Water Technology

Seminar
Guatemala City
October 25-26, 2014

QUITEC Water
Technologies
 Water Technology Seminar

Day 1 Day 2

• Demineralization • Cooling Water Treatment

• Reverse Osmosis • Corrosion, Scale, Fouling
• Flow Accelerated Corrosion • Iron and Manganese Control
• High Pressure Cycle Chemistry • Treatment for High Silica
• DWD Monitoring • Microbiological Control

2
Demineralization
 Demineralization
Key Take Aways
Understand:
• The benefits/applications of demineralization
• The basics of “2 - bed” and “mixed bed” demineralization
• Relevance of “ion selectivity”
• Impact of exhaustion on common monitoring tests
• The types of decarbonators
• “Co-” versus “Counter-” Current regeneration
Calculate:
• The approximate volume capacity of a 2 bed demineralizer
4
 Demineralization

• Removal of “all” cations and anions by ion

exchange
• Must include:
− Strong acid cation resin – regenerated with
H2SO4 (or HCl)
− Strong base anion resin – regenerated with
NaOH

5
 2-Bed Demineralization

Cation Unit Anion Unit

(SAC) (SBA)
Raw Water
Cations Anions
Ca HCO3
Mg SO4 Strong Acid Strong Base
Na Cl Cation Resin Anion Resin
NaOH
Regeneration
H+ OH-
H2SO4
Regeneration
Decationized Demineralized
Water Water

Cations Anions Cations Anions

HCO3
SO4 H OH
H Cl
SiO 2
CO2 … Plus “leakage”
6
 2-Bed Demineralization
With Decarbonator

Cation Unit CO2 Anion Unit

(SAC) (SBA)
Raw Water
Cations Anions
Ca HCO3
Mg SO4
Na Cl
Decarbonator NaOH
Regeneration
H+ OH-
H2SO4
Regeneration Demineralized
Water

Cations Anions Cations Anions

HCO3 5 – 10
SO4 ppm CO2 H OH
H Cl
SiO2
CO2
7
 Demineralization
Typical Vessel (Co-Current regeneration)

Manway Vent

Flow
Meter Inlet Distribution Lateral
Support
P

Regen Lateral

Resin Support
Site Glass
Bed
Exit Distribution Lateral
Resin
Removal
Lateral
Sublateral Support
Or False Bottom

Resin
P
Trap 8

 Decarbonation or Degasification?

Purpose:
• To reduce the CO2 loading on the SBA resin
• In decationized water (pH < 4.3) all the alkalinity is present as CO2
• Feasible when alkalinity is > ~ 20% of total anions

Types:
• Forced Draft Decarbonator
− Uses air to remove CO2

• Vacuum Degasifier
− Uses a vacuum to remove all dissolved gases

9
 Forced Draft Decarbonator

Exhaust

• Uses air to “scrub” CO2 Cation

Effluent Distribution
• Reduces CO2 to 5 - 10 ppm Header

• Much less expensive than

Packing/
removal by anion exchange Fill
• Cost is power for repumping
and blower
Filters
• Does not remove oxygen To Anion
• Potential dirt / vapor ingress Units

Air Storage Transfer

Blowers Pumps

10
 Vacuum Degasifier

• Uses a vacuum to remove

all gases
• Vacuum created by pump
or steam eductor
• Lowers CO2 to ± 5 ppm
• Reduces O2 to ± 0.2 ppm
• No risk of contamination
• Requires repumping

11

 SAC Selectivity / Leakage

High Last

Ca++
Selectivity

Leakage
Mg++

K+

Na+

H+

Low First

12
 SBA Selectivity / Leakage

High Last

SO4 --
Selectivity

Leakage
Cl-

HCO3 -

HSiO3 -

OH-

Low First

13
 Leakage

Cation - Sodium
− Co-current regeneration: ±10 – 200+ ppb
− Counter-current regeneration: < 10 ppb

• Anion – Silica
− Typically < 10 ppb

14
 Operating Cycles
• Service Cycle
• Backwash (Full bed).
− Followed by bed preheat for SBA.
• Regeneration
− Introduction of regenerant acid, caustic or salt.
− Multiple step acid for SAC: 2% / 4%.
• Slow Rinse
− Regenerant displacement.
• Fast Rinse
− Regenerant removal.

15
 Co-current Ion
Exchange Unit

16
 Service Cycle: In Operation

•2 gpm/cu. ft. of resin

•Free chlorine - 0 ppm
•Temperature limits
•Cation - 2500F
•Anion - 950F to 1400F
•Bed depth - 24” minimum

17
 Regeneration: Backwash

•Flow based on
•Temperature
•Surface area
•Type of resin
•Freeboard
•Expand and reclassify
• bed (pressure drop)
•Remove suspended
• solids/resin fines

18
 Backwash Expansion*
Strong Acid Cation
100
Percent Expansion

80

60

40

20

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
*Should be sufficient Flow Rate, gpm/sq.ft.
to expand the resin bed 25-50% 19

 Backwash Expansion*
Strong Base Anion
Percent Expansion 100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Flow Rate, gpm/sq.ft.
*Should be sufficient
to expand the resin bed 50-75%
20
 Regeneration: Regenerant

Cation Regeneration -

•Use either HCl or H2SO4

•Avoid CaSO4 ppt.
•%H2SO4= [5x(1-(Ca/Tot. Cat.))]
•Flow=2xCa/Tot. Cat.
•Final acid strength = 4%
•Loading - 4 to 10 lbs per cubic foot
•Flow - 1.0 gpm per cubic foot, up to
• 2 gpm for high % calcium
•Contact time - 30-60 minutes

21
 Regeneration: Regenerant

Anion Regeneration -

•Temperature -
•Type I Resin- 1200F
•Type II Resin- 950F to 1050F
•Concentration - 4%
•Loading - 4 to 10 pounds per cubic foot
•Check caustic specifications
•Flow - 0.25 to 0.5 gpm per cubic foot
•Contact time - 90-120 minutes

22
 Regeneration: Rinse Steps

• Slow Rinse (Displacement) -

− Continues regenerant contact with resin

− Same flow rate as regenerant
− Should be 10 to 15 gallons per cubic foot of resin
− Typically 2 bed volumes

23
 Regeneration: Rinse Steps

• Fast Rinse (Final Rinse) -

− Remove regenerant and rinse bed to desired quality

− Flow same as the service flow
− Total rinse volume 50-75 gal/cu.ft.
− Uses exchange capacity
− Use decationized water for anion rinse

24
 Demineralization
Elution Study Summary

Regeneration - Hydrogen Cycle Strong Acid Cation

Calculation/
Parameter Recommended Comparison
Flow Rate 0.5-1.0 GPM/ Flow divided by
cu. ft. of resin cu. ft. of resin
Acid 2-4 percent By test -use specific
Concentration* H2SO4 gravity
Pounds of Acid 4-10 lbs. per cu. (Gal.acid)(lbs. acid/gal)
ft. og resin divided by cu. ft. of
resin
Contract Time 30-60 minutes By testing

*For hydrochloric acid, 10% acid is used

25
 Demineralization
Elution Study Summary
Regeneration - Hydroxyl Cycle Strong
Base Anion
Calculation/
Parameter Recommended Comparison
Flow Rate 0.25-1.0 GPM/ Flow divided by
cu. ft. of resin cu. ft. of resin
Caustic 4% sodium By test - use
Concentration hydroxide specific gravity
Pounds of 4-10 lbs. per (Gal.
Caustic cu. ft. of resin caustic)(lbs.
caustic/gal.)
divided by cu. ft.
of resin
Contact Time 90-120 minutes By testing
Temperture 100-140OF By thermometer
26
 Cation (SAC) Exhaustion

End of Sodium
Rinse Break
SAC Sodium,
ppb

< 10 – 200+ ppb

SAC Sodium

Volume Treated
27
 Impact of Cation Exhaustion
on Anion Effluent Quality

End of Sodium
Rinse Break

SBA Conductivity
SAC Sodium,

uS/cm
ppb

SBA Conductivity
< 1 - 5+ uS/cm

< 10 – 200+ ppb

SAC Sodium

Volume Treated
28
 Anion (SBA) Exhaustion

End of Silica
Rinse Break

Conductivity,
uS/cm
Silica,
ppb

Silica
< 10 ppb

< 1 - 5+ uS/cm
Conductivity Conductivity
“Dip”

Volume Treated

29
 Primary Demineralizers
Typical Water Quality

Conductivity < 1 – 5+ mmhos

Sodium < 10 – 200+ ppb

Silica < 10 ppb

pH 7.0 - 9.0

30
 Typical Operating Cycle

1. Service run (exhaustion)

2. Backwash
3. Regenerant introduction
4. Slow rinse/displacement
5. Fast Rinse
6. Standby
7. Pre-rinse/purge

31
 Regeneration
Co-current Vs Counter-Current

Co-Current
• Down-flow service / down-flow regeneration
• Bottom of bed is least regenerated
− Service leakage is “higher”

Counter-Current
• Typically …down-flow service / up-flow regeneration
• Bottom of bed is highly regeneration
− Service leakage is “lower” (and more consistent)

32
 Co-Current SAC Regeneration

After Start of
End of Run Regeneration Service Run

Acid

Ca++
H+ H+
Mg++
Ca++ Ca++
Na+ Mg++ Mg++
Na+ Na+

Sodium Leakage
(10 – 200+ ppb)
33
 Counter-Current SAC Regeneration

After Start of
End of Run Regeneration Service Run

Na+ Na+
Ca++ Mg++ Mg++
Ca++ Ca++
Mg++
Na+ H+ H+

Acid
Sodium Leakage
(< 10 ppb)
34
 Counter-Current Regeneration

• Typically upflow regeneration and downflow service

• Primarily for cation (SAC) units
− Lower leakage and higher efficiency
• Backwash infrequently to maintain benefits
• Bed must not “fluidize”/expand during regeneration
− Water or air block flow
− Split regenerant flow

35
 Counter-Current Regeneration
With Water or Air Block

Blocking
Water or Air

Resin Level

Regenerant
Collector
Waste

Diluted
Regenerant
36
 Regeneration

• Cation
− Co-current regeneration: stepwise sulfuric acid (eg 2/4/6%)
− Counter-current regeneration: 1 – 2% sulfuric acid
• Flows ~ 0.5 – 1.0 gpm/ft3 of resin
− Dosage: Typically ± 4 – 6 lbs/ft3
− Capacity: Typically ± 12 – 14 Kgr/ft3

• Anion (co- or counter-current regeneration)

− 4 – 5% caustic at 120º F at ~ 0.5 gpm/ft3 of resin
− Dosage: Typically ± 4 – 6 lbs/ft3
− Capacity: Typically ± 10 – 12 Kgr/ft3

37
 Calculating Throughput or Run Length
SAC / SBA Demineralizers

Run Volume, gallons =

Resin Capacity (Kgr/ft3) x ft3 of Resin x 1000 (gr/Kgr)

ppm Ionic Loading (as CaCO3) /17.1 (ppm per gr/gal)

38
 Calculating^Throughput or Run Length
SAC / SBA Demineralizers

Sample Calculation
• SAC Resin: 100 ft3 resin / 12 kgr/ft3 capacity
• SBA Resin: 125 ft3 resin / 10 kgr/ft3 capacity
• Cation Loading:
• Anion Loading:
a) No decarbonator:
b) With decarbonator:

• Calculate expected run lengths

39
 Demineralization
Ionic Loading

Analysis Feed SAC Decarb SBA

Calcium 70 0 0 0

Magnesium 24 0 0 0

Sodium 2.8 < 0.5 <0.5 <0.5

Total Cations 96.8 < 0.5 <0.5 <0.5

Alkalinity 80 0 0 0

Sulfate 11.9 11.9 11.9 0

Chloride 4.9 4.9 4.9 0

Silica 4.3 4.3 4.3 <0.05

Carbon Dioxide 5.5 85.5 5 0

Total Anions 106.6 106.6 26.1 <0.05

pH 7.5 3.5 3.5 7-9

Free Mineral Acidity (FMA) 0 16.8 16.8 0

All values (except pH) as ppm CaCO3

40
 Calculating ^Throughput or Run Length
SAC / SBA Demineralizers

Cation Runs:

12 Kgr/ft3 x 100 ft3 of Resin x 1000 (gr/Kgr)

96.8 ppm (as CaCO3) /17.1 (ppm per gr/gal)

= ~ 212,000 gallons

41
 Calculating ^Throughput or Run Length
SAC / SBA Demineralizers
Anion Runs:
A) No decarbonator
10 Kgr/ft3 x 125 ft3 of Resin x 1000 (gr/Kgr)
= ~ 201,000 gals
106.6 ppm (as CaCO3) /17.1 (ppm per gr/gal)

B) With a decarbonator

10 Kgr/ft3 x 125 ft3 of Resin x 1000 (gr/Kgr)

= ~ 819,000 gals
26.1 ppm (as CaCO3) /17.1 (ppm per gr/gal)

42
 Approximate Resin Life Expectancy

• Cation Resins: 8 – 12 + years

− Fouling
− Physical damage

• Anion Resins: 4 – 6 years

− Resin fouling (organics) & cleaning practices
− Operating temperature
− Oxygen content of the water
− Regenerant quality

43
 Demineralization
What could possibly go wrong?

• Short runs – frequent regeneration – $$

• High leakage - poor FW water quality - $$
• High pressure drop – uneven flows
• Resin issues – short life, fouling, loss
• Mechanical or control system failures

44
 Potential Causes

• Mechanical – laterals, collectors,

regeneration system, instrumentation,
valves, etc.

• Chemical – regeneration parameters,

regenerant quality

• Resin - volume and/or integrity

45
 Demineralization
Key Take Aways
Understand:
• The benefits/applications of demineralization
• The basics of “2 - bed” and “mixed bed” demineralization
• Relevance of “ion selectivity”
• Impact of exhaustion on common monitoring tests
• The types of decarbonators
• “Co-” versus “Counter-” Current regeneration
Calculate:
• The approximate volume capacity of a 2 bed demineralizer
46
 Troubleshooting Overview

• Review original design basis

• Check current operating conditions
• Look for changes and variations
• Check for proper ion exchange materials
• Check for equipment suitability
• Does the original design fit the current service?
• Review operation and maintenance practices

47
 Troubleshooting Tools

• Water Analyses

• Operators Log Sheets

• Elution Studies

• Operating Specifications

• Vessel Inspections

• Resin Analyses

• Operators

48
 Troubleshooting
Poor Quality Effluent

• Inadequate regenerant dosage

• High service flow rate
• Change is raw water composition
• Resin fouling / degradation
• Valve leakage

49
 Troubleshooting
Poor Quality Effluent

Resin Fouling Operational

Hardness Concentrations Previous Operation

Fouling Past Exhaustion
Silica Improper
Calcium Regen
Sulfate Flows Times Change in
Oil Raw Water
Microbiological Poor Quality
Regenerant
Natural
Organics Poor Effluent
Quality
Organic Thermal Cation Resin

Insufficient
Degradation Degradation in Anion Unit Resin
Chlorine Totalizers
Leaking
Oxidation Valves Instrumentation
Problems
Oxygen Saturation
Conductivity/Silica

Resin Degradation Mechanical

50
 Troubleshooting
Short Runs

• Loss of resin
• Change in raw water composition
• Channeling
• Inadequate regenerant dosage
• Regenerant concentration not optimum
• Resin fouling or degradation
• Low water temperature (especially WAC and
WBA resins)

51
 Troubleshooting
Short Runs

Resin Fouling Operational

Previous Operation
Hardness Improper Concentrations Past Exhaustion
Aluminum
Fouling Regen High Flow
Calcium
Sulfate
Silica Flows Times Channeling

Microbiological Poor Quality Low Flow
Oil Regenerant
Natural Change in
Organics Low Caustic Raw Water
Temperature
Short Run
Organic Thermal Insufficient
Lengths
Broken
Degradation Degradation Resin
Distribution
Chlorine Totalizers

Oxidation Leaking Instrumentation
Valves
Problems
Oxygen Saturation
Conductivity/Silica
Resin
Degradation Mechanical

52
 Troubleshooting
Cation Resin Problems

Problem Possible Cause

• High Moisture Content • Oxygen at high temperature

• Chlorine
• Mud, dirt, “lime” fouling • Carryover from clarification
process, poor/lack of filtration
• CaSO4 fouling • H2SO4 regeneration procedure
• Iron Fouling • Raw water quality

53
 Troubleshooting
Anion Resin Problems

Problem Possible Cause

• Organic Fouling • High inlet water organics,

insufficient/lack of brine cleaning
• Degradation of cation resin (rare)
• Low strong base capacity • Resin age, high operating
temperature, excessive chlorate in
caustic
• Cation resin present • Failed cation unit underdrain
(sodium leakage from SBA)

• Silica fouling • Regenerating at low temperature

54
 Mixed Bed Demineralizers

• Cation (SAC) and anion (SBA) resins in a single vessel

• Produces very low leakage
• Almost exclusively used as “polishers” (following
“primary” demineralizers)
• Also used as condensate “polishers” (high pressure
plants where temperatures allow the use of anion resin)
• Resins are thoroughly mixed during service but
separated for regeneration
• Low loadings results in very long run times

55
 Mixed Bed Demineralizers

Air
Inlet And
Vent
Backwash
Outlet

Inlet Water
Distributor
Regenerant
Distributor
Caustic In
Interface Anion Resin
Collector Spent
Regenerant
Cation Resin Out
Screened
Underdrain
Laterals

Service Outlet/
Backwash Inlet/
Acid Inlet
Acid In
56
 Mixed Bed (polishing) Demineralizers
Typical Water Quality

Conductivity < 0.1 mmhos

Sodium < 5 ppb

Silica < 5 ppb

pH ~ 7.0 (often somewhat “less”)

57
 Mixed Bed Demineralization
Mixed
Analysis Feed SAC Decarb SBA Bed
Calcium 70 0 0 0 0
Magnesium 24 0 0 0 0
Sodium 2.8 < 0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.005

Total Cations 96.8 < 0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.005

Alkalinity 80 0 0 0 0
Sulfate 11.9 11.9 11.9 0 0
Chloride 4.9 4.9 4.9 0 0
Silica 4.3 4.3 4.3 <0.05 <0.005
Carbon Dioxide 5.5 85.5 5 0 0

Total Anions 106.6 106.6 26.1 <0.05 <0.005

pH 7.5 3.5 3.5 7-9 6-7
Free Mineral Acidity (FMA) 0 16.8 16.8 0 0

All values (except pH) as ppm CaCO3

58
Demineralizer Troubleshooting
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting
• High sodium in cation effluent
− Loss of cation resin
−Cation bypass
−Cation Channeling
− Poor regenerant distribution
−High or low cation backwash flow
−Low cation regenerant level
−Low cation rinse flow
−High or low service flow
−High or low service flow
−Increase dissolved solids
−Increased sodium to cation level

60
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting

• High total hardness in cation effluent

− Cation bypass
− Poor regenerant distribution in cation
− High cation regenerant concentration
− Increased calcium to total cation ratio

61
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting
• Low FMA in cation effluent
− Loss of cation resin
−Cation bypass
−Cation channeling
− Poor regenerant distribution in cation
unit
−High cation backwash flow
−Low cation regenerant level or
concentration
−Low cation rinse flow
− Short cation rinse time
−High or low service flow

62
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting

• High FMA in cation effluent

− Low cation rinse flow
− Short cation rinse time
− Increased dissolved solids

63
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting
• Short cation service runs
− Loss of cation resin
− Cation bypass
− Cation channeling
− Poor regenerant distribution in cation
− Poor backwash distribution in cation
− High or low cation backwash flow
− Low cation regenerant level or concentration
− High service flow
− Cation resin fouled, decrosslinked, lost capacity
− Increased dissolved or suspended solids
− Increased sodium to cation ratio

64
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting

• High pH in anion effluent

−High sodium in cation effluent
−High total hardness in cation effluent
−Low anion rinse flow
− Short anion rinse time

65
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting

• Low pH in anion effluent

−High FMA in cation effluent
− Loss of anion resin
− Anion bypass
− Anion channeling
−Increased organics

66
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting
• High conductivity in anion effluent
−High sodium in cation effluent
−High total hardness in cation effluent
− Loss of anion resin
− Anion bypass
− Anion channeling
−Low anion rinse flow
− Short anion rinse time
−Increased organics
− Poor regenerant distribution with anion

67
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting

• High Silica in Anion Effluent

- High sodium in cation effluent
- Loss of anion resin
- Anion bypass
- Anion channeling
- Poor regenerant distribution with anion
- High or low service flow
- Low anion regenerant level or concentration
68
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting

• High Silica in Anion Effluent (cont’d)

- Increased silica/anion ratio
- Increased silica
- Low anion rinse flow
- Short anion rinse time
- Low anion regenerant temperature
- Anion resin fouled/dirty
- Anion resin strong base capacity loss

69
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting

• High sodium in anion effluent

−High sodium in cation effluent
−Cation resin in anion unit
− Short anion rinse time
−Low anion regenerant temperature

70
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting
• Short anion service runs
−High total hardness in cation
effluent
− Loss of anion resin
− Anion channeling
− Poor regenerant distribution with
anion
− Poor backwash distribution in
anion
− Poor decarbonator performance
−High or low service flow
−High or low anion backwash flow
71
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting
• Short anion service runs (contd.)
−Low anion regenerant level or
concentration
−Low anion regenerant temperature
− Anion fouled/dirty
− Anion resin total capacity loss
− Anion resin strong base capacity loss
−Increased dissolved solids
−Increased silica/anion ratio
−Increased silica

72
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting

• High total hardness in anion effluent

−High total hardness in cation effluent
− Anion bypass

73
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting
• Loss of capacity (anion) - causes:
- Sodium or hardness leakage from cation units
- Loss of resin
- Improper or inadequate regeneration
- Channeling
- Fouled resin - especially organics
- Increased silica to total anion ratio
- Increased service water alkalinity
- Loss of strong base exchange capacity
- Low regenerant temperature
74
 Demineralizer Troubleshooting

• Continuous sodium or hardness leakage - causes:

- Increased sodium to total cation ratio
- Loss of resin
- Channeling
- Resin fouling - calcium sulfate precipitation
- Improper or inadequate regeneration

75
Reverse Osmosis Operation and
Troubleshooting
 What is RO?
• RO, or Reverse Osmosis, is a mechanical means of
removing dissolved and suspended impurities from
water, by applying pressure (100 - 400 psig) against a
semi-permeable membrane
• Semi-permeable membranes allow the passage of
water, and certain ions or molecules (depending upon
the membrane’s porosity) back and forth across the
membrane; the rate of passage is dependent upon
temperature, fluid pressure, and ion concentration

77
 Reverse Osmosis
aka “RO”
• By applying pressure to the concentrated solution
( > P osmotic), the water flow is reversed
• Pure water from the concentrated side is forced
through the permeable membrane; dissolved
solids are left behind

78
 Reverse Osmosis
Semi Permeable
Pressure Membrane

H2 O

Na+ Cl- H2 O
H2 O H2 O
H2 O
Na+ - Na+ H2 O
Cl - -
Na+ Cl Cl H2 O
+
Na H2 O H2 O
Na+ Cl- Cl-
Concentrate Permeate
79
 Reverse Osmosis
The Purpose for Reverse Osmosis use in industry

Dramatically improves the water quality

Will reject 95-97% of incoming solids
Can greatly aid in the prevention of scale in a boiler program
Will reduce blowdown and chemical use by allowing increased
cycles of concentration.

80
 Filtration Micron Ranges

Microfiltration

Ultrafiltration Diffusion

Nanofiltration

10 Reverse Osmosis
⎧m
0.1
0.01
Porosity 0.001
0.0001
Tight Tighter Tighter Tightest

81
 The Filtration Spectrum

82

 Principles of Reverse Osmosis

• The ability of a membrane to pass water and retain salts is

quantified by recovery and rejection.
− Recovery represents the portion of feedwater that is "recovered" as
permeate.
− Rejection describes the ability of the membrane to retain salts.

% Recovery = Product flow x 100

Feed flow

% Rejection = (Feed conc. – Product conc.) x 100

Feed concentration
83

 Reverse Osmosis Terminology
RO is a continuous cross-flow filtration process.
The feed water enters the membrane element and passes over the
membrane surface.
Feedwater Concentrate

Membrane
Permeate
A portion of the feed water passes through the membrane becoming
permeate or product.

The remaining portion exits the membrane taking with it

the concentrated contaminants that did not pass through
the membrane. This concentrated stream is known as
concentrate, reject, or brine.
84

 Reverse Osmosis Terminology
RO is a continuous cross-flow filtration process.
The concentrate contains a higher concentration of impurities than
the feed water.
Concentrate
Feedwater

Membrane
Permeate

RO systems are designed so tangential flow sweeps the impurities

off the membranes and out with the concentrate.

85

 RO Performance
RO performance is measured by the following:
The permeate quality provided by the RO, reported as salt passage
or percent rejection. Concentrate/
Feedwater Reject

Membrane
Permeate

Water conservation, measured as the ratio of permeate to

feedwater flow and reported as percent recovery.

The flow rate of permeate through the membrane, reported as the

flux rate.
86

 Salt Passage
A small percentage of salt ions in the feedwater pass through
the membrane into the permeate; this is called salt passage.
The percent salt passage is measured by dividing permeate
conductivity by feedwater conductivity and multiplying by 100.
Salt passage = 100 x (permeate conductivity ÷ feedwater conductivity)

Feedwater

Permeate

For example, if feedwater conductivity is 200 µS

and the permeate conductivity is 2 µS,
the salt passage is 100 x (2 ÷ 200) = 1 percent.
87

 Percent Rejection
A large percentage of dissolved salts is rejected by an RO
membrane.
This percentage is called a rejection rate or the percent rejection.

Percent rejection is measured by

subtracting % salt passage from Feedwater Concentrate

100 percent as shown below.

% Rejection = 100% – % Salt Passage

Permeate
For example, if salt passage is 1%, then
% rejection = 100% – 1% = 99 percent.
88

 Percent Rejection

RO

457 µS 9 µS

1450 µS

Feed TDS - Permeate TDS X 100

% RO Rejection =
Feed TDS

297 ppm – 6 ppm X 100 = 98.0%

= 297 ppm
Percentage of Ions Rejected
89

 Percent Recovery
Recovery is the amount of feedwater that passes through the
membrane and becomes permeate.

Percent recovery is the ratio of permeate to feedwater and is

calculated as shown below.

% Recovery = 100 x (permeate flow rate ÷ feedwater flow rate)

Feedwater

Permeate

For example, if the feedwater flow is 100 gpm

and permeate flow is 75 gpm
the percent recovery is 100 x (75 ÷ 100) = 75 percent.
90

 Percent Recovery
Recovery is the amount of feedwater that passes through the
membrane and becomes permeate.

For systems without feedwater flow meters, but with permeate and
concentrate-reject flow meters.
Concentrate/
Feedwater Reject

Permeate

feedwater flow rate = permeate flow rate + reject flow rate. Thus:

% Recovery = 100 x (permeate flow rate ÷ (permeate flow rate

+ concentrate flow rate)
91

 Percent Recovery

Maintaining the proper recovery of an RO system is

important for the following two reasons:

Too low a recovery means more concentrate going to drain as

waste.

Too high a recovery can lead to rapid scaling or fouling of RO

membranes. The higher the recovery, the greater the
concentration of impurities both dissolved and suspended in the
concentrate stream becomes.

92

 Terms & Formulas

• Concentration Factor:
• The factor by which the feed salts will concentrate up in the RO,
based on recovery
• Calculation:
1/(1-recovery) or
feed GPM/concentrate GPM
• Example:
1/(1-0.75) = 4 or
100 GPM/ 25 GPM = 4

• Concentration Factor is similar to ‘Cycles of Concentration’ in Evaporative

Cooling Water.

Note: The concentration at the membrane may be 20% higher than the calculated
Concentration Factor (similar to scaling of tower fill)
93

 Concentration Factor at 90% Recovery

100 GPM 90 GPM

Na+
Cl-
90% Recovery
10x concentration factor

Na+ Cl-

perm.
Cl-
Na+ feed

Cl-

Na+ Na+

Cl-

conc. Cl-
Cl-
Na+ Cl
-

Cl-
Na+
Na+ Cl-
Na+
Na+

Assume 100% salt

rejection
10 GPM

94

 Concentration Factor at 75% Recovery

100 GPM 75 GPM

Na+
Na+ 75% Recovery
4x concentration factor

Na+ +
Na+

Na+ perm.
+
Na
feed

Na+

Na+

Na+

Na+ Na+ Na+ Na+

Na+
Na+
conc. Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+
Na+ Na+

Assume 100% salt

rejection
25 GPM

95

 Flux Rate
Flux is flow per area.
For RO units, flux is gallons-per day of permeate per square-
foot of membrane area, abbreviated as GFD.

Membrane manufacturers specify design flux rates.

The design flux rates depend on levels of foulants such
as silt, bacteria, organics, and scale-forming minerals
in the water. The higher the foulant levels, the lower the
flux.

If the flux is too high, the RO membrane has a tendency to

foul with the subsequent loss of permeate flow and quality.

96

 Flux (GFD)
Gallons per Square Foot per Day

FLUX: The amount of

water pushed through
a square foot of
membrane in a day.

1 Square Foot
of Membrane Area

Water Flux
(permeate) 97
 Flux (GFD) Calculations
A standard membrane has approximately 340 square feet of surface area.

There are 72 membrane in a standard 200 gpm RO design.

72 x 340 sq. ft. = 24,480 sq. ft.

200 gpm x 60 min. x 24 hr. = 288,000 gallons per day (gpd)

288,000 gpd / 24,480 sq. ft. = 11.8 GFD

98
 RO Membranes

• The two most common membrane materials used in water

purification are cellulose acetate (CA) and polyamide.

− Cellulose acetate membranes are made of cellulosic material.

− Polyamide membranes are a composite structure of two materials:

a microporous support layer, typically polysulfone, onto which a
thin, non-porous skin, typically made of polyamide, is applied.

• Because polyamide membranes are a composite of two materials with

a thin-film non-porous layer, they are commonly referred to as thin-film
composite (TFC) membranes.

99
 Membrane Comparisons

Property CA TFC

Surface Smooth Rough

Surface Charge Neutral Negative
Typical Operating Pressure, psig 300-600 150-400
Maximum Temperature, Degrees C 35 45
pH Range 4-6 2-10
Maximum Free Cl2, ppm 1.0 0
Expected Lifetime, yr. 2-3 2-5
Hardness, Typical Rejection 96% 97%
Sodium, Typical Rejection 95% 96%
Sulfate, Typical Rejection 99%+ 99%+
Silica, Typical Rejection 85% 98%

10
0
 Membrane Comparisons

TFC membranes offer two advantages over CA membranes:

They can be operated at lower pressure and they can be used over
a broader pH range.
However, due to their rough surface, TFC membranes are more
easily fouled
Because TFC membranes are sensitive to chlorine, it is difficult to
control microbiological growth.
Since these membranes have a negative surface charge, cationic
polymer feed must be controlled more carefully.

CA membranes are more forgiving with respect to fouling and

their chlorine resistance makes biological growth control more
straightforward.

10

1
 Reverse Osmosis - Fouling

The largest operational problem with R.O.s is fouling of the

membranes due to the following

There are four types of fouling deposits:

Ca Si

minerals silt organics microbiological

10

2
 Operational Problems
• Fouling
− Inorganic scale: carbonate, sulfate, hydroxide, typically
second stage
− Organic fouling: microbiological, colloidal, typically first stage
− Suspended solids, typically first stage
Membrane Fouling
Insolubles/heavy metals
−Keep below 0.5 ppm
−pH adjust to 5.5
Scaling
−Softening and/or acid feed (pH 5.5)
−Crystalline distortion agents (polycarboxylic acids)
Fouling by colloidal materials
−(Clay, sand or algae) (May need coagulation/filtration)
Microbiological
−Up to 1.0 ppm free chlorine allowed with certain membranes
10

3
 When to Clean RO Elements

Cleaning should be performed whenever:

•Normalized permeate flow decreases 10-15%
•Normalized salt content of the permeate increases by 10-15%
•Differential pressure increases by 10-15% from the base
reference when unit was put into service

10
4

 RO Membrane Fouling
Cleaning Hints

• Cleaning should be performed whenever:

− Normalized permeate flow decreases 10-15%
− Normalized salt content of the permeate increases
by 10-15%
− Differential pressure increases by 10-15% from
the base reference when unit was put into service

10
5
 RO Cleaners
Cleaning Hints

• Differential pressure increase in first stage often indicates

fouling by suspended solids – iron, colloids, and organics
• Differential pressure increase in final stage often indicates
fouling by mineral scale
• Differential pressure increase throughout all stages often
indicates biological fouling
• High pH/surfactant for first stage fouling
• Low pH, typically organic acid, for second stage

10
6
 Problem Identification
General Symptoms
Cause
Salt Passage Δ DP Product Flow

Significant Moderate Slight Scalants

Rapid Rapid Rapid Metal Oxides

Gradual Gradual Gradual Colloidal Material

Marked Marked Marked Biofilms

Significant Marked Marked Oxidants

Sudden Slight Slight Rolled O-Ring

10
7
 The Silt Density Index (SDI)

• (SDI) is a test developed specifically to determine the general

suspended solids fouling potential of RO feedwater.

• Membrane manufacturers’ warranties require an SDI less than 5.

• Higher feedwater SDI values almost invariably lead to performance

problems in an RO unit.

• SDI measurements should be taken frequently, from every shift to

every day on surface water sources, much less frequently on ground
water sources.

10
8
RO Performance Measurment
 Key Performance Terms

• Salt Rejection
− Indicates how well the RO membrane is working

• Delta P (Change in Pressure)

− indication of how fouled the RO membranes/RO machine
is becoming

• Normalized Permeate Flow (NPF)

− Indicates whether changes in flow or rejection are due to
fouling, membrane damage, or just due to different
operating conditions

11
0
 Terms & Formulas

• Salt Rejection:
• The ability of the membrane to hinder certain elements from
passing through.
• Calculation:
% rejection = {1 - (permeate TDS/feed TDS)}100
• Example
{1- (20/1000)} 100 = 98%

• Salt Passage is Leakage that passes through a semi-permeable

membrane
− Membranes do not reject 100% of contaminants

• Smaller molecules leak greater than larger molecules (Cl vs CO3)

− Typical rejection of molecules >100-200 MW

• Gases (O2 , CO2 , etc.) pass through the membrane

11
1
 Normalized Permeate Flow

• Calculation based on flowrate, net driving pressure

(NDP), and temperature

− NDP based on applied pump pressure, Delta P,

Osmotic pressure, and Permeate pressure
• As NDP increases, more water produced

− As temperature increases, membrane permeability

increases, and flow increases

11
2
 Data Normalization
• Normalization:
− is a process that corrects for changes in temperature, feed TDS,
pressures, and other factors that affect RO system operation but may
be unrelated to fouling or other membrane degradation processes.
Compares to a reference set of standard conditions.
− Normalization programs are available from membrane manufacturers.
− Example: a 1 degree C change in feed temperature causes a 3%
change in permeate flow.

11
3
 Membrane Fouling

• Insolubles/heavy metals
− Keep below 0.5 ppm
− pH adjust to 5.5
• Scaling
− Softening and/or acid feed (pH 5.5)
− Crystalline distortion agents (polycarboxylic acids)
• Fouling by colloidal materials
− Clay, sand or algae … may need coagulation/filtration
• Microbiological
− Up to 1.0 ppm free chlorine allowed with certain membranes

11
4
 Flow and Pressure Relationship

Two important relationships between flow and pressure are

as follows:

∆P is higher at higher flows. P1 = 20

5 psig ∆P = 2
150 psid P2 = 5 psig
Surface
Friction
∆P is lower at lower flows.
Flow

At the same flow, ∆P is higher

through a smaller cross section, Friction
Surface
and lower through a larger cross
section.

Measuring and recording pressure-gauge readings

can indicate if impurities have fouled one or more
RO membranes.
11
5
 Effect of Temperature on ΔP and Flow

The effect of colder water temperature and membrane

deposits on permeate flow are similar.

Therefore, pressure and temperature data must be normalized when

determining whether or not RO membranes are fouled.

If all other parameters are equal, the following applies:

Warmer water temperature causes higher permeate flow.
Cooler water temperature causes lower permeate flow.

11
6
 Pressure Effects on Performance

• As pressure increases, flux

increases
• As pressure increases, salt
rejection increases

Pressure
Performance vs. Pressure

11
7
 Temperature Effects on Performance

• As temperature increases,
permeate flux increases
• As temperature increases, salt
rejection decreases.

Temperature
Performance vs. Temperature

11
8
 Performance Indicators

• % Rejection
• Differential pressure
• Normalized flow

11
9
 Identifying Location of High
Salt Passage
• Permeate samples of all pressure vessels in the same
array should give similar TDS readings.
• Average permeate TDS will increase toward the back
of the system.
• If one pressure vessel shows a higher TDS than the
rest of the array, the vessel should be probed.

12
0
 Vessel Probing

Concentrate
Feed

Permeate TDS

12
1
 Vessel Probing Data
Concentrate
Feed

1 ' 2 ' 3 ' 4 ' 5 ' 6 '

Position Permeate TDS
Conductivity

1 ' 2 ' 3 ' 4 ' 5 ' 6 '

Position

12
2
 Vessel Probing Procedures

• Operate RO at normal conditions.

• Sample in the middle of elements and at the ends (to
check coupler/adapter o-rings).
• Mark the tubing at 20” intervals.

12
3
 Interpretation of Vessel Probing

• The conductivity of a probe sample is the average of

product water produced upstream.
• Normal conductivity profiles show a steady increase in
TDS towards the concentrate end of the vessel.
• TDS increases between elements indicate o-ring
problems.

12
4
 Review of Normalized Data
• Make sure the data are normalized
• Check for loss of flow, ∅P increase, or loss of rejection
• How does cleaning affect performance?
• How rapid was the decline in performance?
• Are performance changes seasonal?
• Were any changes made shortly before the
performance started to decline?
− Change in water quality
− Chemical use changes

12
5
 An RO Membrane Element Cutaway

12
6
Membrane Autopsy Steps
Membrane Removal
− Observe membrane as it is removed for appearance,
odor, deposit, color
− Collect any visible foulant for analysis, photograph

Initial performance Test

− Prior to cleaning or evaluation, individual membrane is
tested for flux rate, pressure drop, salt rejection.

Membrane Autopsy
− Membrane is opened and rolled out for physical
observation Appearance, odor, deposit, color,
membrane envelope integrity (glue lines, physical
destruction)
− Macro deposits collected for analysis
− Membrane sample cut for further lab analyses