ICT1.

003: Computer Architecture

Midterm Project Report

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Presenting the operating principle of semiconductor memory –

Structure and operation of different types of ROM memory.
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Đào Tuyết Ngân [[email protected]]

Hoàng Vũ Hải Nam [[email protected]]
Châu Phan Phương Mai [[email protected]]
Đặng Trần Phương Nam [[email protected]]
Nguyễn Hoàng Lân [[email protected]]
Đào Đình Nhật Minh [[email protected]]
Table of Contents
GROUP INFO:.....................................................................................2
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................3
SEMICONDUCTOR MEMORY.........................................................................3
What is semiconductor memory:.......................................................3
Classification diagram of semiconductor memory.............................4
Organization:......................................................................................4
Memory cell operation.......................................................................6
BLOCK DIAGRAM AND STRUCTURE................................................................7
Block diagram (Computer system).....................................................7
Structure of ROM................................................................................8
READ CYCLE........................................................................................... 10
How does ROM work........................................................................10
Read cycle of ROM............................................................................10
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROM.................................................................11
MROM..............................................................................................11
PROM................................................................................................11
EPROM..............................................................................................12
EEPROM............................................................................................12
CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION........................................................13
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS AND DISTRIBUTION OF CREDIT.....................13
REFERENCES.....................................................................................13

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Group Info:
 Đào Tuyết Ngân [[email protected]]
 Hoàng Vũ Hải Nam [[email protected]]
 Châu Phan Phương Mai [[email protected]]
 Đặng Trần Phương Nam [[email protected]]
 Nguyễn Hoàng Lân [[email protected]]
 Đào Đình Nhật Minh [[email protected]]

Introduction
Most kinds of Semiconductor Memory have the property of random access, and
that implies that it requires a similar measure of time to get to any Memory
location, so information can be effectively gotten to in any irregular request. This
differences with Data Storage Media, for example, Hard Disks and CDs which read
and write information continuously and subsequently the information must be
gotten to in a similar succession it was written. Semiconductor Memory likewise
has a lot quicker access times than different kinds of Data Storage; a byte of
information can be written to or read from Semiconductor Memory inside a
couple of nanoseconds, while access time for pivoting stockpiling, for example,
Hard Disks is in the scope of milliseconds. Thus, it is utilized for Primary Storage,
to hold the Program and Data the PC is at present chipping away at, among
different purposes.

Semiconductor Memory

What is semiconductor memory:

Semiconductor memory is an internal memory that applies integrated circuits due
to construct memories. It was first created in 1970 at Fairchild corporation with
notable properties including but not limited to: the size of one single core (1-bit
magnetic core storage but holding 256 bits of memory); non-destructive read;
much faster than core (70 nn seconds to read one bit) despite higher cost per bit.
Moreover, the semiconductor memory’s capacity approximately doubles every

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year. The increment in bit size on one single chip: since 1970, 1K, 4K, 16K, 256K,
1M, 4M, 16M, 64M, 256M, 1G, 4G, and, as of this writing, 16 Gbits on one single
chip for illustration. Recently, the cost per bit and access time have experienced a
certain decrease.

Classification diagram of semiconductor memory

Semiconductor
Memory
Technologies

RAM (random ROM (read only

access memory) memory)

DRAM PROM MROM

SRAM EPROM EEPROM FLASH PCM

NOR

NAND

Organization:
1. Cell properties:

The basic element of a semiconductor memory is the memory cell. Although a

variety of electronic technologies are, all semiconductor memory cells share
certain properties:
 they exhibit 2 stable (semistable) states, which can be used to represent
binary 1 and 0
 they are capable of being written into (at least once), to set the state
 they are capable of being read to sense the state

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2. Memory

Memory chips of semiconductor memory are organized into variety of locations

within the IC. Each location can hold 1 bit, 4 bits, 8 bits, or perhaps 16 bits,
counting on how it's designed internally. the quantity of locations within a
memory IC depends on the address pins. the amount of bits that every location
can hold is usually up to the amount of information pins. In general, if x is that the
number of address lines during a micro chip, it contains 2 x locations. Dynamic
RAMs (DRAMs) are exceptions to the current as indicated in a very later section
(1.9.2). Each location contains y bits, where y is that the number of information
pins on the chip. the complete chip will contain 2x × y bits. For example, a

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memory circuit with 16 words, each word have a length of 8 bits, so it is a 16x8
memory organization.

Memory cell operation

Overall, since semiconductor memory is made up of memory cells, it works at the

cellular level. Each cell is made of transistors. A memory chip performed two basic
operations: "read" and “write”. The former nondestructively reads the data
contents of a memory word. The latter stores data in a memory word and
replaces any data which was previously stored there. 

Explicitly, most typically, there are three functioning terminals on the cell that can
transport an electrical signal. As the name suggests, the select terminal selects a
memory cell for reading or writing operation. Select line selects cells for operation
specified by a control line. The control terminal indicates read or write. For
writing, it’s necessary to input data in, which provides an electrical signal setting
the state of the cell to 1 or 0. Regarding reading, the cell’s state is outputted by
that terminal.

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Block Diagram and Structure
Block diagram (Computer system)

With respect to the diagram provided, the indicated “Input Unit” imply that the
user provides the set of instructions or information to the computer system
wiwth the help of input devices (keyboard, mouse, scanner, etc.). The data
representation to the computer system is in the form of binary language. After
that the processor processes the converted data. The input unit implements the
data which is instructed by the user to the system.

With reference to the illustrated CPU, the computer system is nothing without
the Central processing unit so, it is also known as the brain or heat of computer.
The CPU is an electronic hardware device which can perform different types of
operations such as arithmetic and logical operation. The CPU contains three parts:
the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU) and Memory Unit/ Storage Unit
(SU).

The CU controls all the activities or operations which are performed inside the
computer system. It receives instructions or information directly from the main
memory of the computer. The ALU is the combinational digital electronic circuit

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that can perform arithmetic operations on integer binary numbers. It presents the
arithmetic and logical operation. The outputs of ALU will change asynchronously
in response to the input. The basic arithmetic and bitwise logic functions are
supported by ALU. Subsequently, the information or set of guidelines are stored
in the SU of the computer system. The SU provides the space to store the data or
instruction of processed data. The information or data is saved or hold in
computer memory or storage device. The data storage is the core function and
fundamental of the computer components.

Concerning the Output Unit, the output devices produce or generate the desired
result according to our input, such as a printer, monitor, etc. These devices
convert the data into a human-readable form from binary code. The computer
system is linked or connected to the outside world with the help of output
devices. The primary examples of output devices are a printer, projector, etc.

Structure of ROM
The structure of ROM is demonstrated in 2 separated parts: Block and Internal
Structure.

Reffering to the Block, it consists of k input lines and n output lines. The k input
lines are used to take the input address from where we want to access the
content of the ROM. Since each of the k input lines can be either 0 or 1, so there
is 2^k total addresses which can be referred to by these input lines and each of
these addresses contain n bit information, which is given out as the output of the
ROM. Such a ROM is specified as 2^k x n ROM

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Regarding the Internal Structure, it consists of two basic components – Decoder
and OR gates. A Decoder is a combinational circuit which is used to decode any
encoded form (such as binary, BCD) to a more known form (such as decimal
form). In ROM, the input to a decoder will be in binary form and the output will
represent its decimal equivalent. The Decoder is represented as l x 2, that is, it has
l inputs and has 2 outputs, which implies that it will take l-bit binary number and
decode it into one of the 2 decimal number. All the OR gates present in the ROM
will have outputs of the decoder as their input.

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Read Cycle
How does ROM work
The computer's ROM is powered by a compact, long-lasting battery. The decoder
and the OR logic gates are the two main components. The decoder in the ROM
receives binary input and outputs the decimal equivalent. The decimal output of
the decoder is used as the input for the OR gates in ROM.

Read cycle of ROM

ROM uses a diode to connect the lines if the value is 1. If the value is 0, then the
lines are not connected at all.

A diode generally only permits current to flow in one direction and has a forward
breakover threshold that specifies how much current is necessary before the
diode passes it on. The forward breakover voltage in silicon-based devices like
processors and memory chips is about 0.6 volts. A ROM chip can transmit a
charge above the forward breakover along the appropriate column with the
specified row grounded to connect at a specific cell by utilizing the special
qualities of a diode. If a diode is present at that cell, the charge will be carried to
the ground, and the cell will be read as "on" in the binary system (a value of 1).

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The wonderful thing about ROM is that if a cell's value is 0, there is no diode to
connect the column and row at that intersection. As a result, the charge from the
column does not transfer to the row.

The Different Types of ROM

The different types of ROM are presented in the below with regards to their
abbreviated name, history, advantages and disadvantages, and examples.

MROM
The MROM – Mask Read Only Memory – Solid state ROM, the oldest type of ROM
was first introduced in 1965, manufactured by Sylvania, capacity: 256-bit. MROM
Comes programmed into an integrated circuit by its manufacturer. The software
mask is burned into the chip (cannot be changed) hence the name Mask ROM.

Some notable advatanges of the MROM includes but not limited to more reliable
than RAM, easy to test ROM Memory, data stored in ROM is permanent, ROM
memory is cheaper than RAM memory, ROM is static memory, so it does not need
to refresh every time and ROM Memory helps to boot the operating system

Some notable disadvatanges of the MROM includes slower type of memory,

cannot change (modify/delete/overwrite) the data, incorrectly erasing ROM
memory contents will brick the memory.

Instances of the MROM can be seen in Cartridge used in video game consoles,
data stored permanently on personal computers, and other electronic devices.

PROM
The PROM - Programmable Read Only Memory includes UV-ROM, EPROM,
EEPROM. It was first introduced in 1956, manufactured by Arma and was made as
a blank memory. A PROM programmer/burner is required in order to write data
onto a PROM chip. It is also known as a “one-time programamble device” due to
the fact that stored data is unable to be modified.

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One notable advatange of the PROM is that a lot of software available in the
market for programming today, so we don’t depend on hardwiring the chip to
program.

Nonetheless, a disadvantage of this type of ROM is that the data of PROM cannot
be modified or rewrite if any error has occurred.

Instances of the PROM can be seen in digital electronic devices to store

permanent data, usually low-level programs such as firmware or mircrocode.

EPROM
The EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory was Invented by Dov
Frohman, at Intel, in 1971. In 1967, Dawon Kahng and Simon Sze at Bell Labs
proposed that the floating gate of a MOSFET(metal-oxide-semiconductor field-
effect transistor) could be used for the cell of a reprogrammable ROM.

One notable advatange of the EPROM is that it can be erased and reprogrammed
easily (at their time) which advances its effectiveness.

Nonetheless, a disadvantage of this type of ROM is that it Requires UV light to

erase the data and the erasing process is complicated.

EEPROM
The EEPROM - Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-only Memory is
Developed by George Perlegos in 1978, at Intel and was Used as a chip in
computer to store digital data. Initially, EEPROMs were restricted to single-byte
tasks, which made them more slow, however current EEPROMs permit multi-byte
page activities

Some notable advatanges of the EEPROM includes but not limited to: Data can be
erased quickly as it uses electrical signals and can erase all contents or can erase
by particular byte, data stored is non-volatile and retains even if the power is off,
no need of detaching of chip when reprogram.

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Nonetheless, a disadvantage of this type of ROM is that the Data retention
problem (not a perfect insulator andmanufacture provides data retention upto 10
years)- Requires different voltage for reading, writing, erasing contents

Instances of the EEPROM can be seen in Computer BIOS, integrated in

microcontrollers for smart cards and remote keyless systems, and other
electronic devices.

Conclusion and Discussion

The semconductor memory’s prime function is storing data and assist the Central’s processing
unit – CPU to carry out tasks and programs on the computer. The Semiconductor Memory has
1-bit Magnetic Core Storage however it can hold 265 Bits of Memory while being non-
destructive read and a lot quicker than center. With the headway made on the limit of capacity
consistently, the Semiconductor Memory makes certain to show astonishing development later
on. There exists an assortment of kinds of ROM (MROM, PROM, EPROM, EEPROM). Every one
of them possess various benefits and hindrances which would suit various purposes, making its
application eminently multifunctional.

In the near future, the semiconductor memory will be very likely to experience exponential
growth in the medical field, specifically the portable medical devices and the healthcare
equipment. Consequently, the advancements in the medical science field will provide the
semiconductor memory manufactureres many opportunities in AI-intergration and IoT
technologies. Other fields that may impact the expansion includes in-vehicle infotainment
systems, instrument clusters, etc.

Studying this topic has definitely cleared up many of our misconceptions and opened up a
multitude of learning opportunities for us. It has certainly enlightened us on the journey of
widening our personal field of interest’s comprehension.

Acknowledgements and Distribution of Credit

The distribution of credit for each part of this project is given below.

 Organization and Operation of Semiconductor Memory

o 50%: Châu Phan Phương Mai
o 50%: Nguyễn Hoàng Lân
 Block Diagram and Structure of ROM

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 o 100%: Đào Đình Nhật Minh
 Read Cycle of ROM
o 100%: Đặng Trần Phương Nam
 Types of ROM Memory
o 50%: Đào Tuyết Ngân
o 50%: Hoàng Vũ Hải Nam

No matter what the numbers above, we might want to take note of that this
venture was a consequence of very much planned collaboration and that the
commitment of all gathering individuals was fundamental for the culmination of
the undertaking.

References
 What is semiconductor memory, operation of semiconductor memory.
o Book: COMPUTER ORGANIZATION AND ARCHITECTURE DESIGNING FOR
PERFORMANCE EIGHTH EDITION
o Author: William Stallings - Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
 Read Only Memory (ROM) – working, types, applications, advantages & disadvantages
o Author: Arisha Salman
 How ROM works
o Author: Jeff Tyson
 EPROM Full Form
o Site: geeksforgeeks.org 
o Date published: 05 May 2020

 EEPROM Full Form

o Site: geeksforgeeks.org 
o Date published: 30 April 2020

 Difference between EPROM and EEPROM

o Site: geeksforgeeks.org 
o Date published: 14 June 2019

 PROM là gì? Sự khác biệt giữa PROM, EPROM và EEPROM

o Site: fptshop.com.vn 
o Date published: June 2022

 EPROM and EEPROM

o Site: en.wikipedia.org 

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