speeds had reduced on the main road as a result of the on the scheme). The general consensus was that drivers
scheme, whilst only 2% thought they had increased. The were exceeding the new speed limit by up to 10mph.
amount of traffic was not considered to have changed: only
Sign repositioning
Table 13 Perceived overall effect of the scheme on Nearly two-thirds (64%) of all respondents had noticed
traffic speed, volume and noise that the speed limit signs to the north of Latton had been
moved closer to the village. When respondents were asked
Traffic Traffic Traffic whether they thought it was a good or bad idea (whether or
Perceived change speed volume noise
not they had noticed the relocation), 40% were unsure,
Increased a lot 2 2% 0 0 3 3% 39% felt that it was a good idea and 22% thought it was
Increased a bit 0 0 4 4% 7 8% not (Figure 32). The main reasons given for it being a good
No change 26 29% 69 77% 47 52% idea were that it would ‘increase driver awareness’,
Decreased a bit 42 47% 5 6% 15 17%
Decreased a lot 18 20% 3 3% 2 2% ‘reduce their speed’ and ‘make the speed limit more
Don’t know 2 2% 9 10% 16 18% evident’. Most of those who thought it was a bad idea
thought there was insufficient time to reduce speed before
Total 90 100% 90 100% 90 100% entering the village.
35
100
Percentage of respondents
80
60 Bad
Don't know
40 Good
20
0
Reduction of Speed signs Reduction in Parking Removal of
speed limit closer to height of bays/build outs white lining in
from 40 to village lighting centre of road
30mph columns
Feature of scheme
Figure 32 Percentage of respondents thinking features of scheme were a good or bad idea
Reduction in height of lighting columns oncoming vehicles in the middle of the road, with drivers –
Half the respondents (49%) had noticed prior to the particularly lorry drivers – ‘hogging’ the middle of the
interview that the height of the lighting columns had been road, confusion as to who had right of way, confusion as to
reduced. Figure 32 shows that 58% of all respondents whether traffic was one-way and excessive speeds.
thought that this was a good idea, split about 2:1 between However, slightly more respondents felt that it was a good
those who had previously noticed the change and those idea (39%) with about a quarter (27%) unsure. The main
who had not. Thirty-nine per cent of respondents did not reasons for respondents thinking that the removal of the
know whether reducing the height of the lighting columns centre lining was a good idea were that the road was now
was a good idea or not and only 3% thought it was a bad not wide enough for centre lining and that its removal had
idea. The most common reason given by those in favour increased driver awareness and reduced speeds.
was to encourage drivers to reduce their speed by making
the village look more like a 30mph zone. As well as Gateways
increasing the amount of light (generally, on the road, for Nearly three-quarters of respondents (72%) thought that
walking and at the bus stop), respondents were also the gateways had reduced the speed of traffic, 19% saying
pleased that the light was less intrusive/bright and no ‘by a lot’. Just under a quarter (23%) perceived no change.
longer shone into bedroom windows. One respondent thought that speeds had actually increased.
Eighty-seven per cent of respondents liked the
Parking bays and build-outs appearance of the gateways, as being ‘in keeping’ with the
Over two-thirds (68%) of respondents thought that the village and defining the entrance/exit to it. Some of those
parking bays and build-outs were a good idea (Figure 32), who disliked the appearance of the gateways in fact gave
with about a quarter (26%) thinking they were a bad idea. safety reasons, i.e. that ‘it is more dangerous now’ or ‘the
On the one hand they were believed to have reduced traffic road is not narrowed enough’. Negative comments about
speed/increased safety and to have met the need for safe/ the appearance included ‘they look like cow troughs’ or
legal/orderly parking (i.e. not on the footway); on the other ‘they look untidy’.
hand some believed they have reduced visibility when
emerging from side roads/accesses and when crossing the Additional comments on the scheme
road, and were ineffective at reducing speeds, or at worst
Respondents were given the opportunity to voice any
dangerous, because of the nature of the build-outs and
concerns they had about the scheme. The main comments
confusion over who has the right-of-way.
were that:
Over half (54%) of respondents liked the appearance of
the parking bays/build outs with about one-fifth (22%) z The scheme had not reduced speeds enough and that
disliking their appearance. The remaining quarter (24%) further traffic calming measures should be introduced
had no opinion on their appearance. e.g. speed camera, vehicle-activated signs or road
humps.
Removal of centre white lining z There was concern over the ambiguity as to the right-of-
The removal of the centre white lining on the main road way past the parking bays.
was the least popular feature of the scheme as shown in z there were too many lorries travelling too fast through
Figure 32, with a third (34%) of respondents thinking it Latton.
was a bad idea. The main reasons were concern about
36
Summary of attitude survey 6 Summary and discussion
A total of 91 residents, representing a high proportion of
households within the village, took part in a public opinion 6.1 Summary
survey of the scheme. The main findings were: The potential for psychological traffic calming measures
z Over three-quarters of the respondents supported the has been investigated through:
scheme. z Reviews.
z Two-thirds thought that it had reduced speeds. z The identification of innovative measures.
z Very few thought there had been any change in traffic z The assessment of measures using photomontage
levels. techniques (focus groups and questionnaire surveys) and
the TRL driving simulator.
z About half of respondents thought it was safer to cross
z An on-road trial.
the road than before.
z Over half approved of the parking bays, but many of Results from the various off-road surveys were broadly
those who had to join the main road from a side road or consistent, although the focus groups tended to be more
access said that their visibility had been reduced. optimistic than the other surveys:
z Opinion was divided over the removal of the centre z In the focus groups, the concept of psychological measures
white lining, with the one-third of respondents against was generally welcomed, with the main disadvantages seen
as the cost of some of the measures illustrated, and the
it concerned about opposing vehicles in the centre of
possible reduction in effectiveness over time.
the road.
z In the focus groups and questionnaire survey, a
z Some respondents called for additional speed-reducing
combination of measures tended to produce bigger
measures such as safety cameras, vehicle-activated
reductions in speed than individual measures.
signing and more enforcement.
z The simulator trial showed that continuous or repeated
z Three-quarters liked the appearance of the traffic measures are required to sustain speed reductions, with a
calming scheme as a whole, although some felt that the gateway alone having little effect on speed within the
block paving at/near Gosditch looked ‘urban’ and the village.
colour was disliked.
z Uncertainty appeared to reduce speed. For example, in
z Over half were in favour of the reduced height of the the simulator trial, build-outs were particularly effective
lighting columns, because they thought it was more ‘in where there was another vehicle approaching.
keeping’ with a village and a 30mph speed limit. z Using edge markings to visually narrow the road
reduced participants’ estimated self-driven speeds in the
5.2.5 Summary of Latton results focus groups and questionnaire surveys and actual
Inbound mean speeds fell by 8mph and 4mph at the north speeds in the simulator trial. The reduction was greatest
and south gateways respectively, to 37mph at both where the edging was textured and therefore appeared to
(‘before’ speeds being lower at the south gateway). There be unsuitable for driving on (‘Red brick narrowing’).
was a similar decrease in 85th percentile speeds, to about z In the simulator trial, coloured surfacing alone, however
45mph. In the village, two-way mean speeds fell by 7- elaborate, did little to slow traffic, whereas this measure
8mph to 31mph and 85th percentile speeds fell by 8- looked promising in the focus groups and questionnaire
10mph to 37-38mph. This was despite under-use of the survey (though not necessarily cost-effective).
parking bays that allowed two large vehicles to pass z In general, the faster drivers in the simulator trial
alongside each other by partially straddling the parking showed the greater speed reductions when traversing the
bay. The under-use also meant that forward visibility was more effective measures.
not reduced as much as intended, particularly whilst the z There was an expectation by focus group participants
planting on the build-outs is immature. Although within that schemes would become less effective over time.
the village over half of vehicles still exceeded the new
The most effective measures were those with a physical
30mph speed limit during the ‘after’ survey, the proportion as well as a psychological effect. The ‘Red brick
exceeding 40mph fell from 50% to around 10%. narrowing’ was continuous, narrowed the road both
A total of 91 residents, representing a high proportion of physically and visually and created uncertainty as it was
households within the village, took part in a public opinion not clear to motorists whether it was a footway or part of
survey of the scheme. The main findings were that over the road. The lack of a centre line meant that drivers were
three-quarters of the respondents supported the scheme concerned about meeting other vehicles head-on. The
and liked its appearance, with about half of respondents ‘Build-outs’ and ‘Tree build-outs’ were examples of a
thinking it was safer to cross the road than before. Opinion repeated measure that narrowed the road at regular
was divided over the removal of the centre white lining, intervals, creating a degree of uncertainty as to road width.
with the one-third of respondents against it concerned In the on-road trial in Latton, the gentle chicane effect,
about opposing vehicles in the centre of the road. the reduction in forward visibility and an element of
uncertainty from the lack of a centre line, narrowed
carriageway and parked cars all combined to reduce speeds.
37
6.2 Discussion 8 References
Much greater speed reductions have been produced in
Latton than are generally attained in this type of scheme Abbott P, Taylor M and Layfield R E (1997). The
and there was a large decrease in the proportion of drivers effects of traffic calming measures on vehicle and traffic
exceeding 40mph. Although a small part of this reduction noise. Traffic Engineering and Control 38 (8).
must be attributed to the lowering of the speed limit, it is
not considered that a reduction in the speed limit alone Chinn L, Elliott M, Baughan C, Evans R and Odgers C
would have given more than about a 3mph reduction in (2002). The effect of road appearance on perceived safe
mean speed. Even greater speed reductions might have travel speed: Interim report. Papers and Articles PA3828/20.
been attained had the planting been more mature and/or Wokingham: TRL Limited.
the flows greater. The parking bays are often under-used
and this allows two large vehicles to pass alongside each Chinn L and Elliott M (2002a). The effect of road
other by partially straddling the parking bay. It also means appearance on perceived safe travel speed: Results of
that forward visibility is not reduced as much as intended, group discussions and exploratory simulator trials. Papers
particularly whilst the planting is immature. Although the and Articles PA3826/20. Wokingham: TRL Limited.
costs were higher than for some schemes of this type, they
were not excessive at around £40,000. Chinn L and Elliott M (2002b). The effect of road
It has been demonstrated that it is possible to design an appearance on perceived safe travel speed: Final report.
effective traffic calming scheme that is aesthetically Papers and Articles PA3827/20. Wokingham: TRL
pleasing without resort to measures such as road humps, Limited.
chicanes or one-way working. The reasons for success are
likely to have been: Cloke J, Boulter P, Davis G, Hickman A J, Layfield R E,
z Consistent treatment of a whole length of road. McCrae I S, and Nelson P M (1999). Traffic management
z Centre of village treated in addition to gateways. and air quality research programme, final report. TRL
Report TRL327. Wokingham: TRL Limited.
z Visual and physical road narrowing.
z Limiting of forward visibility / breaking up of sightlines
Elliott M A, McColl V A and Kennedy J V (2003). Road
to increase driver awareness / cognitive load. design measures to reduce drivers' speed via "psychological"
z Removal of white line in conjunction with the physical processes: a literature review. TRL Report TRL564.
narrowing at parking bays, to create uncertainty. Wokingham: TRL Limited.
A key element in developing the scheme was an
understanding of the theoretical mechanisms that help to Countryside Agency (2000). Design issues for rural
explain and predict the effects of the road environment on traffic management.
drivers’ speed choice. This was combined with an
understanding of ‘natural’ traffic calming, alterations to Debell C (2003). White lines – study shows their absence
the environmental context of the scheme and extensive may be a safety plus. TEC, October 2003, pp, 316-317.
consultation with the main stakeholders.
Overall, the project has shown that there is no simple, Department for Transport, London:
unique, widely applicable psychological measure. Rather it Traffic Advisory Leaflet 11/93. Rumble devices.
is a matter of applying psychological principles to each
new situation in a holistic manner. There will continue to Traffic Advisory Leaflet 01/94. VISP (Village Speed
be situations where physical measures are needed. Control Working Group) – a summary.
However, psychological schemes can be effective, their Traffic Advisory Leaflet 02/97. Traffic calming on major
effect can be lasting (at least over a period of months) and roads – A49, Craven Arms, Shropshire.
they are highly acceptable to local people.
Traffic Advisory Leaflet 10/97. Halifax Historic Core Zone.
Traffic Advisory Leaflet 02/98. Lincoln Historic Core Zone
7 Acknowledgements – Newport Arch.
The work described in this report was carried out in the Traffic Advisory Leaflet 08/98. The High Street route,
Safety Group of TRL Limited. The authors are grateful to Shrewsbury.
Marie Taylor who carried out the quality review and Traffic Advisory Leaflet 13/99. Historic Core Zones: Bury
auditing of this report, and to Andrew Wyatt of Wiltshire St Edmunds.
County Council, Latton Parish Council, Shane Charles of
CEEMA and Jeremy Anderson of JSA Consultancy Ltd Traffic Advisory Leaflet 01/00. Traffic calming on major
for their support on the Latton scheme. roads.
Thanks are due to Martin Scampion who developed the Traffic Advisory Leaflet 10/00. Road humps: discomfort,
simulator route, to the TRL Simulator Unit who recruited
noise and ground-borne vibration.
subjects for the focus groups and carried out the simulator
trial, and to the TRL Survey Unit who carried out the Traffic Advisory Leaflet 11/00. Village traffic calming –
questionnaire survey. reducing accidents.
38
Traffic Advisory Leaflet 10/01. Home Zones – planning Watts G R, Stait R E, Godfrey N S, Chinn L and
and design. Layfield R (2002). Development of a novel traffic calming
surface ‘Rippleprint’. TRL Report TRL545. Wokingham:
Traffic Advisory Leaflet 08/02. Home Zones – public
TRL Limited.
participation.
Traffic Advisory Leaflet 03/04. Quiet Lanes. Webster D C and Layfield R E (1993). An assessment of
rumble strips and rumble areas. Project Report PR33.
Traffic Advisory Leaflet 01/05. Rumblewave Surfacing. Wokingham: TRL Limited.
Highways Agency (2002). Self-calming roads. Oxford: Webster D C and Mackie A (1996). Review of traffic
Roger Evans Associates. calming schemes in 20mph zones. TRL Report TRL215.
Wokingham: TRL Limited.
Kennedy J V and Wheeler A H (2001). Countryside
Traffic Measures Group: demonstration schemes. TRL Webster D, Tilly A and Buttress S (2005). Pilot Home
Report TRL502. Wokingham: TRL Limited. Zone schemes: Evaluation of Cavell Way, Sittingbourne.
TRL Report TRL626. Wokingham: TRL Limited.
Kennedy J V, Wheeler A H and C M Inwood (2004a).
Kent Quiet Lanes scheme. TRL Report TRL602. Wheeler A (1997). Traffic calming in Historic Core
Wokingham: TRL Limited. Zones: Crossley Street, Halifax. TRL Report TRL288.
Kennedy J V, Wheeler A H and C M Inwood (2004b).
Norfolk Quiet Lanes. TRL Report TRL603. Wokingham: Wheeler A (1999a). Traffic calming in Historic Core
TRL Limited. Zones: Bury St Edmonds. TRL Report TRL388.
Layfield R, Chinn L and Nicholls D (2003). Pilot home
zone schemes: evaluation of The Methleys, Leeds. TRL Wheeler A (1999b). Traffic calming in Historic Core
Report TRL586. Wokingham: TRL Limited. Zones: High Street route, Shrewsbury. TRL Report
TRL374. Wokingham: TRL Limited.
Lockwood C R (1997). Using the TRL simulator to
Wheeler A H, Abbott P G, Godfrey N S, Lawrence D J
evaluate traffic calming measures. TRL Report TRL245.
and Phillips S M (1996). Traffic calming on major roads:
the A49 trunk road at Craven Arms, Shropshire. TRL
Report TRL212. Wokingham: TRL Limited.
Ross Silcock (1995). Better places through bypasses:
report of the bypass demonstration project. London:
Wheeler A H, Abbott P G, Godfrey N S, Phillips S M
Department for Transport. and Stait R (1997). Traffic calming on major roads: the
A47 trunk road at Thorney, Cambridgeshire. TRL Report
Scottish Executive Development Department (1999). TRL238. Wokingham: TRL Limited.
Natural traffic calming – guidance and research report.
Wheeler A H and Taylor M C (1999). Traffic calming on
Taylor M C, Lynam D A and Baruya A (2000). The major roads. Final report. TRL Report TRL385.
effects of drivers' speed on the frequency of road accidents. Wokingham: TRL Limited.
Wheeler A, Taylor M and Barker J (1994). Speed
Taylor M (2001). Managing vehicle speeds for safety: reduction in 24 villages: details from the VISP study.
Why? How? Traffic Engineering and Control, 42 (7). Project Report PR85. Wokingham: TRL Limited.
Theeuwes J (1998). Self-explaining roads: Subjective Wheeler A H, Taylor M C and Payne A (1993). The
categorisation of road environments. In A G Gale, I D effectiveness of village gateways in Devon and
Brown, C M Haslegrave and S P Taylor (Eds), Vision in Gloucestershire. Project Report PR35.
Vehicles VI. Netherlands: North - Holland.
Tilly A, Webster D and Buttress S (2005). Pilot Home

Zone schemes: Evaluation of Northmoor, Manchester.
Uzzell D and Leach R (2001). Engineering Quiet Lanes in

the Surrey Hills AONB: Predicting drivers’ speed.
Guildford: Department of Psychology, University of Surrey.
39
Abstract
Excessive and inappropriate speeds are a major concern for road safety. Such speeds have an adverse effect on the
number and severity of road traffic accidents and significantly reduce the quality of life in many urban and rural
areas. Physical traffic calming measures - road humps and chicanes, for example - can generate substantial
reductions in vehicle speeds and accidents, but can be unpopular. On behalf of the Department for Transport, TRL
has developed and tested alternative traffic calming techniques that make greater use of psychological (non-physical)
measures, but are intended to still have a significant speed-reducing capability.
Psychological theories that provide insight into how specific road design measures might reduce driving speeds
are reviewed. Ideas for traffic calming based on these principles are illustrated using photomontage and evaluated
by means of focus groups, a questionnaire survey, on the TRL Driving Simulator and finally in on-road trials.
Related publications
TRL626 Pilot Home Zone schemes: Evaluation of Cavell Way, Sittingbourne by D Webster, A Tilly and S Buttress.
2005 (price £40, code HX)
TRL625 Pilot Home Zone schemes: Evaluation of Northmoor, Manchester by A Tilly, D Webster and S Buttress.
2005 (price £40, code JX)
TRL603 Norfolk Quiet Lanes by J V Kennedy, A H Wheeler and C M Inwood. 2004b (price £30, code EX)
TRL602 Kent Quiet Lanes scheme by J V Kennedy, A H Wheeler and C M Inwood. 2004 (price £30, code EX)
TRL586 Pilot home zone schemes: evaluation of The Methleys, Leeds by R Layfield, L Chinn and D Nicholls.
2003 (price £40, code JX)
TRL564 Road design measures to reduce drivers’ speed via “psychological” processes: a literature review by
M A Elliott, V A McColl and J V Kennedy. 2003 (price £25, code E)
TRL545 Development of a novel traffic calming surface ‘Rippleprint’ by G R Watts, R E Stait, N S Godfrey,
L Chinn and R Layfield. 2002 (price £40, code HX)
TRL502 Countryside Traffic Measures Group: demonstration schemes by J V Kennedy and A H Wheeler. 2001
(price £35, code H)
TRL421 The effects of drivers’ speed on the frequency of road accidents by M C Taylor, D A Lynam and
A Baruya. 2000 (price £35, code H)
TRL388 Traffic calming in Historic Core Zones: Bury St Edmunds by A Wheeler. 1999 (price £35, code J)
TRL385 Traffic calming on major roads. Final report by A H Wheeler and M C Taylor. 1999 (price £35, code H)
TRL374 Traffic calming in Historic Core Zones: High Street route, Shrewsbury by A Wheeler. 1999 (price £35, code H)
TRL327 Traffic management and air quality research programme by J Cloke, P Boulter, G Davis, A J Hickman,
R E Layfield, I S McCrae and P M Nelson. 1999 (price £35, code J)
TRL288 Traffic calming in Historic Core Zones: Crossley Street, Halifax by A Wheeler. 1997 (price £35, code H)
TRL245 Using the TRL simulator to evaluate traffic calming measures by C R Lockwood. 1997 (price £35, code H)
TRL238 Traffic calming on major roads: the A47 trunk road at Thorney, Cambridgeshire by A H Wheeler,
P G Abbott, N S Godfrey, S M Phillips and R Stait. 1997 (price £50, code L)
TRL215 Review of traffic calming schemes in 20mph zones by D C Webster and A Mackie. 1996 (price £35, code H)
TRL212 Traffic calming on major roads: the A49 trunk road at Craven Arms, Shropshire by A H Wheeler,
P G Abbott, N S Godfrey, D J Lawrence and S M Phillips. 1996 (price £50, code L)
CT1.3 Traffic calming update (2001-2003) Current Topics in Transport: selected abstracts from TRL Library’s
database (price £20)
CTX01 Traffic calming (1991-2001) Current Topics XTRA: selected abstracts from TRL Library’s database
(price £55)
Prices current at July 2005
For further details of these and all other TRL publications, telephone Publication Sales on 01344 770783,
email: [email protected], or visit TRL on the Internet at www.trl.co.uk.
40

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‘Psychological’ traffic calming

Prepared for Traffic Management Division, Department

J Kennedy, R Gorell, L Crinson, A Wheeler and M Elliott

TRL Report TRL641

This report has been produced by TRL Limited, under/as part of

TRL is committed to optimising energy efficiency, reducing

3 Focus groups and questionnaire surveys using

4 Driving Simulator trial 15

6 Summary and discussion 37

Background gateway, a town centre and a distributor road.

3: Red brick narrowing 4: Coloured patch

Figure 1 Plates for Scenario 1: Village with parked cars

Focus groups (20) Questionnaire survey (100)

Study (sample size) Mean Standard Difference Mean Standard Difference

1 Baseline 36.0 6.4 31.1 5.0

3: Gateway and patches 4: Alternative gateway and patches

5: Gateway and continuous coloured surface with patches

Figure 2 Focus group plates for Scenario 2: Village gateway

Table 2 How fast would you drive in Scenario 2: Village gateway

Focus groups (20) Questionnaire survey (100)

Study (sample size) Mean Standard Difference Mean Standard Difference

1 Baseline 42.1 7.7 39.6 5.1

3: Mock hump with island 4: Mock hump with holes

5: Mock humps with brown holes

Figure 3 Focus group plates for Scenario 3: Town centre

Table 3 How fast would you drive in Scenario 3: town centre

Focus groups (20) Questionnaire survey (100)

Study (sample size) Mean Standard Difference Mean Standard Difference

1 Base line 23.7 4.4 22.1 5.8

'Boa constrictor' with 'Snake' with 'Snake' with

Figure 4 Plan view of ‘Boa constrictor’ and ‘Snake’ road markings

5: Boa constrictor, red pavement, straight centre white line

Figure 5 Questionnaire survey plates for Scenario 4: Distributor road

Table 4 How fast would you drive in Scenario 4: Distributor road

Focus groups (20) Questionnaire survey (100)

Study (sample size) Mean Standard Difference Mean Standard Difference

1 Baseline 41.0 9.8 38.0 6.7

3: Ditch 4: Footway and driveways

5: Footway and continuous coloured surface

Figure 6 Focus group plates in Scenario 5: Village with church

Focus groups (20) Questionnaire survey (100)

Study (sample size) Mean Standard Difference Mean Standard Difference

1 Baseline 33.7 9.1 32.5 6.5

5: Build-outs with posts, lines on road surface, no centre line

Questionnaire survey (100)

Study (sample size) Mean Standard Difference

1 Baseline 34.9 6.1

Measure V3: Gateway with coloured surfacing continued

Tree build-outs (V5) Curved patch (excessive camber) (V6)

Control section corresponding to curved patch

Figure 11 Speed profile for driver 24 (Route B2)

Table 8 Mean speeds and minimum mean speed

Minimum mean speed

Mean speed (mph)

Figure 12 Mean speed profile for Route B

Red brick narrowing Tree Buildouts Curved patch

Figure 13 Mean speed profile relative to control for Route B

Mean speed (mph) 50

Mean speed relative to control (mph)

4.10 Speed choice of driver effect 4.11 Lateral displacement