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A development concept of
adolescence: the case of adolescents
in the Philippines
Nimfa Ogena
Philippine Population Review

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 A Development Concept of
Adolescence: The Case of
Adolescents in the Philippines

Nimfa B Ogena*

I. ADOLESCENCE: A DEVELOPMENT CONCEPT

Often categorized with teenagers, youth, young people and young adults are adolescents
who form a distinct population group due to their unique biological, psychological and social
characteristics. These unique features derive mainly from the implicit process that they
1
experience: adolescence. Adolescence may be viewed as a transition stage in human development
from childhood to adulthood. During this period, an individual goes through many changes
including the formation of one’s values, attitudes and behavior to adapt and adjust childhood
behaviors to culturally acceptable adult forms.
2
The biological cue is pubescence . Hormonal changes during this period trigger the later
growth spurt. With the onset of puberty, an “individual reaches sexual maturity and becomes
capable of bearing offspring and reproducing the species “ (Dusek, 1996: 4). This is often
characterized by unusual height and weight increases that come with further changes in how
adolescents think and act.

* Director, University of the Philippines Population Institute (UPPI) and Chairperson,

Demographic Research and Development Foundation (DRDF)

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Biological Perspective of Adolescence

Adolescence is considered a distinct stage of human development. Hall in 1904 posited

that humans develop in stages: Infancy (birth to age 4), Childhood (4-8), Youth (8-12),
Adolescence (12 to mid 20s), and Maturity (Dusek, 1996). He saw adolescence as a period of
“storm and stress” (S&S), i.e., turbulent and transitional, which concurs with Rousseau’s
views of adolescence. Many people still adhere to Hall’s view. First, parents find this a
convenient explanation to mask their own difficulty in letting go or permitting their adolescent
children to become independent. Second, the media promote this view through television
programs so many are tempted to generalize to the adolescent population as a whole. Adults
also write about adolescents, which may be both unfair and unrealistic. However, there is
neither convincing scientific evidence to support the idea of emotional instability during
adolescence nor research indicating dramatic changes in personality or social relations (Dusek,
1996).
Parents, peers, teachers and society exert considerable pressure on the adolescent to grow
up during adolescence. However, Coleman (1978 as cited in Dusek, 1996) clarified that various
stresses in adolescence do not occur at the same time. Rather, adolescents deal with one or
two stressful events, which alleviate the stress, then deal with the others. The peak age for
stressful situations varies. Although there may be some overlaps, it is unlikely that several
would peak at the same time and very rarely do they concentrate at one time. Coleman’s view
implies that adolescence is not a relatively short period of time (i.e., it lasts six, seven, 10 or
more years for some people) and adolescence is not any more or less stressful than any other
developmental stage. Some adolescents may have very difficult and stressful experience, but
in general, the majority do not. Hence, adolescence seems to represent a series of smoothly
evolving changes in development.
In societies that practice a puberty rite ceremony or rite of passage, adolescence is an
extremely short duration: from the beginning to the end of the puberty rite. The rite of
passage marks the end of childhood and the beginning of adulthood (Dusek, 1996: p.5).
Gender differences in the rate of biological growth may spell differences in adult
expectations for acceptable behavior of adolescent females and males. For example, young
girls often are expected to behave more like adults than are boys of the same age.
Similarly, the timing of maturation, whether one is an early or late maturer, influences
social interaction with parents, other adults such as teachers, and peers. Early physical maturers
are often treated as more socially and emotionally mature than they are, or than their age-
mates. This may result in unreasonable expectations being imposed on them, which may
have lasting effects on their personality.
Moreover, two important changes that influence adolescent development are
3 4
psychobiological and psychosocial changes (Ausubel, 1954 as cited in Dusek, 1996).
Psychobiological changes are universal while psychosocial changes are culture-specific.

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A Development Concept of Adolescence: The Case of Adolescents in the Philippines

The Developmental Psychology Viewpoint of Adolescence

Often an important stressor during adolescence is the increase in sexuality. Freud (1948)
noted that this brings about a recurrence of the Oedipal situation, which must be resolved
through attraction to opposite sex peers. The increase in the sex drive creates stress and
anxiety (fear of opposite sex and fear of feeling sexual), which may call into play one or more
5
defense mechanisms to restore equilibrium and protect the individual from experiencing
anxiety. Use of defense mechanisms may result in avoidance of opposite sex, having only
platonic relationships, and not dating. They may reduce the anxiety associated with the drive
and satisfy immediate needs but frequent use of these mechanisms may lead to unsatisfactory
interpersonal relationships as they stunt personal growth and increase social distance between
the individual and others.
In the context of adjustment to sexual and biological maturation, Blos (1962, 1967,
1972,1974 as cited in Dusek, 1996) divided adolescence into five stages. These are: Latency
(Inhibition of instincts, e.g. sex drive), Early Adolescent (Peer group relations are strengthened),
Adolescent (Love relationships develop), Late Adolescent (Identity: “Who am I?”), and Post
Adolescent (Begins to adopt adult roles). It is during early adolescence when they adopt
values that oppose those of parents. Hence, delinquency behavior may emerge since parental
views are no longer seen as absolutely correct by adolescents. In late adolescence, self-esteem
becomes stable and one’s sex-role identity is established leading to the emergence of a stable
personality.
Erikson (1963 cited in Rice, 1999) shifted the emphasis of psychoanalytic theories of
adolescence from the sexual nature of the stage to the psychosocial realm. He emphasized
the acquisition of ego identity and sense of who and what one is and the cultural determinants
of development. He viewed development within a series of psychosocial stages that are in
6
part biologically determined. Associated with each of Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development
is a crisis, which is simply a psychosocial task that is encountered. Each crisis involves conflict
and has two possible outcomes.
Erikson believed that there is a disruption of identity during adolescence resulting from
both physical and social factors (such as increasing emphasis on making educational decisions
and beginning to consider future occupations) that force the adolescent to consider alternatives.
He noted the importance of developing a vocational identity and a personal philosophy,
which shall provide the adolescent with a reference for evaluating and coping with life events;
otherwise, the adolescent may not be capable of forming a coherent and acceptable identity
leading to self doubt, role confusion and indulgence in self-destruction activities (e.g., juvenile
delinquency or personality aberrations).
During adolescence, one begins to integrate various roles he/she plays in meaningful and
constructive ways. As one prepares for adulthood, there is wide variation, however, in
adolescent experiences in accomplishing a set of developmental tasks (Dusek, 1996:10).

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Developmental tasks are skills, knowledge, functions or attitudes that individuals

must acquire at various stages during their lifetime in order to adjust successfully
to the more difficult roles and tasks that lie before them. They are acquired through
physical maturation, social fulfillment, and personal effort. Failure to attain them
can often result in maladjustment, increased anxiety, and an inability to deal with
the more difficult tasks to come. Havighurst (1951) believes the developmental
tasks of any given stage are sequential in nature; that is, each task is a prerequisite
for each succeeding task. The optimal time for each task to be mastered is, to some
degree, biologically determined. The nine major tasks are:
1. Accepting one’s physical makeup and acquiring a masculine or
feminine sex role.
2. Developing appropriate relations with age-mates of both sexes.
3. Becoming emotionally independent of parents and other adults.
4. Achieving the assurance that one will become economically
independent.
5. Determining and preparing for a career and entering the job market.
6. Developing the cognitive skills and concepts necessary for social
competence.
7. Understanding and achieving socially responsible behavior.
8. Preparing for marriage and family.
9. Acquiring values that are harmonious with an appropriate scientific
world picture.

At any given time, adolescents may be dealing with several of these tasks. The importance
of specific developmental tasks varies with early, middle and late periods of the transition
(Ingersoll, n.d.). The Developmental Tasks Model expects an adolescent who mastered these
tasks to emerge from adolescence as a well-adjusted and well-socialized adult. However, some
tasks are now more difficult to master (Thornburg, 1970-1971). For example, in entering the
job market there are fewer lower skill jobs and more jobs that require advanced training now
than ever before.
Erikson also distinguished two components of a well-developed identity. First is the
continuity of the self over time. This means that the self, which represents basic values,
beliefs, ideals and goals, remains the same from day to day; although it becomes less similar as
one goes further into the past. This implies that identity changes albeit slowly and gradually.
Next is the integration of the self, i.e., one can switch from one role to the next with ease.
This refers to the various roles adolescents play. The self one project with parents is different
from the self he/she projects when playing the role of a worker. If there are substantial
similarities making it easy for you to switch from one to the other, then identity is integrated.

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A Development Concept of Adolescence: The Case of Adolescents in the Philippines

Marcia (1980) refined Erikson’s view of identity. He saw identity as a continually changing
organization of one’s attitudes, values and beliefs. For him, the process of identity formation
involves facing a crisis (a period of questioning and thinking) and making a commitment
(adoption) to a set of values and beliefs that guides behavior.
Marcia identified four identity statuses based on whether one has faced a crisis and made
a commitment. Identity achievers experienced a period of decision-making and now committed
to an occupation and set of ideological values, which are all self-chosen. They accept both
their strengths and weaknesses and they are considered adaptive and well adjusted. Foreclosures
had made a commitment but their choices have been made by others. Identity diffusion had no
commitment to an occupation or ideological stance, although they may have experienced a
decision-making period. Moratorium refers to those who are in crisis about occupation or
ideological decisions. Marcia agreed with Erikson that identity changes over time. As new
roles and experiences are encountered, the identity may change. The identity crisis is continually
present and subject to new resolution.

The Intellectual-Competency View of Adolescence

Other qualitative changes that occur during adolescent years are changes in thinking skills
(abstract thinking ability), peer relations (development of friendships that help explore one’s
own individuality), and moral thinking (new views about right and wrong). These changes in
the adolescents influence further change in how they relate with children and adults around
them as others’ expectations for one’s behavior change and the views of the self change.
Unlike when they were children, adolescents are capable of abstract thinking (formal
operations), which allows them to view their social environment. They begin to understand
the thought processes of others and interact with the environment in new and different
ways. These cognitive advances lead to changes in moral thinking and in views of the self as
well as the way they feel about the biological and developmental changes that they experience.
The adolescents also learns to cope with abstract thinking, and the consequences of that
thinking, as related to self views, social development, and to interactions with parents, teachers,
peers, and others who have a significant impact on the socialization process.
Cognitive development reaches its peak during adolescence. Piaget (1952) argues that
intelligence develops in a series of stages and it reflects the emergence of biological
predispositions as well as cultural influences. While a preadolescent is already capable of concrete
operational thinking, i.e., thinking about what is real, the “here and now”, an adolescent can
think about how he/she might be, not just how he/she is. Abstract thinking allows them to
consider identity issues such as “who am I?” and answer this question in more concrete
terms than just age, name and various likes and dislikes. The adolescent also has thinking
skills to weigh alternatives and make long-term plans and commitments.

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Piaget’s Theory of Intellectual Development is further clarified by Selman’s Social Cognition

Theory (1980), which states that adolescents have the ability to consider not only their own
perspectives but also those of others. This is made possible through social cognition and
social role taking skills. Social cognition refers to how we think about others and our relation
to them, about the relation between people and society and how we infer others’ intentions
and feelings. However, social role taking skills relate to adolescents’ views of the nature of
friendships and their view of the social system, which include laws, morality, and importance
of mutual consensus.

The Social View

Part of the adult self-projection phase is the exploration and discovery of their capacities
and limitations. This is often achieved through making modest and/or grand decisions leading
to significant life events that set the pace and/or direction of their future lives as adults begin
to firm up. How these new individuals with a capacity to think, decide and act freely handle
life challenges eventually help shape society’s views about them.
There is diversification in the social roles adolescents have to play and concurrent societal
expectations likewise shift towards greater liberalization. As they are exposed to greater
responsibilities associated with new roles and statuses, they are also being introduced to a
wider range of circumstances requiring decisions, some of which may affect their future
lives. Being adolescents give them greater freedom but less burden (i.e., compared to adults)
to explore these new situations.
Relational dynamics with family also change. With less and less exposure to their families
attendant to the diversification of activities and circle of associates, the adolescents’ relations
with their own families may contract while relations with others may widen both in scope and
depth. Hence, there is greater variability in relational quality and quantity during adolescence.
The importance of environment in advancing the nature of development, which provides
a theoretical description of development based on concepts from learning theory and theories
of imitation and modeling, is underscored by the Social Learning Theory (SLT). This theory
posits that environmental agents (parents, teachers, peers) shape (teach) behavior both by
directly reinforcing desired behavior and by providing models of socially appropriate behavior.
Bandura (1969, 1973) outlined the basis for SLT and in conjunction with Walters (1959,
1963) discussed SLT as it relates to adolescent development. By observing a model, the
adolescent may learn an entirely new behavior, e.g., delinquent behavior (Modeling Effect),
while observing a punished/rewarded behavior of the model inhibits/disinhibits the adolescent
from doing an act (Inhibition/Disinhibition Effect). On the other hand, by observing the response
to the model, the observer may be cued to demonstrate a similar behavior, which is already in
his/her repertoire (Response-Facilitation Effect).

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A Development Concept of Adolescence: The Case of Adolescents in the Philippines

SLT does not support the idea that development occurs in a sequence of stages. Adolescent
development is seen as a direct consequence of cultural conditioning and social expectations
for certain kinds of behaviors. The best way to understand this is to examine the impact of
models and the odds of reinforcement on adolescent experiences. Any deviant development
is seen as failure of socialization processes that began in childhood.
Although individual and biological factors play a role in how one will develop, Mead
(1950, 1953), argued that development differs from one culture to another because of
differences in cultural institutions. Cultural contexts define expected and allowable behavior
of adolescents and they exert a significant impact on the nature of adolescence. In different
cultures, psychological and social changes are associated with behavioral expectations and
different sanctioned behaviors within cultural contexts.
Ruth Benedict’s Theory of Adolescent Transition to Adulthood (1938) provided further
specification of cultural influence on adolescent development. She argued on the importance
of differences and similarities in roles children and adults are expected to play. A discontinuity
in adolescent and adulthood roles produces emotional strain, which in turn produces conflict.
However, cultural continuity produces a smooth and gradual growth from childhood to
adulthood with relatively little conflict. Three dimensions of continuity vs. discontinuity she
considered important in understanding adolescent development are: 1) responsible vs. non-
responsible role status, 2) dominance vs. submission, and 3) contrasted sexual roles. Since
cultures vary in the degree of continuity in child-adult roles, the nature of transition from
childhood to adulthood is expected to vary as well. In the Western Culture where children
must relearn new behaviors and must unlearn childhood behaviors in order to become adults,
transitions to adulthood are relatively more difficult than in other cultures where there is
continuity in child-adult roles.
Historians provide a different slant by examining how societal changes impact on the
nature of adolescence. Their studies look into causes of changes in the nature of adolescence
across generations and how these shape the nature of adolescence in specific ways across
and within generations by inquiring into the influence of historical events (economic trend,
political climate, job opportunities) and changes in social institutions (school structure, family
structure).
The emergence of new ideologies and technologies hasten changes in the social and
cultural milieu that may contribute to resolving relational issues between the adolescent and
parents, teachers and peers. This also means that socializing adolescents or teaching them to
become responsible adults may be more difficult nowadays.
The nature of adolescence of very early and very late maturers would differ greatly from
the ‘average’ or ‘typical’ adolescents. Studies focusing on descriptions of ‘average’ or ‘typical’
adolescents should nevertheless acknowledge unique, individual development experiences.

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Adolescence is also a time when they can experiment with adult roles and determine a
realistic sense of self. Adolescents may not have to accept the degree of responsibility that
adults do when they take on various roles. The long-term consequences of trying out a role
and having it to fail are not as great as they are for adults. Adolescence can determine the
degree to which various social roles and situations are comfortable. It is a time when one may
ask the question ‘Who am I?’ and begin to answer it meaningfully.
Adolescence is the period during which the skills and attitudes are acquired to help develop
adults who will eventually contribute to society in meaningful ways. Adolescents may obtain
the skills and training necessary to prepare for a vocation in a society. Those who did not
acquire marketable skills at this stage are at a disadvantage in their later life.
Society will also suffer if its adult members are not well prepared for their marital, parental
and civic roles. With society becoming increasingly complex, the learning of these roles
becomes more difficult compared to previous generations. These complexities contribute to
the lengthening of the period of adolescence in modern times.
For today’s adolescents to reach their greatest possible potential, society must provide the
needed support structure such as access to technical training programs or a college education.
The development of society and the individual should be in synchrony; otherwise, it will
produce frustration for both the individual and society. In effect, transitions experienced
during adolescence will be more difficult.

Adolescents as Members of Groups

Adolescents may also be viewed as members of social groups (e.g., peer groups, community,
society, and the nation state). Identification with a particular social group and participation in
group activities involves realignment of one’s views and activities with others who share his/
her interests, concerns and/or problems. The degree of one’s commitment to the ideals
espoused by the social group may determine the quality of involvement in group activities.
Although some adolescents decide to join or not to join any formal or informal social
group, they may also have models or reference groups as basis for developing how they
project themselves as unique human beings. For many who belong to social groups that
require experiencing significant events/moments with their group members (example: hazing
in a sorority/fraternity), being member of that group becomes a cherished accomplishment.
Hence, behavioral expectations change through attachment or membership in certain social
groups.

Age Does Not Define Adolescence

Apparently, researches on adolescent issues does not use the teen years or age to define
adolescence. There are several reasons for this position. First, there is considerable variation
in the onset of pubescence, i.e., about four years. Second, age is simply a measure of time;

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A Development Concept of Adolescence: The Case of Adolescents in the Philippines

therefore, it is a very rough proxy for experiences one encounters, which are critical to
adolescent development. Third, limiting adolescence to teenage years ignores the fact that
many individuals (e.g., college students) still play some ‘adolescent’ roles even into their early
20’s.

II. ADOLESCENTS IN THE PHILIPPINES

Local Terms for Adolescents

In the Philippines, there are various terms used in the different parts of the country to
refer to adolescents. One dialect may have several terms for adolescents, which often reflect
cultural identity and diversity. For example, dalagita and binatilyo in the Tagalog language means
young women and men, respectively. These terms denote that they are going through changes
toward becoming dalaga and binata. Other colloquial terms for the very young dalaga are
dalaginding and dalaginday (Panganiban, 1972). The corresponding Ilocano terms for these are
ballabagitolay and babaracito.
Even minority groups in the country have their own terms for adolescents. The Tausugs
in Mindanao refer to an adolescent girl as d’ga or budjang, i.e., a maiden girl in puberty stage
and subul refers to a young unmarried man past the age of puberty (Hassan, et al. 1994). A
more gender-neutral term for adolescents in the Bicol region is jovenes.

The Age-Grading of Adolescence

Despite the weak theoretical basis of using age in defining the period of adolescence, it
remains useful in defining adolescents in the Philippines in aid of identifying target population
for the provision of public services and important population subgroups for public policy/
research. No legal document defines adolescents but the definition for youth is age-graded.
Youth in the Philippines consists of the 15-30 years old population according to the
“Youth in Nation Building Act” of 1995 or RA 8044, which created the Philippine National
Youth Commission (NYC). Sandoval (2000) noted that this definition stems from the varying
youth definitions used in government departments. Anyone below 21 years of age except
those emancipated in accordance with the law is considered a child or minor or youth. RA
7610 (1992), Section 12, however, defines the Age of Majority as 18 years old.
There is, however, wide variation in legal ages for regulated activities in the country. In
securing a driver’s license, anyone at least 16 years of age can get a student permit. But
applicants who are 18 years or below need written consent of parents or guardians before
their applications are processed. Professional driver’s license is given to qualified applicants
18 years or more while nonprofessional driver’s license has the minimum age requirement of
17 years.

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Article V of the 1987 Philippine Constitution guarantees the right of every Filipino to
exercise his/her right to vote provided he/she is at least 18 years of age, has resided in the
country for at least one year and in the place wherein he/she proposes to vote for a minimum
of six months immediately preceding the election. The minimum age required for an elective
position, however, depends on the position at stake.
The youth may also vote and run for office in the Sanguniang Kabataan (SK) Federation.
Anyone between ages 16 to 21 are eligible to vote and run for an SK elective position.
For a term of three years, an SK Chairman and seven SK counselors are elected in each
barangay in conjunction with the regular local government elections.
In obtaining a marriage license, the Family Code of the Philippines (1987) specifies 18
years of age or more, with no legal impediment to marry, as a basic requirement for a male
and female to apply for a marriage license. If either or both contracting parties are between
the ages of 18 and 21, written parental consent is required. If either or both contracting
parties are between the ages of 21 and 25, “they shall be obliged to ask their parents or
guardians for advice upon the intended marriage. If they do not obtain such advice, or if it
is unfavorable, the marriage licence shall not be issued until after three months following the
completion of the (marriage) application.”
Various departments/agencies in the government also use differing age markers for the
youth. The State of the Philippine Population Report (SPPR) II Task Force’s (2001 as
cited in Cabigon, 1999) review of the youth definition revealed that the Department of
Social Welfare and Development, the Department of Labor and Employment, and the
Teaching Education and Skills Development Authority are using the 15-24 years old age-
range; the Department of Interior and Local Government uses a shorter age-range of 15-
21 years; and the Department of Health uses 10-24 years. The Fifth National Nutrition
Survey conducted by the Food and Nutrition Research Institute-Department of Science
and Technology covered adolescents age 11-19 years old (Villavieja et al., 1998). On the
other hand, the 1988 Survey of Youth conducted by the National Manpower and Youth
Council (NMYC) used the age-range 7-24 years old, which is closer to the Department of
Education definition of 7-30 years old. The Commission on Population, by virtue of its
mandate to address population and reproductive health policy issues, delineated three age
groupings: ages 10-14 as pre-childbearing years, ages 15-24 as reproductive years, and ages
25-30 as young adult and marrying years.
In the same manner, youth definitions by non-government organizations are based on
programs, projects, and activities that address service requirements of their target population
groups. The SPPR II Task Force (as cited in Cabigon, 1999) noted the following age-grading
of adolescents/youth in the country:
Foundation for Adolescent Development, Inc. (FAD) 15-24 years old
Family Planning Organization of the Philippines (FPOP) 15-24 years old

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A Development Concept of Adolescence: The Case of Adolescents in the Philippines

Young Adults Fertility and Sexuality (YAFS II) Survey 15-24 years old
National Demographic Survey (NDS) 15-19 years old
PLAN International, Southern Leyte 13-17 years old
Alan Guttmacher Institute (AGI) 10-19 years old

Definitions used by other stakeholders likewise vary. Having been commissioned by the
National Youth Council (NYC), the Social Weather Station (SWS) in its 1992 Youth Survey
covered the 15 to 30 years old (Sandoval et al., 1998). Another Study on Filipino Youth by
McCann-Erickson in 1992 defined youth in ages 12 to 21 years. The more recent Filipino
Youth Study conducted in 2001 by the Ateneo Research Group covered ages 7-21 years old.
A Baseline Survey on the Knowledge, Attitudes and Practice of Adolescents and Adults
on Reproductive Health conducted by Cruz and Diaz (2001) covered the youth defined as
first to third year high school students in ages 11-20 years old.
A recent comparative study in the Asian region was also conducted. United Nations
Children’s Fund (UNICEF) Survey of Children carried out in Australia, Cambodia, China,
East Timor, Hongkong, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Macau, Malaysia, Mongolia, Myanmar, Papua
New Guinea, the Philippines, the Republic of Korea, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam
focused on youth ages 7-19 years old (Domingo, 2001; Bordadora, 2001).

Parents’ Definition of Adolescents and their Expectations

As a child moves from one age-group to another, the roles expected of him/her also vary.
Correspondingly, his/her privileges and responsibilities, accountability for his/her actions,
and authority gradually increase as he/she grows older. Adolescents in the Philippines are
treated with more tact than their younger counterparts (Medina, 1991). Because of adolescents’
heightened sensitivity and greater tendency to rebel, they are less subjected to corporal
punishment. Parents rarely resort to slapping but scolding with an explanation of why such
behavior is disapproved is a more common form of parental discipline (Mendez and Jocano,
1979 as cited in Medina, 1991). However, treatment of adolescent boys and girls differ: boys
are more likely to be allowed to stay out late than girls. Moreover, girls’ behavior to the
opposite sex is more restricted than that of the boys.
A focus group discussion (FGD) conducted with parents of adolescents in Mandaluyong
indicated the use of both positive and negative styles of parenting (FGD Parents, 2001).
While parents are relatively more liberal in their dealing with adolescent behavior nowadays
compared to the earlier generation, awareness and fear of likely consequences of risky
adolescent behavior was apparently expressed.
Also validated by the FGD is gender differences in the treatment of adolescents but there
are signs of a shift towards more gender-neutral parental disposition for adolescents of
today. Adolescents are indeed making decisions in their life with little or no parental advise/

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approval. However, parents still have influence on whether a girl will have a boyfriend, and
whether a boy will get into a relationship and find a job, among others.
There was concensus among FGD parent participants that the fast changing social,
economic and environmental conditions require greater parental attention, respect, and moral
guidance for their adolescent children. Although the school was noted as an important agency
of socialization, it was expressed that parents should follow through lessons learned by
adolescents in school. Inconsistencies in acceptable behavior learned in school and observed
family/household relations may distort adolescent perception of social reality and may lead
to questions relating one’s social worth, which is important for self-development.
Parents felt that adolescents should be made aware of the consequences of their likely
actions before they make critical decisions in life. Underscored in the FGD is the belief in
role modeling and greater parental surveillance of adolescent behavior to prevent either
intentional or unintentional adolescent misdeeds. Nevertheless, they noted that parental intake
and support is deemed necessary in times of the occurrence of such events considering that
adolescents have a long life ahead and a misguided decision at this transitional phase would
affect their lifetimes. However, the range of attendant issues and consequent change in his/
her roles and expectations should be explained to the adolescent to guide him/her in future
decisions in life.

Own Definitions and Expectations of Adolescents

The onset of adolescence in the Philippines proceeds unnoticed except for circumcision
and voice change in boys and the onset of menstruation in girls (Medina, 1991). However,
additional biological markers for puberty are revealed in the preliminary report on 22 FGDs
conducted among out-of-school-youth (OSY) in various parts of the country by Health
Action Information Network in December 2001 for the third in a series of Young Adult
Fertility and Sexuality Studies (YAFS III). For males, these are physical changes in the body,
attraction to the opposite sex (umiibig, nagkakagusto), greater appetite, and tulog ng tulog” (Tan,
2002). For females, in addition to validating menstruation as a marker (FGD Female OSY
2001, Tan 2002), other markers are attraction to the opposite sex (pagkakaroon ng crush) and
behavioral change (mahinhin kumilos, maayos, malinis, di na pwedeng maglaro). Greater self
consciousness, was commonly perceived for both sexes (males: pumoporma, females: using
cosmetics) (FGD Female OSY 2001; Tan 2002). The FGD for Female OSYs further revealed
that females were quite aware of the physical, emotional and mental transformation that they
were going through during adolescence. The male rather than female OSYs, however, were
more receptive to the greater social and economic involvements required of being adolescents
compared to being children. Among others, males described adolescents as already dependable
(maaasahan), can decide/solve problems (marunong nang magsolve ng problema), and have developed
their own view of life (mayroon nang pananaw sa buhay) (FGD Male OSY 2001).

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A Development Concept of Adolescence: The Case of Adolescents in the Philippines

Both FGDs for male and female OSYs in Mandaluyong (2001) exhibited their current
concerns about poverty (kahirapan, o kawalan ng pera), what to do tomorrow (ano ang gagawin sa
susunod na araw), breakdown of communication within the family (hindi pagkakaunawaan ng mga
magulang at mga kapatid), increasing drug-dependency of people in their neighborhood
(dumadami ang nagda-drugs), harassment (kinukursunadahan o napagtitripan ang mga dumadaan),
how to help their parents (makatulong sa magulang), looking for work (maghanap ng trabaho),
remaining healthy (malayo sa sakit), unemployed siblings (di nag-aaral na mga kapatid na di
makahanap ng trabaho), parents quarrelling about money but gambling when they have some,
unhappy with early marriage (pagsisisi sa maagang pag-aasawa), and wanting to go back to school.
They considered today’s adolescents as irresponsible, indifferent (walang pakialam sa paligid)
and materialistic (lahat ng nakikita sa tv akala masarap). They also perceived respect for self
(respeto sa sarili muna para respetohin ka ng iba) and self discipline (disiplina sa sarili) as areas to be
improved among adolescents. On the positive side, they found today’s adolescents as resolute
(matapat).
They observed a change in how others treat/perceive them, specifically their parents. For
example, a female OSY noted that while she used to be the subject of parental ire for
unacceptable behavior, this has ceased to occur because her parents do not know how to
handle her anymore (hindi na nila ako kaya).
There is also a change in self perception. While one would be happy before with almost
any new material acquisition (mababaw ang kaligayahan), a female OSY would now want to
acquire things through her own efforts (gusto ng pagpaguran ang ikaliligaya). Another indicated
the increasing independence exercised in adolescence (sarili mo ng decision).

Related Teachings/Beliefs that Shape Expectations of Adults about Adolescents

Medina (1991) noted that there is no “rite of passage” or formal initiation, which marks
the shift in status from childhood to adulthood in the Philippines. Compared to the evident
parent-youth conflicts in Western culture, Filipino adolescence is generally not turbulent or
characterized by tension, rebellion, and confusion (Mendez et al., n.d. as cited in Medina,
1991). It is perceived that the strains and stresses of growing up are experienced more by
urban rather than rural adolescents in view of the greater social structural complexity and
faster rates of change in the former (Medina, 1991). Greater urbanization and industrialization,
in particular, have notable consequences on Filipino family life: more favorable attitudes
toward working wives and mothers, changing role structure of the family, decline in authority
of the husband and father, decline of the family’s influence on the individual, more permissive
norms and behavior, breakdown of the consanguineal family as a functional unit (Medina,
1991).
In light of more recent technological advancements and globalization, the Filipino family
as the primary agent of socialization is changing quite rapidly. Daily activities of adolescents,

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 OGENA

which used to be within parental purview, are fast becoming loosely linked as adolescent
independence accelerates. The range of adolescent activities requiring exclusive parental
authorization in the past is fast expanding (FGD Parents, 2001). “Malling” or going to the
malls, is a popular adolescent recreation, over which many parents no longer have authority.
Traditional norms of childrearing have been transformed as well. Since adolescents of
the past are now parents of adolescents themselves, more liberal parental disposition of
adolescent behavior is becoming apparent. Some parents during the FGD did not even consider
an adolescent indiscretion (e.g., premarital pregnancy) enough reason to influence their son/
daughter to marry someone (pag nabuntis ang anak, kung hindi siya stable, bakit mo siya ipapakasal?)
(FGD Parents, 2001). This apparently is inconsistent with religious teachings on giving
appropriate aid for people who are “lost.”
Also commonly known are religious teachings on appropriate adolescent behavior. Most
religions prohibit adolescents from engaging in premarital sex, promiscuity, and abortion.
The Christian religion, within which majority of the Philippine population belong, has a
staunch position on these issues, more particularly the Roman Catholic church with its quite
articulated position.
Adolescents who engage in these adverse behaviors are, therefore, expected to be
stigmatized or looked down upon. However, with more prevalent and/or popularized cases
of these types of behavior, especially among people considered by adolescents as role models
(e.g., actors and actresses), the stigma traditionally attached to such behaviors appears to have
been watered down, making it less and less inadmissible over the years. Hence, the influence
of religions on adolescent behavior is becoming increasingly challenged.
As more adolescents are staying in school longer, further delays in their entry to economic
and political roles will be anticipated. This suggests greater economic strain for earning
members of the households/families as requirements for adolescent development skyrocket
in view of the need to keep up with the lifestyles of their own crowd.

III. CONCLUDING REMARKS

This initial review looks at adolescents within a developmental frame as they transcend
from childhood to adulthood. Changes that adolescents are experiencing within themselves
redefine their roles as members of their family, peer group and the society as they, in turn,
perceive these changes. While age tracking aids in describing general patterns of these changes,
individual differences remain making each adolescent unique and deserving special attention.
Hence, communicating with the youth is crucial in better understanding how parents, teachers
and other stakeholders could make their experience through adolescence pleasant and less
traumatic.

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A Development Concept of Adolescence: The Case of Adolescents in the Philippines1

NOTES
1 This term comes from the Latin verb adolescere, which means “to grow up or to grow to maturity.”
2 Pubescence refers to “the approximately two-year period that precedes puberty; it is the period when the physiological
changes that cause development of both the primary and secondary sex characteristics that make the individual a biologically
mature begin.” (Dusek, 1996; pp.4-5).
3 Psychobiological change refers to psychobiological change that results from biological change, an example of which is psychological
reactions to the increase in sex drive.
4 Psychosocial change refers to personal and social changes that are due to cultural factors.
5 Defense mechanisms refer to ascetism (deny instincts) or intellectualism (make drive seem nonconflictual).
6 Erickson’s Eight Stages of Development: Infancy (Trust vs. Mistrust), Early Childhood (Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt),
Preschool Age (Initiative vs. Guilt), School Age (Industry vs. Inferiority), Adolescence (Identity vs. Identity Confusion),
Young Adulthood (Intimacy vs. Isolation), Adulthood (Generativity vs. Stagnation), and Senescence (Ego Integrity vs.
Despair).

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