ASTU 2022

CHAPTER ONE
1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

1.1 INTRODUCTION
Statics is the study of forces acting in equilibrium on rigid bodies. “Bodies” are solid objects,
“rigid” means the bodies do not stretch, bend, or twist; and “equilibrium” means the rigid bodies
are not accelerating.
In Strength of Materials, we keep the assumptions of bodies in equilibrium, but we drop the
“rigid” assumption. Real cables stretch under tension, real floor bend under load, and real axle
shafts twist under torsional load. Strength of Materials is a difficult course because the topics are
cumulative and highly interconnected.
Strength of Material is the resistance by which the material opposes the deformation that can
occur due to an external force which acts on a body. Mechanics of materials (strength of
materials) deals with the behavior of solid bodies subjected to various types of loading. The solid
bodies considered in forces include bars with axial loads, shafts in torsion, beams in bending,
and columns in compression.
The main objective of studying mechanics of materials is to help the engineer to analyse and
design load-bearing structures. Analysis and design involves the determination of stresses and
deformations. If we can find these quantities for all values of the loads up to the loads that cause
failure, we will have a complete picture of the mechanical behavior of these structures.
Theoretical analyses and experimental results have equally important roles in mechanics of
materials.

1.2 NORMAL STRESS AND STRAIN

The most fundamental concepts in mechanics of materials are stress and strain. Simple stresses
are expressed as the ratio of the applied force divided by the resisting area or
𝝈 = 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 / 𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂
Stress is the lead to accurately describe and predict the elastic deformation of a body.
Simple stress can be classified as normal stress, shear stress, and bearing stress.
 Normal stress develops when a force is applied perpendicular to the cross-sectional area
of the material. If the force is going to pull the material, the stress is said to be tensile
stress and compressive stress develops when the material is being compressed by two
opposing forces. A sign convention for normal stresses is tensile stresses is taken as
positive and compressive stresses is taken as negative.
𝑃
𝜎=
𝐴
 Shear stress is developed if the applied force is parallel to the resisting area. Example is
the bolt that holds the tension rod in its anchor. Another condition of shearing is when we
twist a bar along its longitudinal axis.
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴

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 Bearing stress:- is the contact pressure between two bodies.

𝑃𝑏
𝜎𝑏 =
𝐴𝑏
Strain (𝜀)
Also known as unit deformation, strain is the ratio of the change in length caused by the applied
force, to the original length.
𝛥𝐿 𝛿
𝜀= =
𝐿 𝐿
Normal Strain
A straight bar will change in length when loaded axially, becoming longer when in tension and
shorter when in compression. The elongation of a segment is equal to its length divided by the
total length L and multiplied by the total elongation 𝛿. Therefore, a unit length of the bar will
have an elongation equal to 1/L times δ. A change in length when loaded axially is called the
elongation per unit length, or strain, and is denoted by the Greek letter 𝜀 (epsilon).
𝛿
𝜀=
𝐿
If the bar is in tension, the strain is called a tensile strain, representing an elongation or
stretching of the material. If the bar is in compression, the strain is a compressive strain and the
bar shortens. Tensile strain is usually taken as positive and compressive strain as negative. The
strain 𝜀 is called a normal strain because it is associated with normal stresses.
Because normal strain is the ratio of two lengths, it is a dimension less quantity, that is, it has no
units. Therefore, strain is expressed simply as a number, independent of any system of units.
Numerical values of strain are usually very small, because bars made of structural materials
undergo only small changes in length when loaded.

1.3 STRESS-STRAIN RELATION

Many structural materials, behave both elastically and linearly when first loaded. Consequently,
their stress-strain curves begin with a straight line passing through the origin. An example is the
stress-strain curve for structural steel shown in Fig. below where the region from the origin O to
the proportional limit (point A) is both linear and elastic. When a material behaves elastically
and also exhibits a linear relationship between stress and strain, it is said to be linearly elastic.
This type of behavior is extremely important in engineering for an obvious reason—by designing
structures and machines to function in this region, we avoid permanent deformations due to
yielding.
Two stress values are important in engineering design. The yield strength, 𝜎𝑌𝑆 , is the limit of
elastic deformation; beyond this point, the material “yields,” or permanently deforms.
The ultimate tensile strength, (also called tensile strength,) is the highest stress value on the
stress-strain curve. The rupture strength is the stress at final fracture; this value is not particularly
useful, because once the tensile strength is

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Fig.1: Stress-strain diagram for a typical structural steel in tension (not to scale)

ELASTIC LIMIT
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original
shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may be developed such that
there is no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.
ELASTIC AND PLASTIC RANGES
The region in stress-strain diagram from O to B is called the elastic range. The region from B to
E is called the plastic range.
YIELD POINT
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable elongation or yielding
without any increase in load.
ULTIMATE STRENGTH
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or tensile strength.
RAPTURE STRENGTH
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as the breaking
strength.
Hooke’s Law
The linear relationship between stress and strain for a bar in simple tension or compression is
expressed by the equation
𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀
In which 𝜎 is the axial stress, 𝜀 is the axial strain, and E is a constant of proportionality known as
the modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) for the material. The modulus of elasticity is the slope
of the stress-strain diagram in the linearly elastic region. Since strain is dimensionless, the units of
E are the same as the units of stress. The modulus of elasticity has relatively large values for
materials that are very stiff, such as structural metals. Steel has a modulus of approximately 30,000
ksi (210 GPa); for aluminum, values around 10,600 ksi (73 GPa) are typical. More flexible
materials have a lower modulus—values for plastics range from 100 to 2,000 ksi (0.7 to 14 GPa).

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Poisson’s Ratio
When a prismatic bar is loaded in tension, the axial elongation is accompanied by lateral
contraction (that is, contraction normal to the direction of the applied load).
The lateral strain 𝜀 ′ at any point in a bar is proportional to the axial strain 𝜀 at that same point if the
material is linearly elastic. The ratio of these strains is a property of the material known as
Poisson’s ratio. This dimensionless ratio, usually denoted by the Greek letter 𝜐 (nu), can be
expressed by the equation
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀′
𝜐=− =−
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀
The minus sign is inserted in the equation to compensate for the fact that the lateral and axial strains
normally have opposite signs. For instance, the axial strain in a bar in tension is positive and the
lateral strain is negative (because the width of the bar decreases). For compression we have the
opposite situation, with the bar becoming shorter (negative axial strain) and wider (positive lateral
strain).
Example 1:
A 6 inch long copper wire is stretched to a total length of 6.05 inches. What is the strain?
Solution
The change in anything is the final dimension minus the initial dimension. Here, the change in
length is the final length minus the initial length: Δ L=Lf−Lo=6.05in.−6.0 in. =0.05 in. Strain is
ε=Δ L/L =0.05 in/6.0 in. =0.0083
Example 2:
A 6 foot long aluminum rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.08 in.2. How much does the rod
stretch under an axial tensile load of 400 lb.? Report the answer in inches.
Solution
Aluminum has a Young’s modulus of E=10×106 psi.

Deflection

Example 3:
A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100 mm must carry a tensile load of 400 kN.
Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the stress is limited to 120 MN/m2.
Solution

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Example 4:
A homogeneous 800 kg bar AB is supported at either end by a cable as shown in Fig. below.
Calculate the smallest area of each cable if the stress is not to exceed 90 MPa in bronze and 120
MPa in steel.

Solution

Example 5:
The homogeneous bar shown in Fig. below is supported by a smooth pin at C and a cable that
runs from A to B around the smooth peg at D. Find the stress in the cable if its diameter is 0.6
inch and the bar weighs 6000 lb.

Solution

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Example 6:
A rod is composed of an aluminum section rigidly attached between steel and bronze sections, as
shown in Fig. below. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. If P = 3000 lb and the
cross sectional area of the rod is 0.5 in2, determine the stress in each section.

Solution

Example 7:
An aluminum rod is rigidly attached between a steel rod and a bronze rod as shown in Fig.
below. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the maximum value of P that will
not exceed a stress in steel of 140 MPa, in aluminum of 90 MPa, or in bronze of 100 MPa.

Solution

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Example 8:
A 12-inches square steel bearing plate lies between an 8-inches diameter wooden post and a
concrete footing as shown in Fig. below. Determine the maximum value of the load P if the
stress in wood is limited to 1800 psi and that in concrete to 650 psi.
Solution

Example 9:
The rigid bar AB, attached to two vertical rods as shown in Fig. below, is horizontal before the
load P is applied. Determine the vertical movement of P if its magnitude is 50 kN.

Solution

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Example 10: A steel pipe of length L = 4.0 ft, outside diameter d2 = 6.0 in., and inside diameter d1
= 4.5 in. is compressed by an axial force P =140 k. The material has modulus of elasticity E
=30,000 ksi and Poisson’s ratio =0.30. Determine the following quantities for the pipe: (a) the
shortening , (b) the lateral strain , (c) the increase in the outer diameter and the increase
in the inner diameter, and (d) the increase in the wall thickness.
Solution
The cross-sectional area A and longitudinal stress is determined as follows:

Because the stress is well below the yield stress the material behaves linearly elastically
and the axial strain may be found from Hooke’s law

The minus sign for the strain indicates that the pipe shortens.
(a) Knowing the axial strain, we can now find the change in length of the pipe

(b) The lateral strain is obtained from Poisson’s ratio

The positive sign for indicates an increase in the lateral dimensions.

(c) The increase in outer diameter equals the lateral strain times the diameter:

Similarly, the increase in inner diameter is

(d) The increase in wall thickness is found in the same manner as the increases in
the diameters; thus,

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Example 11: An aluminum rod has a cross-sectional area of 0.19635 in2. An axial tensile load of
6000 lb. causes the rod to stretch along its length, and shrink across its diameter. What is the
diameter before and after loading?
Solution The rod has a circular cross section, so the cross-sectional area before the rod is loaded
𝜋
is 𝐴 = 4 𝑑 2

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1.4 SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN

Shearing Stress:
Forces parallel to the area resisting the force cause shearing stress. Shearing stress is also
known as tangential stress.
𝑉
𝜏=
𝐴
where V is the resultant shearing force which passes through the centroid of the area A being
sheared.
Regarding shear stresses acting on a rectangular element:
1. Shear stresses on opposite (and parallel) faces of an element are equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction.
2. Shear stresses on adjacent (and perpendicular) faces of an element are equal in magnitude and
have directions such that both stresses point toward, and both point away from, the line of
intersection of the faces.
These observations were obtained for an element subjected only to shear stresses (no normal
stresses). This state of stress is called pure shear.
Shearing Deformation
Shearing forces cause shearing deformation. An element subject to shear does not change in
length but undergoes a change in shape.

The change in angle at the corner of an original rectangular element is called the shear strain
and is expressed as:
𝛿𝑠
𝛾=
𝐿
Shear strain is a measure of the distortion, or change in shape, of the element. Because shear
strain is an angle, it is usually measured in degrees or radians.
For the linearly elastic region, the shear stress and shear strain are proportional. Therefore
applying Hooke’s law in shear the ratio of the shear stress τ and the shear strain γ is called
the modulus of elasticity in shear or modulus of rigidity and is denoted as G, in MPa.
𝜏
𝐺=
𝛾
The relationship between the shearing deformation and the applied shearing force is:
𝑉𝐿 𝜏𝐿
𝛿𝑠 = =
𝐴𝑠 𝐺 𝐺
Where V is the shearing force acting over an area As.
The moduli of elasticity in tension and shear are related by the following equation:

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Sign Conventions for Shear Stresses and Strains

We may state the sign convention for shear stresses in the following manner:
“Shear stress acting on a positive face of an element is positive if it acts in the positive direction
of one of the coordinate axes and negative if it acts in the negative direction of an axis. Shear
stress acting on a negative face of an element is positive if it acts in the negative direction of an
axis and negative if it acts in a positive direction.”

The sign convention for shear strains is as follows:

“Shear strain in an element is positive when the angle between two positive faces (or two
negative faces) is reduced. The strain is negative when the angle between two positive (or two
negative) faces is increased.”
Example 1: What force is required to punch a 20-mm-diameter hole in a plate that is 25 mm
thick? The shear strength is 350 MN/m2.
Solution

The resisting area is the shaded area along

the perimeter and the shear forces V is equal
to the punching force P.
𝑉 = 𝜏𝐴
𝑃 = 350[𝜋(20)(25)]
= 549778.7 𝑁
= 549.8 𝑘𝑁

Example 2: As in Fig. below, a hole is to be punched out of a plate having a shearing

strength of 40 ksi. The compressive stress in the punch is limited to 50 ksi.
(a) Compute the maximum thickness of plate in which a hole 2.5 inches in diameter can be
punched.
(b) If the plate is 0.25 inch thick, determine the diameter of the smallest hole that can be
punched.

Solution
a) Maximum thickness of plate:
Based on puncher strength:
1
𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴 = 50 [4 𝜋(2.5)2 ]
= 78.125𝜋 𝑘𝑖𝑝𝑠 → 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒

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Based on shear strength of plate:

𝑉 = 𝜏𝐴
78.125𝜋 = 40[𝜋(2.5𝑡)]
𝑡 = 0.781 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
b) Diameter of smallest hole:
Based on compression of puncher:
𝑃 = 𝜎𝐴
1
= 50(4 𝜋𝑑 2 )
= 12.5𝜋𝑑 2 → Equivalent shear force for plate
Based on shearing of plate:
𝑉 = 𝜏𝐴 → 𝑉 = 𝑃
12.5𝜋𝑑 2 = 40[𝜋𝑑(0.25)]
𝑑 = 0.8 𝑖𝑛
Example 3: Find the smallest diameter bolt that can be used in the clevis shown in Fig.
below if P = 400 kN. The shearing strength of the bolt is 300 MPa.

Solution
The bolt is subjected to double shear.
𝑉 = 𝜏𝐴
1
400(1000) = 300[2 ( 𝜋𝑑 2 )]
4
𝑑 = 29.13 𝑚𝑚
Bearing Stress
Bearing stress is the contact pressure between the separate bodies. It differs from compressive
stress, as it is an internal stress caused by compressive forces.

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Example 1: In Fig. below, assume that a 20-mm-diameter rivet joins the plates that are each
110 mm wide. The allowable stresses are 120 MPa for bearing in the plate material and 60
MPa for shearing of rivet. Determine (a) the minimum thickness of each plate; and (b) the
largest average tensile stress in the plates.

Solution

Example 2: In the clevis shown in Fig. below, find the minimum bolt diameter and the
minimum thickness of each yoke that will support a load P = 14 kips without exceeding a
shearing stress of 12 ksi and a bearing stress of 20 ksi.

Solution

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1.5 WORKING STRESS, ALLOWABLE STRESS, AND FACTOR OF SAFETY

Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading. The
maximum safe stress that a material can carry is termed as the allowable stress. The
allowable stress should be limited to values not exceeding the proportional limit. However,
since proportional limit is difficult to determine accurately, the allowable tress is taken as
either the yield point or ultimate strength divided by a factor of safety. The ratio of this
strength (ultimate or yield strength) to allowable strength is called the factor of safety.

Example 1: The two-bar truss ABC shown in Fig. below has pin supports at points A and C,
which are 2.0 m apart. Members AB and BC are steel bars, pin connected at joint B. The length
of bar BC is 3.0 m. A sign weighing 5.4 kN is suspended from bar BC at points D and E, which
are located 0.8 m and 0.4 m, respectively, from the ends of the bar.
Determine the required cross-sectional area of bar AB and the required diameter of the pin at
support C if the allowable stresses in tension and shear are 125 MPa and 45 MPa, respectively.
(Note: The pins at the supports are in double shear. Also, disregard the weights of members AB
and BC.)

Solution
The objectives of this example are to determine the required sizes of bar AB and the pin at
support C.

Solving,

Next,

To obtain the vertical component of the reaction at support C:

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Fig.: Free-body diagrams

Similarly, the reaction at point C:

Tensile force in bar AB:

Because we are disregarding the weight of bar AB, the tensile force F AB in this bar is equal to
the reaction at A:

Shear force acting on the pin at C: This shear force is equal to the reaction R C therefore,

Required area of bar:

Bar AB must be designed with a cross-sectional area equal to or greater than 44.1 mm2 in order
to support the weight of the sign, which is the only load we considered.

Required diameter of pin: The required cross-sectional area of the pin at C, which is in double
shear, is

From which we can calculate the required diameter:

A pin of at least this diameter is needed to support the weight of the sign without exceeding the
allowable shear stress.

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Example 2: The ultimate stress for a hollow steel column which carries an axial load of 1.9 MN
is 480 N/mm2. If the external diameter of the column is 200 mm, determine the internal
diameter. Take the factor of safety as 4.
Solution
𝑈𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 =
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
480
4=
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
480 𝑁
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = 120
4 𝑚𝑚2
𝑁
𝜎 = 120
𝑚𝑚2
𝑃 𝑁 1900000 𝑁
Now, 𝜎 = 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 120 𝑚𝑚2 = 𝜋(2002 −𝑑2 ) → 𝑑 = 140.85 𝑚𝑚. 𝐴𝑛𝑠
4
1.6 AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS
Structural components subjected only to tension or compression is known as axially loaded
members. Examples: Solid bars with straight longitudinal axes, cables and coil springs, truss
members, columns in buildings, and struts in aircraft engine mounts.

1.7 CHANGES IN LENGTHS OF AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS

Example 1:
A steel rod having a cross-sectional area of 300 mm2 and a length of 150 m is suspended
vertically from one end. It supports a tensile load of 20 kN at the lower end. If the unit mass
of steel is 7850 kg/m3 and E = 200 × 103 MN/m2, find the total elongation of the rod.
Solution

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Example 2: A steel wire 30 ft long, hanging vertically, supports a load of 500 lb. Neglecting
the weight of the wire, determine the required diameter if the stress is not to exceed 20 ksi
and the total elongation is not to exceed 0.20 in. Assume E = 29 × 10 6 psi.
Solution

Example 3: An aluminum bar having a cross-sectional area of 0.5 in2 carries the axial loads
applied at the positions shown in Fig. below. Compute the total change in length of the bar if E
= 10 × 106 psi. Assume the bar is suitably braced to prevent lateral buckling.

Solution

Example 4: A bronze bar is fastened between a steel bar and an aluminum bar as shown in
Fig. below. Axial loads are applied at the positions indicated. Find the largest value of P that
will not exceed an overall deformation of 3.0 mm, or the following stresses: 140 MPa in the
steel, 120 MPa in the bronze, and 80 MPa in the aluminum. Assume that the assembly is
suitably braced to prevent buckling. Use E st = 200 GPa, Eal = 70 GPa, and Ebr = 83 GPa.

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Solution

Example 5: The rigid bar ABC shown in Fig. below is hinged at A and supported by a steel
rod at B. Determine the largest load P that can be applied at C if the stress in the steel rod is
limited to 30 ksi and the vertical movement of end C must not exceed 0.10 in.

Solution

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1.8 CHANGES IN LENGTHS UNDER NON-UNIFORM CONDITIONS

𝑃𝐿
For bars with continuously varying loads or dimensions, we can no longer use 𝛿 = 𝐸𝐴 to
obtain the change in length. Instead, we must determine the change in length of a differential
element of the bar and then integrate over the length of the bar. Selecting a differential
element at distance x from the left-hand end of the bar, the internal axial force N(x) acting at
this cross section may be determined from equilibrium using either segment AC or segment
CB as a free body. In general, this force is a function of x. Also, knowing the dimensions of
the bar, we can express the cross-sectional area A(x) as a function of x.

The elongation of the entire bar is obtained by integrating over the length:

Example 1: A tapered bar AB of solid circular cross section and length L (Fig. below) is
supported at end B and subjected to a tensile load P at the free end A. The diameters of the
bar at ends A and B are dA and dB, respectively. Determine the elongation of the bar due to
the load P, assuming that the angle of taper is small.

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Solution
The bar being analyzed in this example has a constant axial force (equal to the load P) throughout
its length.
Cross-sectional area

The cross-sectional area at distance x from the origin is:

Change in length:

By performing the integration and substituting the limits:

Thus,

Finally, we substitute LA/LB= dA/dB:

Example 2: A rod which tapers uniformly from 40 mm diameter to 20 mm diameter in a

length of 400 mm is subjected to an axial load of 5000 N. If E=2.1x10 5 N/mm2, find the
extension of the rod.
Solution

4𝑥5000𝑥400
𝛿= = 0.01515 𝑚𝑚. 𝐴𝑛𝑠
𝜋𝑥2.1𝑥105 𝑥40𝑥20

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1.9 THERMAL EFFECTS

External loads are not the only sources of stresses and strains in a structure. Other sources
include thermal effects arising from temperature changes. Changes in temperature produce
expansion or contraction of structural materials, resulting in thermal strains and thermal
stresses.
If temperature deformation is permitted to occur freely, no load or stress will be induced in
the structure. In some cases where temperature deformation is not permitted, an internal
stress is created. The internal stress created is termed as thermal stress.
Thermal strain is proportional to the temperature change. That is:

Where:
𝜖 𝑇 is thermal strain
𝛼 is coefficient of thermal expansion
∆𝑇 is temperature change
The axial stress that produces the same strain as does the temperature change is expressed as:

The amount that temperature changes cause the body to expand or contract is given by:

Example 1:
A steel rod with a cross-sectional area of 0.25 in2 is stretched between two fixed points. The
tensile load at 70°F is 1200 lb. What will be the stress at 0°F? At what temperature will the
stress be zero? Assume α = 6.5 × 10-6 in / (in·°F) and E = 29 × 106 psi.
Solution

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Example 2:
A rigid bar of negligible weight is supported as shown in Fig. below. If W = 80 kN, compute
the temperature change that will cause the stress in the steel rod to be 55 MPa. Assume the
coefficients of linear expansion are 11.7 μm/(m·°C) for steel and 18.9 μm/(m·°C) for bronze.

Solution

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