541 )

XXXVI.—An Account of CARNOT'S Theory of the Motive Power of Heat ;* with

Numerical Results deduced from REGNAULT'S Experiments on Steam.-\ By
WILLIAM THOMSON, Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of
Glasgow.
(Read January 2, 1849.)

1. The presence of heat may be recognised in every natural object; and there
is scarcely an operation in nature which is not more or less affected by its all-
pervading influence. An evolution and subsequent absorption of heat generally
give rise to a variety of effects; among which may be enumerated, chemical
combinations or decompositions; the fusion of solid substances; the vaporisation
of solids or liquids; alterations in the dimensions of bodies, or in the statical
pressure by which their dimensions may be modified; mechanical resistance over-
come ; electrical currents generated. In many of the actual phenomena of na-
ture, several or all of these effects are produced together; and their complication
will, if we attempt to trace the agency of heat in producing any individual effect,
give rise to much perplexity. It will, therefore, be desirable, in laying the foun-
dation of a physical theory of any of the effects of heat, to discover or to imagine
phenomena free from all such complication, and depending on a definite thermal
agency; in which the relation between the cause and effect, traced through the
medium of certain simple operations, may be clearly appreciated. Thus it is
that CARNOT, in accordance with the strictest principles of philosophy, enters upon
the investigation of the theory of the motive power of heat.

2. The sole effect to be contemplated in investigating the motive power of

heat is resistance overcome, or, as it is frequently called, " work performed,'" or
" mechanical effect." The questions to be resolved by a complete theory of the
subject are the following:
(1.) What is the precise nature of the thermal agency by means of which
mechanical effect is to be produced, without effects of any other kind ?

* Published in 1824, in a work entitled, "Reflexions sur la Puissance Motrice du Feu, et sur
les Machines Propres a Developer,cette Puissance. Par S. CARNOT." An account of CARNOT'S Theory is
also published in the Journal d'JBcole Polytechnique, vol. xiv., 1834, in a paper by Mons. CLAPETRON.
t An account of the first part of a series of researches undertaken by Mons. REGNATJLT, by order
of the late French Government, for ascertaining the various physical data of importance in the
theory of the steam-engine, has been recently published (under the title, " Relation des Experiences,"
&c.) in the Memoires de Vlnstitut, of which it constitutes the twenty-first volume (1847). The
second part of these researches has not yet been published.
VOL. XVI. PART V. 7A
542 PKOFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

(2.) How may the amount of this thermal agency necessary for performing
a given quantity of work be estimated ?
3. In the following paper I shall commence by giving a short abstract of the
reasoning by which CARNOT is led to an answer to the first of these questions; I
shall then explain the investigation by which, in accordance with his theory,
the experimental elements necessary for answering the second question are indi-
cated ; and, in conclusion, I shall state the data supplied by REGNAULT'S recent
observations on steam, and apply them to obtain, as approximately as the pre-
sent state of experimental science enables us to do, a complete solution of the
question.

I. On the nature of Thermal agency, considered as a motive power.

4. There are [at present known] two, and only two, distinct ways in which
mechanical effect can be obtained from heat. One of these is by means of the
alterations of volume which bodies may experience through the action of heat;
the other is through the medium of electric agency. SEEBECK'S discovery of
thermo-electric currents enables us at present to conceive of an electro-magnetic
engine supplied from a thermal origin, being used as a motive power: but thi s
discovery was not made until 1821, and the subject of thermo-electricity can
only have been generally known in a few isolated facts, with reference to the
electrical effects of heat upon certain crystals, at the time when CARNOT wrote.
He makes no allusion to it, but confines himself to the method for rendering
thermal agency available as a source of mechanical effect, by means of the ex-
pansions and contractions of bodies.
5. A body expanding or contracting under the action of force, may, in gene-
ral, either produce mechanical effect by overcoming resistance, or receive mecha-
nical effect by yielding to the action of force. The amount of mechanical effect
thus developed will depend not only on the calorific agency concerned, but also
on the alteration in the physical condition of the body. Hence, after allowing the
volume and temperature of the body to change, we must restore it to its original
temperature and volume; and then we may estimate the aggregate amount of
mechanical effect developed as due solely to the thermal origin.
6. Now the ordinarily-received, and almost universally-acknoAvledged, prin-
ciples with reference to " quantities of caloric " and " latent heat," lead us to con-
ceive that, at the end of a cycle of operations, when a body is left in precisely its
primitive physical condition, if it has absorbed any heat during one part of the
operations, it must have given out again exactly the same amount during the
remainder of the cycle. The truth of this principle is considered as axiomatic by
CARNOT, who admits it as the foundation of his theory; and expresses himself in
the following terms regarding it, in a note on one of the passages of his treatise.*
* CARNOT, p. 37.
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 543

" In our demonstrations we tacitly assume that after a body has experienced
a certain number of transformations, if it be brought identically to its primitive
physical state as to density, temperature, and molecular constitution, it must
contain the same quantity of heat as that which it initially possessed; or, in
other words, we suppose that the quantities of heat lost by the body under one set
of operations are precisely compensated by those which are absorbed in the others.
This fact has never been doubted; it has at first been admitted without reflection,
and afterwards verified, in many cases, by calorimetrical experiments. To deny
it would be to overturn the whole theory of heat, in which it is the fundamental
principle. It must be admitted, however, that the chief foundations on which the
theory of heat rests, would require a most attentive examination. Several expe-
rimental facts appear nearly inexplicable in the actual state of this theory."
7. Since the time when CAKNOT thus expressed himself, the necessity of a
most careful examination of the entire experimental basis of the theory of heat
has become more and more urgent. Especially all those assumptions depending
on the idea that heat is a substance, invariable in quantity; not convertible into any
other element, and incapable of being generated by any physical agency; in fact
the acknowledged principles of latent heat; would require to be tested by a most
searching investigation before they ought to be admitted, as they usually have
been, by almost every one who has been engaged on the subject, whether in com-
bining the results of experimental research, or in general theoretical investigations.
8. The extremely important discoveries recently made by Mr JOULE of Man-
chester, that heat is evolved in every part of a closed electric conductor, moving
in the neighbourhood of a magnet,* and that heat is generated by the friction of
fluids in motion, seem to overturn the opinion commonly held that heat cannot
be generated, but only produced from a source, where it has previously existed
either in a sensible or in a latent condition.
* The evolution of heat in a fixed conductor, through which a galvanic current is sent from any
source whatever, has long been known to the scientific world; but it was pointed out by Mr JOULE
that we cannot infer from any previously-published experimental researches, the actual generation of heat
when the current originates in electro-magnetic induction ; since the question occurs, is the heat which is
evolved in one part of the closed conductor merely transferred from those parts which are subject to the
inducing influence ? Mr JOULE, after a most careful experimental investigation with reference to
this question, finds that it must be answered in the negative.—(See a paper " On the Calorific Effects
of Magneto-Electricity, and on the Mechanical Value of Heat; by J. P. JOULE, Esq." Read before
the British Association at Cork in 1843, and subsequently communicated by the Author to the
Philosophical Magazine, vol. xxiii., pp. 263, 347, 435.)
Before we can finally conclude that heat is absolutely generated in such operations, it would be
necessary to prove that the inducing magnet does not become lower in temperature, and thus com-
pensate for the heat evolved in the conductor. I am not aware that any examination with reference
to the truth of this conjecture has been instituted; but, in the case where the inducing body is a
pure electro-magnet (without any iron), the experiments actually performed by Mr JOULE render
the conclusion probable that the heat evolved in the wire of the electro-magnet is not affected by
the inductive action, otherwise than through the reflected influence which increases the strength of
its own current.
544 PROFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

In the present state of science, however, no operation is known by which heat

can be absorbed into a body without either elevating its temperature, or becoming
latent, and producing some alteration in its physical condition; and the fundamental
axiom adopted by CARNOT may be considered as still the most probable basis for an
investigation of the motive power of heat; although this, and with it every other
branch of the theory of heat may ultimately require to be reconstructed upon an-
other foundation, when our experimental data are more complete. On this un-
derstanding, and to avoid a repetition of doubts, I shall refer to CARNOT'S funda-
mental principle, in all that follows, as if its truth were thoroughly established.
9. We are now led to the conclusion that the origin of motive power, de-
veloped by the alternate expansions and contractions of a body, must be found in
the agency of heat entering the body and leaving it; since there cannot, at the
end of a complete cycle, when the body is restored to its primitive physical condi-
tion, have been any absolute absorption of heat, and consequently no conversion
of heat, or caloric, into mechanical effect; and it remains for us to trace the pre-
cise nature of the circumstances under which heat must enter the body, and
afterwards leave it, so that mechanical effect may be produced. As an example,
we may consider that machine for obtaining motive power from heat with which
we are most familiar—the steam-engine.
10. Here, we observe, that heat enters the machine from the furnace, through
the sides of the boiler, and that heat is continually abstracted by the water em-
ployed for keeping the condenser cool. According to CARNOT'S fundamental prin-
ciple, the quantity of heat thus discharged, during a complete revolution (or double
stroke) of the engine must be precisely equal to that which enters the water of
the boiler ;* provided the total mass of water and steam be invariable, and be re-
stored to its primitive physical condition (which will be the case rigorously, if the
condenser be kept cool by the external application of cold water, instead of by in-
jection, as is more usual in practice), and if the condensed water be restored to
the boiler at the end of each complete revolution. Thus, we perceive, that a cer-
tain quantity of heat is let down from a hot body, the metal of the boiler, to ano-
ther body at a lower temperature, the metal of the condenser; and that there
results from this transference of heat, a certain development of mechanical effect.
11. If we examine any other case in which mechanical effect is obtained
from a thermal origin, by means of the alternate expansions and contractions of
any substance whatever, instead of the water of a steam-engine, we find that a
similar transference of heat is effected, and we may therefore answer the first
question proposed, in the following manner:—
The thermal agency by which mechanical effect may be obtained, is the trans-
ference of heatfrom one body to another at a lomw temperature.
* So generally is CARNOT'S principle tacitly admitted as an axiom, that its application in this
case has never, so far as I am aware, been questioned by practical engineers.
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 545

11. On the measurement of Thermal Agency, considered with reference to its

equivalent of mechanical affect.
12. A perfect thermo-dynamic engine of any kind, is a machine by means of
which the greatest possible amount of mechanical effect can be obtained from a
given thermal agency; and, therefore, if in any manner we can construct or ima-
gine a perfect engine which may be applied for the transference of a given quan-
tity of heat from a body at any given temperature, to another body, at a lower
given temperature, and if we can evaluate the mechanical effect thus obtained,
we shall be able to answer the question at present under consideration, and so to
complete the theory of the motive power of heat. But whatever kind of engine
we may consider with this view, it will be necessary for us to prove that it is a
perfect engine; since the transference of the heat from one body to the other may
be wholly, or partially, effected by conduction through a solid,* without the de-
velopment of mechanical effect; and, consequently, engines may be constructed
in which the whole, or any portion of the thermal agency is wasted. Hence it is
of primary importance to discover the criterion of a perfect engine. This has
been done by CARNOT, who proves the following proposition :—
13. A perfect thermo-dynamic engine is such that, whatever amount of mecha-
nical effect it can derive from a certain thermal agency; if an equal amount be spent
in working it backwards, an equal reverse thermal effect mill be produced, f
14. This proposition will be made clearer by the applications of it which
are given below (§ 29), in the cases of the air-engine and the steam-engine, than it
could be by any general explanation; and it will also appear, from the nature
of the operations described in those cases, and the principles of CARNOT'S reason-
ing, that a perfect engine may be constructed with any substance of an in-
destructible texture as the alternately expanding and contracting medium.
Thus we might conceive thermo-dynamic engines founded upon the expansions
* When " thermal agency" is thus spent in conducting heat through a solid, what becomes of
the mechanical effect which it might produce ? Nothing can be lost in the operations of nature—
no energy can be destroyed. What effect then is produced in place of the mechanical effect which is
lost ? A perfect theory of heat imperatively demands an answer to this question ; yet no answer can
he given in the present state of science. A few years ago, a similar confession must have been made
with reference to the mechanical effect lost in a fluid set in motion in the interior of a rigid closed
vessel, and allowed to come to rest by its own internal friction ; but in this case, the foundation of a
solution of the difficulty has been actually found, in Mr JOULE'S discovery of the generation of heat,
by the internal friction of a fluid in motion. Encouraged by this example, we may hope that the
very perplexing question in the theory of heat, by which we are at present arrested, will, before long,
be cleared up.
It might appear, that the difficulty would be entirely avoided, by abandoning CARNOT'S funda-
mental axiom; a view which is strongly urged by Mr JOULE (at the conclusion of his paper " On
the Changes of Temperature produced by the Rarefaction and Condensation of Air." Phil. Mag.,
May 1845, vol. xxvi.) If we do so, however, we meet with innumerable other difficulties—insuper-
able without farther experimental investigation, and an entire reconstruction of the theory of heat,
from its foundation. It is in reality to experiment that we must look—either for a verification of
CARNOT'S axiom, and an explanation of the difficulty we have been considering; or for an entirely new
basis of the Theory of Heat.
\ For a demonstration, see § 29, below.
VOL. XVI. PART V. . 7 B
546 PROFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

and contractions of a perfectly elastic solid, or of a liquid ; or upon thealtera-

tions of volume experienced by substances, in passing from the liquid to the solid
state,* each of which being perfect, would produce the same amount of mechanical
effect from a given thermal agency; but there are two cases which CARNOT has
selected as most worthy of minute attention, because of their peculiar appropriate-
ness for illustrating the general principles of his theory, no less than on account
of their very great practical importance ; the steam-engine, in which the substance
employed as the transferring medium is water, alternately in the liquid state, and
in the state of vapour; and the air-engine, in which the transference is effected
by means of the alternate expansions and contractions of a medium, always in
the gaseous state. The details of an actually practicable engine of either kind
are not contemplated by CARNOT, in his general theoretical reasonings, but he con-
fines himself to the ideal construction, in the simplest possible way in each case,
of an engine in which the economy is perfect. He thus determines the degree of
perfectibility which cannot be surpassed; and, by describing a conceivable method
of attaining to this perfection by an air-engine or a steam-engine, he points out
the proper objects to be kept in view in the practical construction and working of
such machines. I now proceed to give an outline of these investigations.

CARNOT's Theory of the Steam-Engine.

15. Let CDF 2 E 2 be a cylinder, of which the curved surface is perfectly imper-
meable to heat, with a piston also im-
permeable to heat, fitted in i t ; while
the fixed bottom C D, itself with no ca-
pacity for heat, is possessed of perfect
conducting power. Let K be an im-
permeable stand, such that when the
cylinder is placed upon it, the con-
tents below the piston can neither gain
nor lose heat. Let A and B be two
bodies permanently retained at con-
stant temperatures, S° and T°, respec-
tively, of which the former is higher ________
than the latter. Let the cylinder, •
placed on the impermeable stand, K, A
be partially filled with water, at the
temperature S, of the body A, and
(there being no air below it) let the
piston be placed in a position E F,
near the surface of the water. The
A case minutely examined in another paper, to be laid before the Society at the present
meeting.
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 547

pressure of the vapour above the water will tend to push up the piston, and
must be resisted by a force applied to the piston,* till the commencement of the
operations, which are conducted in the following manner.
(1.) The cylinder being placed on the body A, so that the water and vapour
may be retained at the temperature S, let the piston rise any convenient height
E El5 to a position Ei Fh performing work by the pressure of the vapour below it dur-
ing its ascent.
[During this operation a certain quantity, H, of heat, the amount of latent heat in the fresh
vapour which is formed, is abstracted from the body A*.]
(2.) The cylinder being removed, and placed on the impermeable stand K,
let the piston rise gradually, till, when it reaches a position E2 F2, the temperature of
the water and vapour is T, the same as that of the body B.
[During this operation the fresh vapour continually formed requires heat to become latent;
and, therefore, as the contents of the cylinder are protected from any accession of heat, their tem-
perature sinks.]
(3.) The cylinder being removed from K, and placed on B, let the piston be
pushed down, till, when it reaches the position E3 F3, the quantity of heat evolved and
abstracted by B amounts to thai which, during the first operation, was taken from A.
[During this operation the temperature of the contents of the cylinder is retained constantly at
T°, and all the latent heat of the vapour which is condensed into water at the same temperature, is
given out to B.]
(4.) The cylinder being removed from B, and placed on the impermeable
stand, let the piston be pushed down from E 3 F 3 to its original position E F .
[During this operation, the impermeable stand preventing any loss of heat, the temperature of
the water and air must rise continually, till (since the quantity of heat evolved during the third ope-
ration was precisely equal to that which was previously absorbed), at the conclusion it reaches its
primitive value, S, in virtue of Carnot's fundamental axiom.]
16. At the conclusion of this cycle of operationsf the total thermal agency
has been the letting down of H units of heat from the body A, at the temperature
S, to B, at the lower temperature T; and the aggregate of the mechanical effect
has been a certain amount of work produced, since during the ascent of the piston
in the first and second operations, the temperature of the water and vapour, and
therefore the pressure of the vapour on the piston, was on the whole higher than
during the descent, in the third and fourth operations. It remains for us actually
to evaluate this aggregate amount of work performed; and for this purpose the
* In all that follows, the pressure of the atmosphere on the upper side of the piston will be in-
cluded in the applied forces, which, in the successive operations described, are sometimes overcome by
the upward motion, and sometimes yielded to in the motion downwards. It will be unnecessary, in
reckoning at the end of a cycle of operations, to take into account the work thus spent upon the atmo-
sphere, and the restitution which has been made, since these precisely compensate for one another.
\ In CARNOT'S work some perplexity is introduced with reference to the temperature of the
water, which, in the operations he describes, is not brought back exactly to what it was at the com-
mencement ; but the difficulty which arises is explained by the author. No such difficulty occurs
with reference to the cycle of operations described in the text, for which I am indebted to Mons.
CLAPEYRON.
548 PROFESSOE WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

following graphical method of representing the mechanical effect developed in the

several operations, taken from Mons. CLAPEYRON'S paper, is extremely convenient.
17. Let 0 X and 0 Y be two lines y
at right angles to one another. Along
0 X measure off distances 0 N;, N N2, A;
N2 No, N3 O, respectively proportional
to the spaces described by the piston V- - \ P

during the four successive operations

described above; and, with reference
\ A?
A3

to these four operations respectively,

X
let the following constructions be O NJ NI N2

made :—
(1.) Along 0 Y measure a length 0 A, to represent the pressure of the satu-
rated vapour at the temperature S; and draw A Ai parallel to 0 X, and let it meet
an ordinate through Nu in A,..
(2.) Drawr a curve AXP A such that, if 0 N represent, at any instant during
the second operation, the distance of the piston from its primitive position, N P
shall represent the pressure of the vapour at the same instant.
(3.) Through A2 draw A2 A3 parallel to 0 X, and let it meet an ordinate
through N3 in Aa.
(4.) Draw the curve A3 A such that the abscissa and ordinate of any point in
it may represent respectively the distances of the piston from its primitive posi-
tion, and the pressure of the vapour, at some instant during the fourth operation.
The last point of this curve must, according to Carnot's fundamental principle,
coincide with A, since the piston is, at the end of the cycle of operations, again
in its primitive position, and the pressure of the vapour is the same as it was at
the beginning.
18. Let us now suppose that the lengths, 0 Nl5 Nx N.,, N^ N3, and Na 0, repre-
sent numerically the volumes of the spaces moved through by the piston during
the successive operations. It follows that the mechanical effect obtained during
the first operation will be numerically represented by the area A Ai Ni 0 ; that is,
the number of superficial units in this area will be equal to the number of " foot-
pounds " of work performed by the ascending piston during the first operation.
The work performed by the piston during the second operation will be similarly
represented by the area Ai A2 ~N2 ~NV Again, during the third operation a certain
amount of work is spent on the piston, which will be represented by the area
A2 A3 N3 N 2 ; and lastly, during the fourth operation, work is spent in pushing the
piston to an amount represented by the area A3 A 0 NB.
19. Hence the mechanical effect (represented by the area 0 A Ax A2 N2) which
was obtained during the first and second operations, exceeds the work (repre-
sented by N2 A2 A3 A 0) spent during the third and fourth, by an amount repre-
sented by the area of the quadrilateral figure AAiA2A3; and, consequently, it
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 549

only remains for us to evaluate this area, that may determine the total mechani-
cal effect gained in a complete cycle of operations. Now, from experimental
data, at present nearly complete, as will be explained below, we may determine
the length of the line A Ai for the given temperature S, and a given absorption
H, of heat, during the first operation; and the length of A2 A3 for the given lower
temperature T, and the evolution of the same quantity of heat during the fourth
operation: and the curves Ai PA2, A3 P'A may be drawn as graphical representa-
tions of actual observations.* The figure being thus constructed, its area may be
measured, and we are, therefore, in possession of a graphical method of determin-
ing the amount of mechanical effect to be obtained from any given thermal agency.
As, however, it is merely the area of the figure which it is required to determine, it
will not be necessary to be able to describe each of the curves Ax P A3 A3 P'A, but
it will be sufficient to know the difference of the abscissas corresponding to any
equal ordinates in the two; and the following analytical method of completing
the problem is the most convenient for leading to the actual numerical results.
20. Draw any line P P' parallel to 0 X, meeting the curvilineal sides of the
quadrilateral in P and P'. Let % denote the length of this line, and p its distance
from 0 X. The area of the figure, according to the integral calculus, will be de-
noted by the expression
7>i
Si
where pi, and p3 (the limits of integration indicated according to FOURIER'S nota-
tion) denote the lines 0 A, and N3 A8, which represent respectively the pressures
during the first and third operations. Now, by referring to the construction de-
scribed above, we see that £ is the difference of the volumes below the piston at
corresponding instants of the second and fourth operations, or instants at which
the saturated steam and the water in the cylinder have the same pressure p, and,
consequently, the same temperature which we may denote by t. Again, through-
out the second operation the entire contents of the cylinder possess a greater
amount of heat by H units than during the fourth; and, therefore, at any instant
of the second operation there is as much more steam as contains H units of latent
heat, than at the corresponding instant of the fourth operation. Hen ce, if k de-
note the latent heat in a unit of saturated steam at the temperature t, the volume
TT
of the steam at the two corresponding instants must differ by -~ Now, if * de-
TT

note the ratio of the density of the steam to that of the water, the volume —- of
rC
TT
steam will be formed from the volume «• j of water; and, consequently, we have
* See Note at the end of this Paper.
VOL. XVI. PART V. 7C
550 PROFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

for the difference of volumes of the entire contents at the corresponding instants,

Hence the expression for the area of the quadrilateral figure becomes

p3 *

Now, «, k, and p, being quantities which depend upon the temperature, may be
considered as functions of t; and it will be convenient to modify the integral so
as to make t the independent variable. The limits will be from t=T to t=S, and,
if we denote by M the value of the integral, we have the expression

M=]

for the total amount of mechanical effect gained by the operations described
above.
21. If the interval of temperatures be extremely small; so small that
dp
(1 — g) will not sensibly vary for values of t between T and S, the preceding ex-
presssion becomes simply
dp
M =( l - « r ) ^ . H ( S - T ) . . . . (2).

This might, of course, have been obtained at once, by supposing the breadth of
the quadrilateral figure A A1A2 A to be extremely small compared with its length,
and then taking for its area, as an approximate value, the product of the breadth
into the line A Au or the line A3A2, or any line of intermediate magnitude.
The expression (2) is rigorously correct for any interval S-T, if the
dp
mean value of (l - <s)~for that interval be employed as the coefficient of H ( S - T).

Theory of the Air-Engine.

CARNOT'S
22. In the ideal air-engine imagined by CARNOT four operations performed
upon a mass of air or gas enclosed in a closed vessel of variable volume, consti-
tute a complete cycle, at the end of which the medium is left in its primitive phy-
sical condition; the construction being the same as that which was described
above for the steam-engine, a body A, permanently retained at the temperature
S, and B at the temperature T; an impermeable stand K j and a cylinder and
piston, which, in this case, contains a mass of air at the temperature S, instead of
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 551

water in the liquid state, at the beginning and end of a cycle of operations. The
four successive operations are conducted in the following manner:—
(1.) The cylinder is laid on the body A, so that the air in it is kept at the
temperature S; and the piston is allowed to rise, performing work.
(2.) The cylinder is placed on the impermeable stand K, so that its contents
can neither gain nor lose heat, and the piston is allowed to rise farther, still per-
forming work, till the temperature of the air sinks to T.
(3.) The cylinder is placed on B, so that the air is retained at the tempera-
ture T, and the piston is pushed down till the air gives out to the body B as much
heat as it had taken in from A, during the first operation.
(4.) The cylinder is placed on K, so that no more heat can be taken in or
given out, and the piston is pushed down to its primitive position.
23. At the end of the fourth operation the temperature must have reached its
primitive value S, in virtue of CARNOT'S axiom.
24. Here, again, as in the former case, we observe that work is performed
by the piston during the first two operations; and, during the third and fourth,
work is spent upon it, but to a less amount, since the pressure is on the whole less
during the third and fourth operations than during the first and second, on ac-
count of the temperature being lower. Thus, at the end of a complete cycle of
operations, mechanical effect has been obtained; and the thermal agency from
which it is drawn is the taking of a certain quantity of heat from A, and letting
it dorm, through the medium of the engine, to the body B at a lower temperature.
25. To estimate the actual amount of effect thus obtained, it will be con-
venient to consider the alterations of volume of the mass of air in the several
operations as extremely small. We may afterwards pass by the integral calcu-
lus, or, practically, by summation, to determine the mechanical effect whatever
be the amplitudes of the different motions of the piston.
26. Let dq be the quantity of heat absorbed during the first operation, which
is evolved again during the third; and let dv be the corresponding augmentation
of volume which takes places while the temperature remains constant, as it
does during the first operation.* The diminution of volume in the third ope-
ration must be also equal to dv, or only differ from it by an infinitely small

* Thus, —- will be the partial differential coefficient, with respect to v of that function of
dv
v and t, which expresses the quantity of heat that must be added to a mass of air when in a " stan-
dard" state (such as at the temperature zero, and under the atmospheric pressure), to bring it to the
temperature t, and the volume v. That there is such a function, of two independent variables v and t.
is merely an analytical expression of CARNOT'S fundamental axiom, as applied to a mass of air. The
general principle may be analytically stated in the following terms :—If M. dv denote the accession of
heat received by a mass of any kind, not possessing a destructible texture, when the volume is in-
creased by d v, the temperature being kept constant, and if N d t denote the amount of heat which
must be supplied to raise the temperature by d t, without any alteration of volume; then M dv + N dt
must be the differential of a function of v and t.
552 PROFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

quantity of the second order. During the second operation we may suppose
the volume to be increased by an infinitely small quantity 9; which will oc-
casion a diminution of pressure, and a diminution of temperature, denoted re-
respectively by &> and T. During the fourth operation there will be a diminution
of volume, and an increase of pressure and temperature, which can only differ, by
infinitely small quantities of the second order, from the changes in the other di-
rection, which took place in the second operation, and they also may, therefore,
be denoted by % «, and T, respectively. The alteration of pressure, during the first
and third operations, may at once be determined by means of MARIOTTE'S law,
since, in them, the temperature remains constant. Thus, if, at the commence-
ment of the cycle, the volume and pressure be v and jo, they will have become
v + dv and p ^jv at the end of the first operation. Hence the diminution of
0T an
pressure, during the first operation, is p—p v + dv P~^fdv> &> therefore, if we

neglect infinitely small quantities of the second order, we have p — for the dimi-
nution of pressure during the first operation; which, to the same degree of ap-
proximation, will be equal to the increase of pressure during the third. If t + r
and t be taken to denote the superior and inferior limits of temperature, we shall
thus have for the volume, the temperature, and the pressure at the commence-
ments of the four successive operations, and at the end of the cycle, the following
values respectively:—
(1.) v, t + T, p;

(2.) v + dv, t+T, p(l-*iy,

(3.) v + d v + <p, t, p (1 ) — <w;

V v /
(4.) v + p, t, p—a ;
(5.) v, t+T, p.
Taking the mean of the pressures at the beginning and end of each operation, we
find

(10

(20

(4.) p-i»,

which, as we are neglecting infinitely small quantities of the second order, will be
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 553

the expressions for the mean pressures during the four successive operations.
Now, the mechanical effect gained or spent, during any of the operations, will be
found by multiplying the mean pressure by the increase or diminution of volume
which takes places; and we thus find

(3.)
(4.) (j»-*«) f
for the amounts gained during the first and second, and spent during the third and
fourth operations; and hence, by addition and subtraction, we find
, dv , N dv
o> d v—p <t> — , or (v oi—p <p) — ,
v v
for the aggregate amount of mechanical effect gained during the cycle of opera-
tions. It only remains for us to express this result in terms of d q and T, on which
the given thermal agency depends. For this purpose, we remark that 9 and &> are
alterations of volume and pressure which take place along with a change of tem-
perature r, and hence, by the laws of compressibility and expansion, we may
establish a relation* between them in the following manner.
Let pQ be the pressure of the mass of air when reduced to the temperature
zero, and confined in a volume v0; then, whatever be v0, the product p0 w0 will, by
the law of compressibility, remain constant; and, if the temperature be elevated
from 0 to t + T, and the gas be allowed to expand freely without any change of
pressure, its volume will be increased in the ratio of 1 to 1 + E {t + r), where E is
very nearly equal to -00366 (the centigrade scale of the air-thermometer being re-
ferred to), whatever be the gas employed, according to the researches of REGNAULT
and of MAGNUS on the expansion of gases by heat. If, now, the volume be altered
arbitrarily with the temperature continually at t + T, the product of the pressure
and volume will remain constant; and, therefore, we have

Similarly (p-
Hence, by subtraction, we have
Vu—ptp + u<p=.p0 Vo Er,
or, neglecting the product a ?,
vu-p<p=povo Er.

* We might also investigate another relation, to express the fact that there is no accession or
removal of heat during either the second or the fourth operation; but it will be seen that this will not
affect the result in the text; although it would enable us to determine both <p and a in terms of r.
VOL. XVI. PART V. 7D
554 PROFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

Hence, the preceding expression for mechanical effect, gained in the cycle of ope-
rations, becomes
E dv
v
Or, as we may otherwise express it,

dq
dv
Hence, if we denote by M the mechanical effect due to H units of heat descending
through the same interval r, which might be obtained by repeating the cycle of
TT

operations described above, j - times, Ave have

dq

27. If the amplitudes of the operations had been finite, so as to give rise to
an absorption of H units of heat during the first operation, and a lowering of
temperature from S to T during the second, the amount of work obtained would
have been found to be expressed by means of a double definite integral, thus; *—

(4),

or

this second form being sometimes more convenient.

28. The preceding investigations, being founded on the approximate laws of
compressibility and expansion (known as the IRAV of MARIOTTE and BOYLE, and
the law of DALTON and GAY-LUSSAC), would require some slight modifications, to
adapt them to cases in which the gaseous medium employed is such as to present
sensible deviations from those laws. REGNAULT'S very accurate experiments
shew that the deviations are insensible, or very nearly so, for the ordinary gases
at ordinary pressures; although they may be considerable for a medium, such as

* This result might have been obtained by applying the usual notation of the integral calculus
to express the area of the curvilinear quadrilateral, which, according to CLAPEYRON'S graphical con-
struction, would be found to represent the entire mechanical effect gained in the cycle of operations
of the air-engine. It is not necessary, however, to enter into the details of this investigation, as the
formula (3), and the consequences derived from it, include the whole theory of the air-engine, in
the best practical form ; and the investigation of it which I have given in the text, will probably give
as clear a view of the reasoning on which it is founded, as could be obtained by the graphical method,
which, in this case, is not so valuable as it is from its simplicity in the case of the steam-engine.
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 555

sulphurous acid, or carbonic acid under high pressure, which approaches the phy-
sical condition of a vapour at saturation; and therefore, in general, and especially
in practical applications to real air-engines, it will be unnecessary to make any
modification in the expressions. In cases where it may be necessary, there is no
difficulty in making the modifications, when the requisite data are supplied by
experiment.
29.* Either the steam-engine or the air-engine, according to the arrangements
described above, gives all the mechanical effect that can possibly be obtained from
the thermal agency employed. For it is clear, that, in either case, the operations
may be performed in the reverse order, with every thermal and mechanical effect
reversed. Thus, in the steam-engine, we may commence by placing the cylinder
on the impermeable stand, allow the piston to rise, performing work, to the posi-
tion E 3 F 3 ; we may then place it on the body B, and allow it to rise, performing
work, till it reaches E 2 F 2 ; after that the cylinder may be placed again on the
impermeable stand, and the piston may be pushed down to Ei F j ; and, lastly,
the cylinder being removed to the body A, the piston may be pushed down to its
primitive position. In this inverse cycle of operations, a certain amount of work
has been spent, precisely equal, as we readily see, to the amount of mechanical
effect gained in the direct cycle described above; and heat has been abstracted
from B, and deposited in the body A, at a higher temperature, to an amount pre-
cisely equal to that which, in the direct cycle, was let down from A to B. Hence
it is impossible to have an engine which will derive more mechanical effect from
the same thermal agency, than is obtained by the arrangement described above ;
since, if there could be such an engine, it might be employed to perform, as a
part of its whole work, the inverse cycle of operations, upon an engine of the kind
we have considered, and thus to continually restore the heat from B to A, which
has descended from A to B for working itself; so that we should have a complex
engine, giving a residual amount of mechanical effect without any thermal agency,
or alteration of materials, which is an impossibility in nature. The same reason-
ing is applicable to the air-engine; and we conclude, generally, that any two en-
gines, constructed on the principles laid down above, whether steam-engines with
different liquids, an air-engine and a steam-engine, or two air-engines with differ-
ent gases, must derive the same amount of mechanical effect from the same ther-
mal agency.
30. Hence, by comparing the amounts of mechanical effect obtained by the
steam-engine and the air-engine from the letting down of the H units of heat
from A at the temperature {t + r) to B at t, according to the expressions (2) and
(3), we have
* This paragraph is the demonstration referred to above, of the proposition stated in § 13 ; as it
is readily seen that it is applicable to any conceivable kind of thermo-dynamic engine.
556 PROFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

J ^ . H r . . . . (5).

If we denote the coefficient of H T in these equal expressions by p, which may be

called " CARNOT'S coefficient," we have

dv
and we deduce the following very remarkable conclusions:—
(1.) For the saturated vapours of all different liquids, at the same tempera-
ture, the value of
dp

must be the same.

(2.) For any different gaseous masses, at the same temperature, the value of

da
dv
must be the same.
(3.) The values of these expressions for saturated vapours and for gases, at
the same temperature, must be the same.
31. No conclusion can be drawn a priori regarding the values of this coeffi-
cient /*. for different temperatures, which can only be determined, or compared, by
experiment. The results of a great variety of experiments, in different branches of
physical science (Pneumatics and Acoustics), cited by CARNOT and by CLAPEYRON,
indicate that the values of <u for low temperatures exceed the values for higher tem-
peratures ; a result amply verified by the continuous series of experiments performed
by REGNAULT on the saturated vapour of water for all temperatures from 0° to
230°, which, as we shall see below, give values for ^ gradually diminishing from
the inferior limit to the superior limit of temperature. When, by observation, ^
has been determined as a function of the temperature, the amount of mechanical
effect, M, deducible from H units of heat descending from a body at the tempera-
ture S to a body at the temperature T, may be calculated from the expression,

dt (7)

which is, in fact, what either of the equations (1) for the steam-engine, or (4) for
the air-engine, becomes, when the notation /*, for CARNOT'S multiplier, is intro-
duced.
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 557

The values of this integral may be practically obtained, in the most con-
venient manner, by first determining, from observation, the mean values of n
for the successive degrees of the thermometric scale, and then adding the values
for all the degrees within the limits of the extreme temperatures S and T.*
32. The complete theoretical investigation of the motive power of heat is thus
reduced to the experimental determination of the coefficient ^; and may be con-
sidered as perfect, when, by any series of experimental researches whatever, we
can find a value of ft for every temperature within practical limits. The special
character of the experimental researches, whether with reference to gases, or with
reference to vapours, necessary and sufficient for this object, is defined and re-
stricted in the most precise manner, by the expressions (6) for /t, given above.
33. The object of REGNAULT'S great work, referred to in the title of this
paper, is the experimental determination of the various physical elements of the
steam-engine; and when it is complete, it will furnish all the data necessary for
the calculation of p. The valuable researches already published in a first part of
that work, make known the latent heat of a given weight, and the pressure, of
saturated steam for all temperatures between 0° and 230° cent, of the air-thermo-
meter. Besides these data, however, the density of saturated vapour must be
known, in order that k, the latent heat of a unit of volume, may be calculated from
REGNAULT'S determination of the latent heat of a given weight.f Between the
limits of 0° and 100°, it is probable, from various experiments which have been
made, that the density of vapour follows very closely the simple laws which are
so accurately verified by the ordinary gases;% and thus it may be calculated from
REGNAULT'S table giving the pressure at any temperature within those limits.
Nothing as yet is known with accuracy as to the density of saturated steam between
100° and 230°, and we must be contented at present to estimate it by calculation
from REGNAULT'S table of pressures; although, when accurate experimental re-
searches on the subject shall have been made, considerable deviations from the
laws of BOYLE and D ALTON, on which this calculation is founded, may be disco-
vered.

* The results of these investigations are exhibited in Tables I. and II. below.
t It is, comparatively
p speaking,
p of little consequence
q to know accuratelyy the value of e, for the
factor ((1—<r)
f of the expression
i ffor /*, since it iis so small
ll (being
bi lless than y ^ for
5
f alll temperatures
between 0° and 100°) that, unless all the data are known with more accuracy than we can count
dp
upon at present, we might neglect it altogether, and take —-— simply, as the expression for p, with-
tC
out committing any error of important magnitude. ,
J This is well established, within the ordinary atmospheric limits, in REGNAULT'S Etudes Me-
teorologiques, in the Annales de Chimie, vol. xv., 1846.
VOL. XVI. PAET V. 7 E
 558 PROFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

34. Such are the experimental data on which the mean values of p for the
successive degrees of the air-thermometer, from 0° to 230°, at present laid before
the Royal Society, is founded. The unit of length adopted is the English foot;
the unit of weight, the pound; the unit of work, a " foot-pound;" and the unit
of heat that quantity which, when added to a pound of water at 0°, will produce
an elevation of 1° in temperature. The mean value of n for any degree is found
to a sufficient degree of approximation, by taking, in place of <t, j~(, and k j in the
expression
dp

the mean values of those elements; or, what is equivalent to the corresponding
accuracy of aproximation, by taking, in place of <r and k respectively, the mean
of the values of those elements for the limits of temperature, and in place of
—, the difference of the values of », at the same limits.
at •*
35. In REGNAULT'S work (at the end of the eighth Memoire), a table of the
pressures of saturated steam for the successive temperatures 0°, 1°, 2°, . . . 230%
expressed in millimetres of mercury, is given. On account of the units adopted
in this paper, these pressures must be estimated in pounds on the square foot,
which we may do by multiplying each number of millimetres by 2-7896, the
weight in pounds of a sheet of mercury, one millimetre thick, and a square foot
in area.
36. The value of k, the latent heat of a cubic foot, for any temperature t, is
found from x, the latent heat of a pound of saturated steam, by the equation
, p 1 +-00366x100

where p denotes the pressure in millimetres, and * the latent heat of a pound of
saturated steam ; the values of x being calculated by the empirical formula*
x=(606-5 + 0-305 * ) - ( ' + 0000212 + 0-000000 ts),
given by REGNAULT as representing, between the extreme limits of his observa-
tions, the latent heat of a unit weight of saturated steam.

* The part of this expression in the first vinculum (see REGNAULT, end of ninth Memoire) is
what is known as " the total heat" of a pound of steam, or the amount of heat necessary to convert
a pound of water at 0° into a pound of saturated steam at t"; which, according to " WATT'S law,"
thus approximately verified, would be constant. The second part, which would consist of the single
term t, if the specific heat of water were constant for all temperatures, is the number of thermit-
units necessary to raise the temperature of a pound of water from 0° to t°, and expresses empirically
the results of REGNAULT'S experiments on the specific heat of water (see end of the tenth Memoire),
described in the work already referred to.
 CAKNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 559

Explanation of Table I.
37. The mean values of ^ for the first, for the eleventh, for the twenty-first,
and so on, up to the 231st* degree of the air-thermometer, have been calculated in
the manner explained in the preceding paragraphs. These, and interpolated re-
results, which must agree with what would have been obtained, by direct calcu-
lation from REGNAULT'S data, to three significant places of figures (and even for
the temperatures between 0° and 100°, the experimental data do not justify us in
relying on any of the results to a greater degree of accuracy), are exhibited in
Table I.
To find the amount of mechanical effect due to a unit of heat, descending from
a body at a temperature Sto a body at T, if these numbers be integers, we have merely
to add the values of /* in Table I. corresponding to the successive numbers.
T + l, T + 2, S-2, S - l ,

Explanation of Table II.

38. The calculation of the mechanical effect, in any case, which might al-
ways be effected in the manner described in § 37 (with the proper modification
for fractions of degrees, when necessary), is much simplified by the use of Table
II., where the first number of Table I., the sum of the first and second, the sum
of the first three, the sum of the first four, and so on, are successively exhibited.
The sums thus tabulated are the values of the integrals
l ri pi r-ni

/
wd t, I u.dt, I wd( / u, dt;
J» Jo Jo
and, if we denote / p dt by the letter M, Table II. may be regarded as a table
of the values of M.
To find the amount of mechanical effect due to a unit of heat descending from a
body at a temperature S to a body at T, if these numbers be integers, we have merely
to subtract the value qfM, for the number T + \,from the value for the number S,
given in Table II.
* In strictness, the 230th is the last degree for which the experimental data are complete ; but
the data for the 231st may readily be assumed in a sufficiently satisfactory manner.
560 PROFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

TABLE I * Mean Values of M far the successive Degrees of the Air-Thermometer

from 0° to 230°.

r i°
2
v-
4-960
4-946
n
48°
49
4-366
4-355
i

94°
95
3-889
3-880
i
1

j 140° i
I 141
! /*
3-549
3-543
I
186°
187
1 h
3-309
3-304
4-932 50 4-343 96 j 3-871 142 | 3-537 188 3-300
4 4-918 51 4-331 97 ! 3863 j 143 ! 3-531 189 3-295
5 4-905 52 4-319 98 3-854 ! 144 ! 3-525 190 3-291
6 4-892 53 4-308 99 3-845 145 3-519 191 3-287
7 4-878 54 4-296 100 3-837 146 \ 3-513 192 3-282
8 4-865 55 4-285 101 3-829 147 3-507 193 3-278
9 4-852 56 4-273 i 102 3-820 148 ; 3501 194 3-274
10 4-839 57 4-262 1 103 3-812 149 3-495 195 3-269
11 4-826 58 4-250 i 104 3-804 150 3-490 196 3-265
12 4-812 59 4-239 i 105 3-796 151 3-484 197 3-261
13 4-799 60 4-227 106 3-788 152 3-479 198 3-257
14 4-786 61 4-216 1 107 3-780 153 3-473 199 3-253
15 4-773 62 4-205 i 108 3-772 154 3-468 200 3-249
16 4-760 63 4-194 109 3-764 155 3-462 201 3-245
17 4-747 64 4-183 110 3-757 156 3-457 202 3-241
18 4-735 65 4172 111 3-749 157 3-451 203 3-237
19 4-722 66 4-161 112 3-741 158 3-446 204 3-233
20 4-709 67 4-150 113 3-734 159 3-440 205 3-229
21 4-697 68 4140 i 114 3-726 160 3-435 206 3-225
22 4-684 69 4-129 115 3-719 161 3-430 207 3-221
23 4-672 70 4-119 116 3-712 162 3-424 208 3-217
24 4-659 71 4-109 117 3-704 163 3-419 209 3-213
25 4-646 72 4-098 118 3-697 164 3-414 210 3-210
26 4-634 73 4-088 119 3-689 165 3-409 211 3-206
27 4-621 74 4-078 120 3-682 166 3-404 212 3-202
28 4-609 75 4-067 121 3-675 167 3-399 213 3198
29 4-596 76 4-057 122 3-668 168 3-394 214 3195
30 4-584 77 4-047 123 3-661 ; 169 3-389 215 3191
31 4-572 78 4037 124 3-654 I 170 3-384 216 3188
32 4-559 79 4-028 125 3-647 171 3-380 217 3184
33 4-547 80 4-018 126 3-640 i 172 3-375 218 3-180
34 4-535 81 4-009 127 3-633 ! 173 3-370 219 3-177
35 4-522 82 3-999 128 3-627 | 174 3-365 220 3173
36 4-510 83 3-990 129 3-620 175 3361 221 3169
37 4-498 84 3-980 130 3-614 176 3-356 222 3-165
38 4-486 85 3-971 131 3-607 177 3351 223 3162
39 4-474 86 3-961 132 3-601 | 178 3-346 224 3158
40 4-462 87 3-952 133 3-594 | 179 3-342 225 3155
41 4-450 88 3-943 134 3-586 ! 180 3-337 226 3151
42 4-438 89 3-934 135 3-579 181 3-332 227 3148
43 4-426 90 3-925 136 3-573 ; 182 3-328 228 3144
44 4-414 91 3-916 137 3-567 183 3-323 229 3141
45 4-402 | 92 3-907 138 3.561 184 3-318 230 3137
46 4-390 ! 93 3-898 139 i 185 3-314 231 3134

_J
3-555

•i
47
••—
4-378 |
I
1
1

* The numbers here tabulated may also be regarded as, the actual values of /* for t=%, t =
1
$, t=3i, &c.
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 561

TABLE II. Mechanical Effect in Foot-Pounds due to a Thermic Unit Centigrade,

passing from a body, at any Temperature less than 230° to a body at 0'".

Superior Superior Superior Superior Superior

Limit of Mechanical Limit of Mechanical Limit of Mechanical Limit of Mechanical Limit of Mechanical
Tempe- Effect. Tempe- Effect. Tempe- Effect. Tempe- Effect. Tempe- Effect.
rature. rature. rature. rature. rature.

Foot-pounds. Foot-pounds. Foot-pounds. Foot-pounds. Foot-pounds.

i° 4-960 48° 223-487 94° 412-545 ! 140° 582-981 186° 740-310
2 9-906 49 227-842 95 416-425 141 586-524 187 743-614
3 14-838 50 232-185 96 420-296 142 590-061 188 746-914
4 19-756 51 236-516 97 424-159 143 593-592 189 750-209
5 24-661 52 240-835 98 428-013 144 597-117 190 753-500
6 29-553 53 245-143 99 431-858 145 600-636 191 756-787
7 34-431 54 249-439 100 435-695 146 604-099 192 760-069
8 39-296 55 253-724 101 439-524 147 607'656 193 763-347
9 44-148 56 257-997 102 443-344 148 611-157 194 766-621
10 48-987 57 262-259 103 447-156 149 614-652 195 769-890
11 53-813 58 266-509 104 450-960 150 618-142 196 773-155
12 58-C25 59 270-748 105 454-756 151 621-626 197 776-416
13 63-424 60 274-975 106 458-544 152 625-105 198 779-673
14 68-210 61 279-191 107 462-324 : 153 628-578 199 782-926
15 72-983 62 283-396 108 466-096 154 632-046 200 786-175
16 77-743 63 287.590 109 469-860 155 635-508 201 789-420
17 82-490 64 291-773 110 473-617 156 638-965 202 792-661
18 87.225 65 295-945 111 477-366 157 642-416 203 795-898
19 91-947 66 300-106 112 481-107 158 645-862 204 799-131
20 96-656 67 304-256 113 484-841 159 649-302 205 802-360
21 101-353 68 308-396 114 488-567 160 652-737 206 805-585
22 106-037 69 312-525 115 492-286 161 656-167 207 808-806
23 110-709 70 316-644 116 495-998 162 659-591 208 812-023
24 115-368 71 320-752 117 499-702 163 663-010 209 815-236
25 120014 72 324-851 118 503-399 164 666-424 210 818-446
26 124-648 73 328-939 119 507-088 165 669-833 211 821-652
27 129-269 74 333-017 120 510-770 166 673-237 212 824-854
28 133-878 75 337084 121 514-445 167 676-636 213 828-052
29 138-474 76 341-141 122 518113 168 680-030 214 831-247
30 143-058 77 345-188 123 521-174 169 683-419 215 834-438
31 147-630 78 349-225 124 525-428 170 686-803 216 837-626
32 152-189 79 353-253 125 529-075 171 690-183 217 840-810
33 156-736 80 357-271 126 532-715 172 693-558 218 843-990
34 161-271 81 361-280 127 536-348 173 696-928 219 847-167
35 165-793 82 365-279 128 539-975 174 700-293 220 850-340
36 170-303 83 369-269 129 543-595 175 703-654 221 853-509
37 174-801 84 373-249 130 547-209 176 707-010 222 856-674
38 179287 85 377-220 131 550-816 177 710-361 223 859-836
39 183-761 86 381-181 132 554-417 178 713-707 224 862-994
40 188-223 87 385-133 133 558051 179 717-049 225 866-149
41 192-673 88 389-076 134 561-597 180 720-386 226 869-300
42 197-111 89 393-010 135 565-176 181 723-718 227 872-448
43 201-537 90 396-935 136 568-749 182 727-046 228 875-592
44 205-951 91 400-851 137 572-316 183 730-369 229 878-733
45 210-353 92 404-758 138 575-877 184 733-687 230 881-870
46 214-743 93 408-656 139 579-432 185 737-001 231 885-004
47 219-121

VOL. XVI. PART. V.

562 PEOFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

Note.—On the curves described in CLAPEYRON'S graphical method of exhibit-

ing CARNOT'S Theory of the Steam-Engine.
39. At any instant when the temperature of the water and vapour is t, dur-
ing the fourth operation (see above, § 16), the latent heat of the vapour must be
precisely equal to the amount of heat that would be necessary to raise the tem-
perature of the whole mass, if in the liquid state, from t to S. * Hence, if xf de-
note the volume of the vapour, c the mean capacity for heat of a pound of water
between the temperatures S and t, and Wthe weight of the entire mass, in pounds,
we have
kv' = c (S-t) W.
Again, the circumstances during the second operation are such that the mass of
liquid and vapour possesses H units of heat more than during the fourth; and
consequently, at the instant of the second operation, when the temperature is I,
the volume v of the vapour will exceed vf by an amount of which the latent heat
is H, so that we have

40. Now, at any instant, the volume between the piston and its primitive
position is less than the actual volume of vapour by the volume of the water eva-
porated. Hence, if x and x' denote the abscissae of the curve at the instants of
the second and fourth operations respectively, when the temperature is t, we have
z= v— e v, x' = i/ — <r v',

and, therefore, by the preceding equations,

tf=c(8t)W (*)

These equations, along with

y=yf=p (c)
enable us to calculate, from the data supplied by REGNAULT, the abscissa and
ordinate for each of the curves described above (§ 17), corresponding to any as-

* For, at the end of the fourth operation, the whole mass is liquid, and at the temperature t.
Now, this state might be arrived at by first compressing the vapour into water at the temperature t,
and then raising the temperature of the liquid to S; and however this state may be arrived at, there
cannot, on the whole, be any heat added to or subtracted from the contents of the cylinder, since,
during the fourth operation, there is neither gain nor loss of heat. This reasoning is, of course,
founded on CARNOT'S fundamental principle, which is tacitly assumed in the commonly-received ideas
connected with " WATT'S law," the " latent heat of steam," and " the total heat of steam."
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 563

sumed temperature t. After the explanations of §§ 33, 34, 35, 36, it is only ne-
cessary to add that c is a quantity of which the value is very nearly unity, and
would be exactly so were the capacity of water for heat the same at every tem-
perature as it is between 0° and 1°; and that the value of c (S-t), for any assigned
values of S and t, is found, by subtracting the number corresponding to t from
the number corresponding to s, in the column headed " Nombre des unites de
chaleur abandonnees par un kilogramme d'eau en descendant deT° a 0°", of the last
table (at the end of the Tenth Memoire) of REGNAULT'S work. By giving S the
value 230°, and by substituting successively 220, 210, 200, &c, for t, values for
a>, y, x, y, have been found, which are exhibited in the following Table:—

Volumes to be de- Volumes from the primi-

scribed by the piston, tive position of the piston Pressures of saturated
Temperatures. to complete the to those occupied at steam, in pounds
fourth operation. instants of the second on the square foot.
operation.

t X X y — y'—P

0° 1269.W a! + 5-409.H 12-832

10 639-6.W x + 2-847 .H 25-567
20 337-3.W of +1-571.H 48-514
30 185-5.W af+ -9062.H 88-007
40 105-9.W af+ -5442.H 153-167
50 62-62.W af+ -3392.H 256-595
60 38-19.W af + -2188.H 415-070
70 21-94.W a/+ -1456.H 650-240
80 15-38.W af + -09962.H 989-318
90 1009.W af+ -06994.H 1465-80
100 6-744.W af+ -05026.H 2120-11
110 4-578.W af + -03688.H 2999-87
120 3-141.W af+ -02758.H 4160-10
130 2-176.W «f+ -02098.H 5663-70
140 1-519.W af+ -01625.H 7581-15
150 1-058.W af+ -01271.H 9990-26
160 0-7369.W af+ -01010.H 12976-2
170 0-5085.W af+ -008116.H 16630-7
180 0-3454.W af+ -006592.H 21051-5
190 0-2267.W af+ -005406.H 26341-5
200 0-1409.W af+ -004472.H 32607-7
210 0-0784.W af+ -003729.H 39960-7
220 0-3310.W af+ -003130.H 48512-4
230 0 af+ -002643.H 58376-6
564 PROFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

Appendix.

(Read April 30, 1849.)

41. In p. 30, some conclusions drawn by CAENOT from his general reasoning
were noticed; according to which it appears, that if the value of JJ. for any
temperature is known, certain information may be derived with reference to the
saturated vapour of any liquid whatever, and, with reference to any gaseous mass,
without the necessity of experimenting upon the specific medium considered.
Nothing in the whole range of Natural Philosophy is more remarkable than the
establishment of general laws by such a process of reasoning. We have seen,
however, that doubt may exist with reference to the truth of the axiom on
which the entire theory is founded, and it therefore becomes more than a matter
of mere curiosity to put the inferences deduced from it to the test of experience.
The importance of doing so was clearly appreciated by CARNOT ; and, with such
data as he had from the researches of various experimenters, he tried his con-
clusions. Some very remarkable propositions which he derives from his Theory,
coincide with DULONG and PETIT'S subsequently-discovered experimental laws with
reference to the heat developed by the compression of a gas; and the experimen-
tal verification is therefore in this case (so far as its accuracy could be depended
upon) decisive. In other respects, the data from experiment were insufficient,
although, so far as they were available as tests, they were confirmatory of the
theory.
42. The recent researches of REGNAULT add immensely to the experimental
data available for this object, by giving us the means of determining with consi-
derable accuracy the values of fx within a very wide range of temperature, and so
affording a trustworthy standard for the comparison of isolated results at different
temperatures, derived from observations in various branches of physical science.
In the first section of this Appendix the Theory is tested, and shewn to
be confirmed by the comparison of the values of p. found above, with those
obtained by CARNOT and CLAPEYRON from the observations of various experi-
menters on air, and the vapours of different liquids. In the second and third
sections some striking confirmations of the theory arising from observations
by DULONG, on the specific heat of gases, and from Mr JOULE'S experiments
on the heat developed by the compression of air, are pointed out; and in con-
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 565

elusion, the actual methods of obtaining mechanical effect from heat are briefly
examined with reference to their economy.
I. On the values of fJ. derived by Carnot and Clapeyron from observations on Air, and on the
Vapours of various liquids.

43. In CARNOT'S work, p. 80-82, the mean value of p. between 0° and 1° is

derived from the experiments of DELAROCHE and BERARD on the specific heat of
gases, by a process approximately equivalent to the calculation of the value of
-^r~"° for the temperature \°. There are also, in the same work, determinations
dv
of the values of fx from observations on the vapours of alcohol and water; but a
table given in M. CLAPEYRON'S paper, of the values of fi derived from the data
supplied by various experiments with reference to the vapours of ether, alcohol,
water, and oil of turpentine, at the respective boiling-points of these liquids, afford
us the means of comparison through a more extensive range of temperature. In
the cases of alcohol and water, these results ought of course to agree with those of
CARNOT. There are, however, slight discrepancies which must be owing to the
uncertainty of the experimental data.* In the following table, CARNOT'S results
with reference to air, and CLAPEYRON'S results with reference to the four different
liquids, are exhibited, and compared with the values of /J. which have been given
above (Table I.) for the same temperatures, as derived from REGNAULT'S observa-
tions on the vapour of water.

Values of /A de-
Names of the Media. Temperatures. Values of p duced from Differences.
Regnault's
Observations.

o
Air, . 0-5 (CARNOT) 4-377 4-960 •383
Sulphuric Ether, (Boiling point) 35-5 (CLAPEYRON) 4-478 4-510 •032
Alcohol, 78-8 3-963 4-030 •071
Water, 100 3-658 3-837 •179
Essence of Turpentine, 156-8 3-530 3-449 -•081

44. It may be observed that the discrepancies between the results founded on
the experimental data supplied by the different observers with reference to water
at the boiling-point, are greater than those which are presented between the re-
sults deduced from any of the other liquids, and water at the other tempera-
tures ; and we may therefore feel perfectly confident that the verification is com-

* Thus, from CARNOT'S calculations, we find, in the case of alcohol, 4-035 ; and in the case of
water, 3-648, instead of 3963, and 3-658, which are CLAPEYRON'S results in the same cases.
VOL. XVI. PART V. 7G
566 PKOFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

plete to the extent of accuracy of the observations.* The considerable discrepancy

presented by CARNOT'S result, deduced from experiments on air, is not to be
wondered at when we consider the very uncertain nature of his data.
45. The fact of the gradual decrease of /j. through a very extensive range of
temperature, being indicated both by REGNAULT'S continuous series of experiments,
and by the very varied experiments on different media, and in different branches
of Physical Science, must be considered as a striking verification of the theory.

II. On the Heat developed by the compression of Air.

46. Let a mass of air, occupying initially a given volume V, under a pres-
sure P, at a temperature t, be compressed to a less volume V, and allowed to
part with heat until it sinks to its primitive temperature t. The quantity of heat
which is evolved may be determined, according to CARNOT'S theory, when the
particular value of fx, corresponding to the temperature t, is known. For, by
equation $ 30, equation (6), we have

dv M- '

where d q is the quantity of heat absorbed, when the volume is allowed to in-
crease from v to v + d v ; or the quantity evolved by the reverse operation.
Hence we deduce

Now, -J-^0-^ is constant, since the temperature remains unchanged; and

/"•

therefore, we may at once integrate the second number. By taking it between

the limits V and V, we thus find

H JLJ^L, log n
n . . . . (9),

where Q denotes the required amount of heat, evolved by the compression

from V to V . This expression may be modified by employing the equations
PV = P' V'=p 0 v0 (1 +E t); and we thus obtain
E PV V EP' V V
lo
{i+Et » V ' - 0(1

'' A still closer agreement must be expected, when more accurate experimental data are afforded
with reference to the other media. Mons. REGNAULT informs me that he is engaged in completing
some researches, from which we may expect, possibly before the end of the present year, to be fur-
nished with all the data for five or six different liquids which we possess at present for water. It
is therefore to be hoped Oiat, before long, a most important test of the validity of CARNOT'S theory
will be afforded.
V
I The Napierian logarithm of— is here understood.
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 567

From this result we draw the following conclusion :—

47. Equal volumes of all elastic fluids, when compressed to smaller equal
volumes, disengage equal quantities of heat.
This extremely remarkable theorem of CARNOT'S was independently laid down
as a probable experimental law by DULONG, in his " Recherches sur la Chaleur
Specifique des Fluides Elastiques," and it therefore affords a most powerful con-
firmation of the theory.*
48. In some very remarkable researches made by Mr JOULE upon the heat
developed by the compression of air, the quantity of heat produced in different
experiments has been ascertained with reference to the amount of work spent in
the operation. To compare the results which he has obtained with the indi-
cations of theory, let us determine the amount of work necessary actually to pro-
duce the compression considered above.
49. In the first place, to compress the gas from the volume v + dv to v, the
work required ispdv, or, since pv=p0 v0 (1 + E t),

Hence, if we denote by W the total amount of work necessary to produce the

compression from V to V, we obtain, by integration,

Comparing this with the expression above, we find

Q
50. Hence we infer that
(1.) The amount of work necessary to produce a unit of heat by the compres-
sion of a gas, is the same for all gases at the same temperature.
(2.) And that the quantity of heat evolved in all circumstances, when the
temperature of the gas is given, is proportional to the amount of work spent in
the compression.

* CARNOT varies the statement of his theorem, and illustrates it in a passage, pp. 52, 53, of
which the following is a translation:—
" When a gas varies in volume without any change of temperature, the quantities of heat absorbed
or evolved by this gas are in arithmetical progression, if the augmentation or diminutions of volume
are in geometrical progression.
" When we compress a litre of air maintained at the temperature 10°, and reduce it to half
a litre, it disengages a certain quantity of heat. If, again, the volume be reduced from half a litre
to a quarter of a litre, from a quarter to an eighth, and so on, the quantities of heat successively
evolved will be the same.
" If, in place of compressing the air, we allow it to expand to two litres, four litres, eight litres,
&c, it will be necessary to supply equal quantities of heat to maintain the temperature always at the
same degree."
568 PEOFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

51. The expression for the amount of work necessary to produce a unit of
heat is
E
and therefore REGNAULT'S experiments on steam are available to enable us to cal-
culate its value for any temperature. By finding the values of /u at 0°, 10°, 20°,
&c, from Table I , and by substituting successively the values 0, 10, 20, &c, for
t, the following results have been obtained.

Table of the Values of

Work requisite to Work requisite to

produce a unit of Temperature of produce a unit of Temperature of
Heat by the com- the Gas. Heat by the com- the Gas.
pression of a Gas. pression of a Gas.

Ft.-lbs. Ft.-lbs.
1357-1 0 1446-4 12°0
1368-7 10 1455-8 130
1379-0 20 1465-3 140
1388-0 30 1475-8 150
1395-7 40 1489-2 160
1401-8 50 1499-0 170
1406-7 60 1511-3 180
1412-0 70 1523-5 190
1417-6 80 1536-5 200
1424-0 90 1550-2 210
1430-6 100 15640 220
1438-2 110 1577-8 230

Mr JOULE'S experiments were all conducted at temperatures from 50' to

about 60' Fahr., or from 10° to 16° cent.; and, consequently, although some irre-
gular differences in the results, attributable to errors of observation inseparable
from experiments of such a very difficult nature are presented, no regular depend-
ance on the temperature is observable. From three separate series of experi-
ments, Mr JOULE deduces the following numbers for the work, in foot-pounds,
necessary to produce a thermic unit Fahrenheit by the compression of a gas.
820, 814, 760.
Multiplying these by 1*8, to get the corresponding number for a thermic unit
centigrade, we find
1476, 1465, and 1368.
The largest of these numbers is most nearly conformable with Mr JOULE'S
views of the relation between such experimental " equivalents," and others which
he obtained in his electro-magnetic researches; but the smallest agrees almost
perfectly with the indications of CARNOT'S theory; from which, as exhibited in
the preceding Table, we should expect, from the temperature in Mr JOULE'S expe-
riments, to find a number between 1369 and 1379 as the result.
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 569

III. On the Specific-Heats of Gases.

52. The following proposition is proved by CARNOT as a deduction from his
general theorem regarding the specific heats of gases.
The excess of the specific heat* under a constant pressure above the specific heat
at a constant volume, is the same for all gases at the same temperature and pressure.
53. To prove this proposition, and to determine an expression for the " ex-
cess" mentioned in its enunciation, let us suppose a unit of volume of a gas to be
elevated in temperature by a small amount, r. The quantity of heat required to
do this will be A r, if A denote the specific heat at a constant volume. Let us
next allow the gas to expand without going down in temperature, until its pres-
sure becomes reduced to its primitive value. The expansion which will take
place will be j—•g ., if the temperature be denoted by t; and hence, by (8), the
quantity of heat that must be supplied, to prevent any lowering of temperature,
•ii i, E»otfn Er E2»

Hence, the total quantity added is equal to

But, since B denotes the specific heat under constant pressure, the quantity of
heat requisite to bring the gas into this state, from its primitive condition, is
equal to B r; and hence we have

IV. Comparison of the Relative advantages of the Air-Engine and Steam-Engine.

54. In the use of water-wheels for motive power, the economy of the engine
depends not only upon the excellence of its adaptation for actually transmitting
any given quantity of water through it, and producing the equivalent of work,
but upon turning to account the entire available fall; so, as we are taught by
CAENOT, the object of a thermodynamic engine is to economize in the best pos-
sible way the transference of all the heat evolved, from bodies at the temperature
of the source, to bodies at the lowest temperature at which the heat can be dis-
charged. With reference then to any engine of the kind, there will be two points
to be considered.
(1.) The extent of the fall utilised.
(2.) The economy of the engine, with the fall which it actually uses.
55. In the first respect, the air-engine, as CARNOT himself points out, has a
* Or the capacity of a unit of volume for heat.
VOL. XVI. PART V. 7 H
570 PROFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

vast advantage over the steam-engine; since the temperature of the hot part of
the machine may be made very much higher in the air-engine than would be
possible in the steam-engine, on account of the very high pressure produced in
the boiler, by elevating the temperature of the water which it contains to any
considerable extent above the atmospheric boiling point. On this account, a
" perfect air-engine" would be a much more valuable instrument than a " per-
fect steam-engine." *
Neither steam-engines nor air-engines, however, are nearly perfect; and we
do not know in which of the two kinds of machine the nearest approach to per-
fection may be actually attained. The beautiful engine invented by Mr STIB-
LING of Galston, may be considered as an excellent beginning for the air-engine ;f
and it is only necessary to compare this with NEWCOMEN'S steam-engine, and
consider what WATT has effected, to give rise to the most sanguine anticipations
of improvement.

V. On the Economy of actual Steam-Engines.

56. The steam-engine being universally employed at present as the means
for deriving motive power from heat, it is extremely interesting to examine, ac-
cording to CARNOT'S theory, the economy actually attained in its use. In the first
place, we remark that, out of the entire " fall" from the temperature of the coals to
that of the atmosphere, it is only part—that from the temperature of the boiler to
the temperature of the condenser—that is made available ; while the very great
fall from the temperature of the burning coals to that of the boiler, and the com-
paratively small fall from the temperature of the condenser to that of the atmo-
sphere, are entirely lost as far as regards the mechanical effect which it is desired
to obtain. We infer from this, that the temperature of the boiler ought to be
kept as high as, according to the strength, is consistent with safety, while that of
the condenser ought to be kept as nearly down at the atmospheric tempera-
ture as possible. To take the entire benefit of the actual fall, CARNOT shewed
that the " principle of expansion" must be pushed to the utmost.:):

* CABNOT suggests a combination of the two principles, with air as the medium for receiving
the heat at a very high temperature from the furnace; and a second medium, alternately in the state
of saturated vapour and liquid water, to receive the heat, discharged at an intermediate temperature
from the air, and transmit it to the coldest part of the apparatus. It is possible that a complex
arrangement of this kind might be invented, which would enable us to take the heat at a higher
temperature, and discharge it at a lower temperature than would be practicable in any simple
air-engine or simple steam-engine. If so, it would no doubt be equally possible, and perhaps
more convenient, to employ steam alone, but to use it at a very high temperature not in contact
with water in the hottest part of the apparatus, instead of, as in the steam-engine, always in a satu-
rated state.
•j" It is probably this invention to which CARJJOT alludes in the following passage (p. 112) :—
" II a ete fait, dit-on, tout recemment en Angleterre des essais heureux sur le developpement de la
puissance motrice par Faction de la chaleur sur l'air atmospherique. Nous ignorons entierement
ne quoi ces essais ont consiste, si toutefois ils sont reels."
J From this point of view, we see very clearly how imperfect is the steam-engine, even after all
WATT'S improvements. For to " push the principle of expansion to the utmost," we must allow the
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 571

57. To obtain some notion of the economy which has actually been obtained,
we may take the alleged performances of the best Cornish engines, and some
other interesting practica cases as examples.*
(1.) The engine of the Fowey Consols mine was reported, in 1845, to have given
125,089,000 foot-pounds of effect, for the consumption of one bushel or 94 lbs. of
coals. Now, the average amount evaporated from Cornish boilers, by one pound
of coal, is 8^ lbs. of steam ; and hence, for each pound of steam evaporated 156,556
foot-pounds of work are produced.
The pressure of the saturated steam in the boiler may be taken as 3^ atmo-
spheres ;t and, consequently, the temperature of the water will be 140°. Now
(REGNAULT, end of Memoire X.), the latent heat of a pound of saturated steam at
140° is 508, and since, to compensate for each pound of steam removed from the
boiler in the working of the engine, a pound of water, at the temperature of the
condenser, which may be estimated at 30°, is introduced from the hot well; it
follows that 618 units of heat are introduced to the boiler for each pound of water
evaporated. But the work produced, for each pound of water evaporated, was
found above to be 156,556 foot-pounds. Hence, 1 ~ , or 253 foot-pounds is the
amount of work produced for each unit of heat transmitted through the Fowey Con-
sols engine. Now, in Table II., we find 583*0 as the theoretical effect due to a unit
descending from 140° to 0°, and 143 as the effect due to a unit descending from
30° to 0°. The difference of these numbers, or 440, \ is the number of foot-pounds
of work that a perfect engine with its boiler at 140°, and its condenser at 30°
would produce for each unit of heat transmitted. Hence, the Fowey Consols en-
gine, during the experiments reported on, performed ^f of its theoretical duty, or
57^ per cent.
(2.) The best duty on record, as performed by an engine at work (not for
merely experimental purposes), is that of TAYLOR'S engine, at the United mines,
which, in 1840, worked regularly, for several months, at the rate of 98,000,000 foot-
pounds for each bushel of coals burned. This is ~, or -784 of the experimental

steam, before leaving the cylinder, to expand until its pressure is the same as that of the vapour in
the condenser. According to " WATT'S law," its temperature would then be the same as (actually a
little above, as REGNAULT has shewn) that of the condenser, and hence the steam-engine worked in
this most advantageous way, has in reality the very fault that WATT found in NEWCOMEN'S engine.
This defect is partially remedied by HORNBLOWER'S system of using a separate expansion cylinder,
an arrangement, the advantages of which did not escape CARNOT'S notice, although they have not been
recognised extensively among practical engineers, until within the last few years.
* I am indebted to the kindness of Professor GORDON of Glasgow, for the information regard-
ing the various cases given in the text.
•\ In different Cornish engines, the pressure in the boiler is from 2^ to 5 atmospheres; and,
therefore, as we find from REGNAULT'S table of the pressure of saturated steam, the temperature of
the water in the boiler must, in all of them, lie between 128° and 152°. For the better class of
engines, the average temperature of the water in the boiler may be estimated at 140°, the corre-
sponding pressure of steam being 3^ temperatures.
| This number agrees very closely with the number corresponding to the fall from 100° to 0°,
given in Table II. Hence, the fall from 140° to 30° of the scale of the air-thermometer is equiva-
lent, with reference to motive power, to the fall from 100° to 0°.
572 PROFESSOR WILLIAM THOMSON'S ACCOUNT OF

duty reported in the case of the Fowey Consols engine. Hence, the best useful
work on record, is at the rate of 1983 foot-pounds for each unit of heat transmit-
ted, and is ^ 3 , or 45 per cent, of the theoretical duty, on the supposition that the
boiler is at 140°, and the condenser at 30°.
(3.) French engineers contract (in Lille, in 1847, for example) to make en-
gines for mill power which will produce 30,000 metre-lbs., or 08,427 foot-lbs. of
work for each pound of steam used. If we divide this by 618, we find 159 foot-
pounds for the work produced by each unit of heat. This is 36'1 per cent, of
440, the theoretical duty.*
(4.) English engineers have contracted to make engines and boilers which
will require only 3 | lbs. of the best coal per horse-power per hour. Hence, in
such engines, each pound of coal ought to produce 565,700 foot-pounds of work,
and if 7 lbs. of water be evaporated by each pound of coal, there would result
80,814 foot-pounds of work for each pound of water evaporated. If the pressure
in the boiler be 3^ atmospheres (temperature 140°) the amount of work for each
unit of heat will be found, by dividing this by 618, to be 130-7 foot-pounds, which
is ^ or 29-7 per cent, of the theoretical duty.f
(5.) The actual average of work performed by good Cornish engines and
boilers is 55,000,000 foot-pounds for each bushel of coal, or less than half the ex-
perimental performance of the Fowey Consols engine, more than half the actual
duty performed by the United Mines engine in 1840; in fact about 25 per cent, of
the theoretical duty.
(6.) The average performances of a number of Lancashire engines and boilers
have been recently found to be such as to require 12 lbs. of Lancashire coal per
horse-power per hour (i. e., for performing 60 * 33,000 foot-pounds) and of a num-
ber of Glasgow engines, such as to require 15 lbs. (of a somewhat inferior coal)
for the same effect. There are, however, more than twenty large engines in Glas-
gow at present,! which work with a consumption of only 6^ lbs. of dross, equiva-
lent to 5 lbs. of the best Scotch, or 4 lbs. of the best Welsh coal, per horse-power

* It being assumed that the temperatures of the boiler and condenser are the same as those of
the Cornish engines. If, however, the pressure be lower, two atmospheres, for instance, the num-
bers would stand thus : The temperature in the boiler would be only 121. Consequently, for each
pound of steam evaporated, only 614 units of heat would be required; and, therefore, the work
pei-formed for each unit of heat transmitted would be 160-3 foot-pounds, which is more than according
to the estimate in the text. On the other hand, the range of temperatures, or the fall utilised, is
only from 131 to 30, instead of from 140 to 30°, and, consequently (Table II.), the theoretical duty
for each unit of heat is only 371 foot-pounds. Hence, if the engine, to work according to the speci-
fication, requires a pressure of only 15 lbs. on the square inch (i. e., a total steam pressure of two at-
mospheres), its performance is ^ 3 , or 43*2 per cent, of its theoretical duty.
j" If, in this case again, the pressure required in the boiler to make the engine work according
to the contract were only 15 lbs. on the square inch, we should have a different estimate of the eco-
nomy, for which, see Table B, at the end of this paper.
| These engines are provided with separate expansive cylinders, which have been recently added
to them by Mr M'NAUGHT of Glasgow.
 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT. 573

per hour. The economy may be estimated from these data, as in the other cases,
on the assumption which, with reference to these, is the most probable we can
make, that the evaporation produced by a pound of best coal is 7 lbs. of steam.
58. The following Tables afford a synoptic view of the performances and
theoretical duties in the various cases discussed above.
In Table A the numbers in the second column are found by dividing the
numbers in the first by 8|- in cases (1.), (2.), and (5.), and by 7 in cases (4.), ^6.),
and (7.), the estimated numbers of pounds of steam actually produced in the dif-
ferent boilers by the burning of 1 lb. of coal.
The numbers in the third column are found from those in the second, by
dividing by 618, in Table A, and 614 in Table B, which are respectively the
quantities of heat required to convert a pound of water taken from the hot well
at 30°, into saturated steam, in the boiler, at 140J or at 121°.
With reference to the cases (3.), (4.), (6.), (7.), the hypothesis of Table B is
probably in general nearer the truth than that of Table A. In (4.), (6.), and (7.),
especially upon hypothesis B, there is much uncertainty as to the amount of eva-
poration that will be actually produced by 1 lb. of fuel. The assumption on which
the numbers in the second column in Table B are calculated, is, that each pound
of coal will send the same number of units of heat into the boiler whether hypo-
thesis A or hypothesis B be followed. Hence, except in the case of the French
contract, in which the evaporation, not the fuel, is specified, the numbers in the
third column are the same as those in the third column of Table A.

TABLE A. Various Engines in which the temperature of the Boiler is 140°, and
that of the Condenser 30°.

Theoretical Duty for each Unit of Heat transmitted, 440 foot-pounds.

Work producet Work producec Work produoec Per cent-

ASES. for each pound for each pound for each unit age of
of coal con- of water eva- of heat trans- theoreti-
sumed. porated. mitted. cal duty.

Poot-Pounds. Foot-Pounds. Foot- Pounds.

(1.) Fowey Consols Experiment, reported in 1845, 1,330,734 156,556 253 57-5
(2.) Taylor's Engine at the United Mines, work- "1 1,042,553 122,653 198-4 451
ing in 1840, . . . . J
(3.) French Engines, according to contract, * * * * 98,427 159 361
(4.) English Engines, according to contract, 565,700 80,814 130-8 29-7
(5.) Average actual performance of Cornish Engines, 585,106 68,836 111 3 25-3
(6.) Common Engines, consuming 12 lbs. of best "1 165,000 23,571 38-1 8-6
coal per hour per horse-power, . J
(7.) Improved Engines with Expansion Cylinders, \
consuming an equivalent to 4 lbs. of best > 495,000 70,710 114-4 26
coal per horse-power per hour, J

VOL. XVI. PART V. i I

574 CARNOT'S THEORY OF THE MOTIVE POWER OF HEAT.

TABLE B. Various Engines in which the Temperature of the Boilers is 121',* and
that of the Condenser 30°.

Theoretical Duty for each Unit of Heat transmitted, 371 fool-pounds.

Work produced Work produced Work produced Per cent-

ASKS. for each pound for each pound for each unit age of
of coal con- of water eva- of heat trans- theoreti-
sumed. porated. mitted. cal duty.

Foot-Pounds. Foot-Pounds. Foot-Pounds.

(3.) French Engines, according to contract, * * * 98,427 160-3 43-2
(4.) English Engines, according to contract, . 565,700 flf x 80,814 130-8 35
(6.) Common Engines, consuming 12 lbs. of coal 165,000 fif x 23,571
per horse-power per hour,
Improved Engines with expansion cylinders,
} 381 10-3

J\
consuming an equivalent to 4 lhs. best coal 495,000 141x70,710 114-4 307
per horse-power per hour,

* Pressure 15 lbs. on the square inch.