EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

EMG 2508 Fluid Flow Machinery

Lecture Notes: Fourth Year BSc Marine Engineering

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Purpose

The purpose of this course is to enable the student to;

1. understand types of fluid machinery and their dynamics

2. classify machinery in terms of performance parameters and characteristics

3. have a proper understanding of design, selection and matching of the various

turbomachines

Learning outcomes

At the end of this unit the student should be able to;

1. have a proper understanding of fluid - flow machinery including their

performancecharacteristics

2. apply dimensional analysis to select and match machine-systems characteristics

3. analyze hydrodynamic transmission

Course Outline

Fluid machinery: types; rotor-dynamic and positive displacement. Rotor-dynamic machines;

Centrifugal pumps and compressors. Axial, radial and mixed flow pumps. Turbines; impulse
and reaction turbines. Dimensional analysis and similarity laws related to pumps and
turbines: specific speeds, head flow and power coefficients for pumps and turbines.
Cavitation in centrifugal pumps. Performance parameters and characteristics of pumps and

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

turbines: pump-pipe systems. Hydrodynamic transmission; fluid coupling and torque

converter.

Prerequisites: EMG 2301 Fluid Mechanics II

Prescribed Textbooks

1. Sayers A.T. (1990) Hydraulic and compressible flow turbo-machines, University of

Cape Town.

2. Raghunath H.M., (1987), Fluid mechanics and machinery, CBS publishers.

3. Journal of Fluids Engineering

4. Schilling R., Applications of CFD techniques in fluid-machinery.

5. Greated C. & Cosgrove J. (2002) Optical Methods and Data Processing in Heat and
Fluid Flow, John Wiley and Sons.

Introduction

The most common practical engineering application for fluid mechanics is the design of
fluid machinery. The most numerous types are machines which add energy to the fluid (the
pump family), but also important are those which extract energy (turbines). Both types are
usually connected to a rotating shaft, hence the name turbo machinery. The prefix turbo- is
a Latin word meaning ”spin” or ”whirl”, appropriate for rotating devices.

The pump is the oldest fluid-energy-transfer device known. At least two designs date
before Christ [1]: (1) the undershot-bucket waterwheels, or norias, used in Asia and Africa
(1000 B.C.) and (2) Archimedes screw pump (250 B.C.), still being manufactured today to
handle solid-liquid mixtures. Paddlewheel turbines were used by the Romans in 70 B.C., and
Babylonian windmills date back to 700 B.C.

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Machines which deliver liquids are simply called pumps, but if gases are involved, three
different terms are in use, depending upon the pressure rise achieved. If the pressure rise is
very small (a few inches of water), a gas pump is called a fan; up to 1 atm, it is usually called
a blower; and above 1 atm it is commonly termed a compressor.

In this unit we are going to look at various types of pumps and turbines. Also the
dimensional analysis and similarity laws relating to pumps and turbines are going to be
dealt with. Furthermore, performance parameters and characteristics of pumps and
turbines are going to be looked at. Finally, the unit will deal with the hydrodynamic
transmission by fluid coupling and torque converter.

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Fluid machinery

A fluid machine is a device which converts energy stored by a fluid into mechanical energy
or vice versa. The energy stored by a fluid mass appears in the form of kinetic, potential and
intermolecular energy.

Types of Fluid Machinery

Fluid machinery (add or subtract energy from the fluid) can generally be classified into:
dynamic and positive displacement machines.

In dynamic machines, there is a free passage of fluid between the inlet and outlet of the
machine without any intermittent sealing taking place.

Dynamic pumps simply add momentum to the fluid by means of fast-moving blades or
vanes or certain special designs.

There is no closed volume: The fluid increases momentum while moving through open
passages and then converts its high velocity to a pressure increase by exiting into a diffuser
section.

Dynamic pumps can be classified as either rotodynamic (e.g, centrifugal or radial exit
flow, axial flow, and mixed flow (between radial and axial)) or special designs (e.g, jet
pump or ejector, electromagnetic pumps for liquid metals, and fluidactuated: gas-lift
or hydraulic-ram).

All rotodynamic machines have a rotating part called a runner, impeller or rotor.
Rotodynamic machines will be the subject of this unit. Special design will not be considered
in this class (please refer to turbomachinery books for this particular type of machines).

In positive displacement machines, fluid is drawn or forced into a finite space bounded by
mechanical parts and is then sealed in it by some mechanical means. The fluid is then forced
out or allowed to flow out from the space and the cycle is repeated. Positive displacement

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

pumps consist of reciprocating and rotary types. Examples of reciprocating positive

displacement pumps include: piston or plunger-type pump, and diaphragm-type
pump. Examples of rotary positive displacement pumps include: sliding vane pump,
screw pump, gear pump, lobe pump, e.t.c. Since positive displacement pumps compress
mechanically against a cavity filled with liquid, a common feature is that they develop
immense pressures if the outlet is shut down for any reason. Sturdy construction is
required, and complete shutoff would cause damage if pressure-relief valves were not used.
Design and performance analysis of this particular type of pump (positive displacement
machines) will not be considered in this class.
Comparison of Dynamic and Positive Displacement Pumps

Dynamic Pumps Positive Displacement Pumps

(1) Simple in construction. (1) More complex, consists of several moving parts.
(2) Can operate at high speed and (2) Speed is limited by the higher inertia of the
hence compact. moving parts and the fluid.
(3) Suitable for large volumes of discharge (3) Suitable for fairly low volumes of flow at high
at moderate pressures in a single stage. pressures.
(4) Lower maintenance requirements. (4) Higher maintenance cost.
(5) Provides a continuous constant-speed (5) Flow rate cannot be varied except by changing
the displacement or the speed.
variation of performance, from near maximum
at zero flow (shutoff conditions) to zero at
maximum flow rate.

(6) Effective in handling high-viscosity liquids

(6) Ineffective in handling high-viscosity liquids

(7) They generally need priming (7) They are self-priming for most applications.

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Dynamic pumps

They rotate blades, also called impeller or rotor, which imparts momentum to the fluid.

They’re also called rotodynamic or rotary pumps.

Classified by the manner in which flow exits the pump.

Three main types exist:

1. Centrifugal or radial flow – fluid enters axially (in the same direction as the rotating
shaft direction) in the center of the pump and is discharged radially (tangentially) along
the outer radius of the pump casing.
2. axial flow – fluid enters the pump and leaves the pump axially
3. Mixed flow – is the intermediate between axial and centrifugal pump. Flow enters
axially, not necessarily in the center, but leaves at some angle between radially and
axially.

Figure: Three main categories of dynamic pumps: (a) centrifugal flow, (b) mixedflow, and (c) axial flow.

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

1. Centrifugal Pumps

They can be identified with their snail-shaped casing called the scroll.

They are the most common type

The pump consists of an impeller rotating within a casing

The impeller is the rotating assembly that consists of the shaft, impeller blade and the
impeller shroud.

Consider Fig. 1 for illustration of operation of a typical centrifugal pump.

Figure: Cutaway schematic of a typical centrifugal pump.

Fluid enters axially through the eye (middle section) of the casing, is caught up in the
impeller blades, and is whirled tangentially and radially outward, acquiring both tangential
and radial velocity, until it leaves through all circumferential parts of the impeller into the
diffuser part of the casing. The fluid gains both speed and pressure while passing through
the impeller. The snail shaped, or doughnut-shaped diffuser, or scroll, section of the casing

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

decelerates the fast moving flow and further increasing the pressure (conservation of mass
and energy (kinetic and pressure)). It also combined and directs the flow from all the blades

Three types of centrifugal pumps based on impeller blade geometry; Backward inclined,
radial blades, and forward inclined blades.

Forward inclined blades are the most common.

Analysis of centrifugal pump;

Velocity vectors

Figure: Side view of the simplified centrifugal flow pump

V1, n and V2, n are defined as the average normal (radial) components of velocity at radii r1 and
r2, respectively.

r1 and r2 are the radial locations of the impeller blade inlet and outlet, respectively;
b1and b2 are the axial blade widths at the impeller blade inlet and outlet, respectively.

V1, n and V2, are the average normal components of velocity at radii r1 and r2, respectively.

For conservation of mass flow rate

Let V̇= volumetric flow rate;

Volumetric flow are at the inlet (r1) = volumetric flow rate at the outlet (r2)
𝑉̇ = 2𝜋𝑟1 𝑏1 𝑉1,𝑛 = 2𝜋𝑟2 𝑏2 𝑉2,𝑛
Then

𝑟1 𝑏1
𝑉2,𝑛 = 𝑉1,𝑛
𝑟2 𝑏2

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Consider the following sketch showing velocity components acting on the blade

Figure: Frontal view of the simplified centrifugal flow pump used for elementary analysis of the
velocity vectors

We make the following definitions

𝜷𝟏 - Leading edge angle, the blade angle relative to the reverse tangential direction at radius r1.

𝜷𝟐 Trailing edge angle, the blade angle relative to the reverse tangential direction at radius r2.

The inlet of the blade (at radius r1) moves at tangential velocity 𝜔𝑟1
The outlet of the blade (at radius r1) moves at tangential velocity 𝜔𝑟2
⃗𝑽
⃗ 𝟏,𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 and𝑽
⃗⃗ 𝟐,𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 are the velocity vectors parallel to the blade surface (fluid velocity
relative to the impeller)

⃗ 1is the resultant vector – the absolute fluid velocity at the blade inlet
𝑉

⃗ 2is the resultant vector – the absolute fluid velocity at the blade outlet
𝑉

𝑉1,𝑛 and𝑉2,𝑛 are the normal velocity components

V1, t and V2, t are tangential velocity components

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Now, consider a control volume as shown below,

Figure: Control volume (shaded area) used for angular momentum analysis of a centrifugal pump;

Assume the details of individual blades

Assume that the flow enters the control volume with uniform absolute velocity ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉1 around the
entire circumference at radius 𝑟1and exits with uniform velocity 𝑉2 around the entire
circumference at radius 𝑟2

Only tangential forces causes the rotor rotation, hence producing work

𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒, 𝑇𝑆 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡

𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟1 = 𝜌𝑉̇ 𝑉1,𝑡

𝑇𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟2 = 𝜌𝑉̇ 𝑉2,𝑡

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝜌𝑉̇ 𝑉1,𝑡 𝑟1

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 = 𝜌𝑉̇ 𝑉2,𝑡 𝑟2

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

𝑻𝑺 = 𝝆𝑽 ̇ (𝑽𝟐,𝒕 𝒓𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏,𝒕 𝒓𝟏 ) (Euler turbine equation)

The above equation can be written as;

𝑻𝑺 = 𝝆𝑽 ̇ (𝒓𝟐 𝑽𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∝𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∝𝟏 )

Power

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝜔𝑇

Assume there are no losses in the pump

𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟

𝜔𝑇𝑆 = 𝜌𝜔𝑉̇ (𝑉2,𝑡 𝑟2 − 𝑉1,𝑡 𝑟1 )

𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑉̇

Therefore, for ideal pump performance

𝟏
𝑁𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = (𝝎𝒓𝟐 𝑽𝟐 , 𝒕 − 𝝎𝒓𝟏 𝑽𝟏 , 𝒕)
𝒈

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Example one

A centrifugal blower rotates at 1750 rpm. Air enters theimpeller normal to the blades (𝑖. 𝑒 𝛼1 =
0 ) and exits at an angle of 40° fromradial (𝑖. 𝑒 𝛼2 = 40 ). The inlet radius is r1 = 4.0 cm, and the
inlet blade width b1= 5.2 cm. The outlet radius is r2= 8.0 cm,and the outlet blade width b2= 2.3
cm. The volume flow rate is 0.13 m3/s.
Assuming 100 percent efficiency, calculate the net head produced by this blower in equivalent
millimeters of water column height. Also calculate the required brake horsepower in watts.

Example 2

Consider a centrifugal blower that has a radius of 20 cm and a blade width of 8.2 cm at the
impeller inlet, and a radius of 45 cm and a blade width of 5.6 cm at the outlet.
The blower delivers air at a rate of 0.70 m3/s at a rotational speed of 700 rpm. Assuming the air
to enter the impeller in radial direction and to exit at an angle of 50° from the radial direction,
determine the minimum power consumption of the blower. Take the density of air to be 1.25
kg/m3.
Assgnment

1. Reconsider example 2, for the specified flow rate, investigate the effect of discharge
angle 𝛼1 on the minimum power input requirements. Assume the air to enter the
impeller in the radial direction (𝛼1 =0°), and vary 𝛼1 from 0° to 85° in increments of
5°. Plot the variation of power input versus 𝛼1 , and discuss your results.

Problems

1. A centrifugal pump delivers 4000 gal/min of water at 20°C with a shaft rotating at 1750
rpm. Neglect losses. If r1 = 6 in, r2 = 14 in, b1 = b2 =1.75 in, V1,t=10 ft/s, and Vt,2=110
ft/s, compute the absolute velocities (a) V1 and (b) V2, and (c) the ideal horsepower
required.

2. Water enters the impeller of a centrifugal pump radially at a rate of 80 cfm (cubic feet per
minute) when the shaft is rotating at 500 rpm. The tangential component of absolute

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

velocity of water at the exit of the 2-ft outer diameter impeller is 180 ft/s. Determine the
torque applied to the impeller.

3. The impeller of a centrifugal pump has inner and outer diameters of 13 and 30
cm, respectively, and a flow rate of 0.15 m3/s at a rotational speed of 1200 rpm.
The blade width of the impeller is 8 cm at the inlet and 3.5 cm at the outlet. If
water enters the impeller in the radial direction and exits at an angle of 60° from
the radial direction, determine the minimum power requirement for the pump.

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

To design the shape of impeller blades, we should obtain an expression for tangential velocities
components V1, t and V2, t in terms of blade angles 𝜷𝟏 and𝜷𝟐 .

Consider the following velocity triangle

Vb
V2, t

𝜷𝟐
V2, n
V2,r
V2

Velocity diagram for the leading edge of the blade (2)

𝑉22 = 𝑉2,𝑟
2
+ 𝑉𝑏2 − 2𝑉2,𝑟 𝑉𝑏 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜷𝟐

But Vb is the blade velocity at radius r2

𝑉𝑏 = 𝝎𝒓𝟐
𝝎𝒓𝟐 − 𝑉2,𝑡 = 𝑉2,𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜷𝟐

Therefore

1
𝜔𝑟2 𝑉2,𝑡 = 2 (𝑉22 − 𝑉2,𝑟
2
+ 𝜔2 𝑟22 ) -----------------------------------------------------------------------(1)

Equation (1) can be derived for the leading edge (section 1) of the blade at radius r1

We know that

1
𝑁𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 = 𝑔 (𝜔𝑟2 𝑉2 , 𝑡 − 𝜔𝑟1 𝑉1 , 𝑡)------------------------------------------------------------------(2)

Substitute equation (1) into (2)

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

1
𝐻= [(𝑉22 − 𝑉12 ) + (𝜔2 𝑟22 − 𝜔2 𝑟12 ) − (𝑉2,𝑟
2 2
− 𝑉1,𝑟 )]-------------------------------------------(3)
2𝑔

To design for maximum head, we make 𝜔𝑟1 𝑉1,𝑡 = 0 in equation (2) by setting 𝑉1,𝑡 = 0

This means that we should select the blade inlet angle b1 such that the flow into the impeller
blade is in the radial direction from an absolute reference frame
𝑖. 𝑒. 𝑉1,𝑛 = 𝑉1
Now, consider the velocity diagram at the blade inlet

Figure: Velocity diagram at blade inlet

From the figure above,

𝑉1,𝑛
𝑉1,𝑡 = 𝜔𝑟1 −
tan 𝛽1
Similarly

𝑉2,𝑛
𝑉2,𝑡 = 𝜔𝑟2 −
tan 𝛽2
For maximum head

𝑉1,𝑡 = 0

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Therefore,

𝑉
𝜔𝑟1 = tan1,𝑛𝛽 --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------(4)
1

Volumetric flow rate,

𝑉̇ = 2𝜋𝑟1 𝑏1 𝑉1,𝑛
The above equation can be written in terms of equation 4 to become,
𝑽̇ = 𝟐𝝅𝒃𝟏 𝝎𝒓𝟐𝟏 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜷𝟏

Example 5
A centrifugal pump is being designed to pump liquid refrigerant R-134a at room temperature and
atmospheric pressure. The impeller inlet and outlet radii are r1 = 100 and r2 = 180 mm. The
impeller inlet and outlet widths are b1 = 50 mm and b2 = 30mm. The pump is to deliver 0.25 m3/s
of the liquid at a net head of 14.5 m when the impeller rotates at 1720 rpm. Calculate
(a) The power required by the pump,
(b) The inlet and exit blade angles, (𝜷𝟏 and𝜷𝟐 ). Properties for refrigerant R-134a at
T = 200C: vf = 0.0008157 m3/kg. Note that density = 1/vf

Axial flow pumps

It was indicated earlier that in an axial fan, fluid enters the pump axially and leaves the pump in
the same direction.

Axial pumps do not utilize so-called centrifugal forces. Instead, the impeller blades behave more
like the wing of an airplane (Fig. a), producing lift by changing the momentum of the fluid as
they rotate. The rotor of a helicopter, for example, is a type of axial-flowpump. The lift force on
the blade is caused by pressure differences between the topand bottom surfaces of the blade, and
the change in flow direction leads to downwash (acolumn of descending air) through the rotor
plane.

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

A helicopter rotor and the airplane propeller are examples of open axial-flow fans, since there is
no duct or casing around the tips of the blades.
The small cooling fan inside your computer is typically an axial-flow fan and is an example of a
ducted axial-flow fan. The casing around the house fan also acts as a short duct, which helps to
direct the flow and eliminate some losses at the blade tips.

Figure a: The axial pump behave like the wing of an airplane. The air is turned downward by the
wing as it generate lift force

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Figure: Axial-flow machines may be open or ducted: (a) a propeller is an open fan, and (b) a
computer cooling fan is a ducted fan.
Consider now an axial flow machine, as shown in the figure shown below.

Figure: Axial flow impeller

For axial flow machine,

𝑉̇ = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝑉𝑛 𝜋 (𝑅22 − 𝑅12 )
The following figure shows velocity triangles at the inlet and at the outlet of an axial flow
machine

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Figure: (a) Outlet velocity triangle and (b) Inlet velocity triangle

The following analysis applies to any radius r drawn from the center of the hub.
The important difference between the axial flow machine and the centrifugal one is that, in the
axial flow pump, the flow is axial, the changes from inlet to outlet take place at the same radius
and, hence,
Velocity of the blade at radius r between the inlet and outlet = U= ωr

Also, since the flow area is the same at inlet and outlet,

𝑉1,𝑛 = 𝑉2,𝑛 = 𝑉𝑛
And the volumetric flow rate is obtained from,

𝑉̇ = 𝐴𝑉1,𝑛 = 𝐴𝑉2,𝑛

It is assumed that,

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

α1 = 0°, V1,t= 0, V1= V1,n

From the outlet velocity triangle,

(𝑈 − 𝑉2,𝑡 )
cot 𝛽2 =
𝑉𝑛
So that,
𝑉2,𝑡 = 𝑈 − 𝑉𝑛 cot 𝛽2

1
𝑁𝑒𝑡 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐻 = (𝑈 𝑉 )
𝑔 2,𝑡 2,𝑡
Therefore,
𝑈
𝐻= (𝑈 − 𝑉𝑛 cot 𝛽2 )
𝑔

This equation applies to any particular radius r and is not necessarily constant over the range
from R1 to R2.

Example 6
An axial flow fan has a hub diameter of 1.50 m and a tip diameter of 2.0 m. It rotates at 18 rad s−1
and, when handling 5.0 m3 s−1 of air, develops a theoretical head equivalent to 17 mm of water.
Determine the blade outlet and inlet angles at the hub and at the tip. Assume that the velocity of
flow is independent of radius and that the energy transfer per unit length of blade (δr) is constant.
Take the density of air as 1.2 kgm−3 and the density of water as 1000 kgm−3.

Example 7
An axial flow pump operates at 500 rpm. The outer diameter of the impeller is 750 mm and the
hub diameter is 400 mm. At the mean blade radius, the inlet blade angle is 12° and the outlet
blade angle is 15°, both measured with respect to the plane of impeller rotation. Sketch the

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

corresponding velocity diagrams at inlet and outlet and estimate from them (a) the head generated
by the pump, (b) the rate of flow through the pump, (c) the shaft power consumed by the pump.

Mixed Flow Pumps

The flow in these kind of pumps is partly axial and partly radial. We have seen from the previous
section that the modern centrifugal pump is a formidable device, able to deliver very high heads
and low flow rates with excellent efficiency. It can match many system requirements. But
basically the centrifugal pump is a high-head, low flow machine, whereas there are many
applications requiring low head and high discharge. This head flow rate combination typically
yields specific speeds that are less than approximately axial pumps have low head and high
discharge. Axial pumps usually have specific speed in excess of 3.3.
There are other dynamic-pump designs which do provide low head and high discharge.
This is done by allowing the flow to pass through the impeller with an axial-flow component and
less centrifugal component. The passages can be opened up to the increased flow rate with very
little size increase, but the drop in radial outlet velocity decreases the head produced. These are
the mixed-flow (part radial, part axial) and axial flow (propeller-type) families of dynamic pump.
Some vane designs are sketched in Fig. 10. Mixed flow pumps operate in the specific speed range
1.5 < Ns < 3.3.
The figure indicate that as we proceed from centrifugal pump to the mixed flow pump to the axial
flow pump, the specific speed increases, the head decreases, the peed increases, the impeller
diameter decreases, and the eye diameter increases.

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Positive-Displacement Pumps
There exist numerous designs for positive-displacement pumps. In each design, fluid is sucked
into an expanding volume and then pushed along as that volume contracts

Some designs are complex while other are simple.

The following figures show different designs for positive displacement pumps.

(a) (c)
(b)

Figure pdp: (a) lobe pump, using rotating cams, (b) gear pump, using interlocking gears, (c)
screw pump

To illustrate the operation of a positive-displacement pump, we sketch four phases of half of a

cycle of a simple axial pump with two lobes on each rotor as shown below.

23
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Figure lobe: Four phases (one-eighth of a turn apart) in the operation of a two-lobe rotary pump, a
type of positive displacement pump.
The light colored region represents a chunk of fluid pushed through the top rotor, while the dark
colored region represents a chunk of fluid pushed through the bottom rotor, which rotates in the
opposite direction.
Flow is from left to right.

The two rotors are synchronized by an external gear box so as to rotate at the same angular speed,
but in opposite directions. In the diagram, the top rotor turns clockwise and the bottom rotor turns
counterclockwise, sucking in fluid from the left and discharging it to the right.

Analysis of positive-displacement pumps is straightforward.

From the geometry of the pump, we calculate the closed volume (Vclosed) that isfilled (and
expelled) for every n rotations of the shaft. Volume flow rate is then equal to rotation rate 𝑛̇ times
Vclosed divided by n,

𝑉𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑉̇ = 𝑛̇ ×
𝑛
Example

Consider the gear pump of Figure pdp (b). Suppose the volume of fluid confined between two
gear teeth is0.350 cm3. How much fluid volume is pumped per rotation?

Solution
From Figure pdp b, number of teeth is 12 teeth per gear. Thus, for each 3600 rotation of each gear
(n = 1 rotation),
12*(0.350 cm3) of fluid is pumped. Since there are two gears, the total volume of fluid pumped
per rotation is 2(12)(0.350 cm3) = 8.40 cm3

Example
A two-lobe rotary positive-displacement pump moves 0.45 cm3 of SAE 30 motor oil in each lobe.
Calculate the volume flow rate of oil for the case where N = 900 rpm.

24
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Pump Cavitation and Net Positive Suction Head

If at any point in the flow the pressure in the liquid is reduced to its vapour pressure Pv, the liquid
will then will boil at that point and bubbles of vapour will form. As the fluid flows into a region
of higher pressure the bubbles of vapour will suddenly condense or collapse. This action produces
very high dynamic pressure upon the adjacent solid walls and since the action is continuous and
has a high frequency the material in that zone will be damaged. Turbine runners and pump
impellers are often severely damaged by such action. The process is called cavitation and the
damage is called cavitation damage. In order to avoid cavitation, the absolute pressure at all
points should be above the vapour pressure.
In the case of pumps such damage may occur at the suction side of the pump, where the absolute
pressure is generally below atmospheric level. It is this collapse of the bubbles that is undesirable,
since it causes noise, vibration, reduced efficiency, and also, damage to the impeller blades.
Repeated bubble collapse near a blade surface leads to pitting or erosion of the blade and
eventually catastrophic blade failure.

To avoid cavitation, we must ensure that the local pressure everywhere inside the pump stays above
the vapor pressure. Since pressure is most easily measured (or estimated) at the inlet of the pump,
cavitation criteria are typically specified at the pump inlet. It is useful to employ a flow parameter
called net positive suction head (NPSH), defined as the difference between the pump’s inlet
stagnation pressure head and the vapor pressure head,

𝑃 𝑉2 𝑃
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻 = (𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔) − 𝜌𝑔𝑣 ---------------------------------------------1
𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡

Pumps are tested for cavitation by varying the volume flow rate and inlet pressure in a controlled
manner. At a given flow rate and liquid temperature, the pressure at the pump inlet is slowly lowered
until cavitation occurs somewhere inside the pump. The value of NPSH is calculated using eqn 1 and
is recorded at this operating condition. The process is repeated at several other flow rates, and then
a performance parameter called the required net positive suction head (NPSHrequired) is published.
NPSHrequired is defined as the minimum NPSH necessary to avoid cavitation in the pump.

The measured value of NPSHrequired varies with volume flow rate, and therefore NPSHrequired is often
plotted on the same pump performance curve as net head (Fig. 1).

25
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Fig 1: Typical pump performance curve of a pump

Another NPHS is the available NPSH (NPSHA) It represent the head that actually occurs for a
particular flow system. This value can be determined experimentally or calculated if the system
parameters are known

In order to ensure that a pump does not cavitate, the actual or available NPSH must be greater
than NPSHrequired. It is important to note that the value of NPSH varies not only with flow rate,
but also with liquid temperature, since Pv is a function of temperature. The figure below shows
the maximum volumetric flow rate beyond which cavitation will occur.

Consider the example below.

26
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

The energy equation applied between the free liquid surface and a point on the suction side of the
pump near the impeller inlet.

𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑃𝑆 𝑉𝑠2
− 𝑍1 = + + ℎ𝐿 ℎ𝐿 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔

𝑃𝑆 𝑉𝑠2 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚
+ = − 𝑍1 − ℎ𝐿
𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝑃_𝑉
Thus 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 = − 𝑍1 − ℎ𝐿 − ------------x
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔

For this calculation, absolute pressures are normally used since the vapor pressure is usually
specified as an absolute pressure. For proper operation of a pump, it is necessary that:
𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝐴 ≥ 𝑁𝑃𝑆𝐻𝑅

It is noted from Eq. (x) that as the height of the pump impeller above the fluid surface,
z1, is increased, the NPSHA is decreased. Therefore, there is some critical value for z1, above
which the pump cannot operate without cavitation. The specific value dependson the head losses

27
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

and the value of the vapor pressure. It is further noted that if the supply tank or reservoir is above
the pump, z1 will be negative in Eq. (x), and the NPSHA will increase as this height is increased.

Assignment

Turbines
Turbines have been used for a long time to convert freely available energy from rivers and wind
into useful mechanical work, usually through a rotating shaft. Whereas the rotating part of a
pump is called the impeller, the rotating part of a turbine is called the runner. When the working
fluid is water, the fluid machines are called hydraulic turbines or hydroturbines. When the
working fluid is air, and energy is extracted from the wind, the machine is called a wind turbine.
In coal or nuclear power plants, the working fluid is usually steam; hence, the turbomachines that
convert energy from the steam into mechanical energy of a rotating shaft are called steam
turbines.
When compressible gas is used as the working fluid, the word gas turbine is used.
Turbines are classified into two broad categories, positive displacement and dynamic.
Positive-displacement turbines are small devices used for volume flow measurement, while
dynamic turbines are commonly used for power production.

Dynamic turbines

There are two basic types of dynamic turbine—impulse and reaction.

Impulse turbine
In an impulse turbine, the fluid is sent through a nozzle so that most of its available energy is
converted into kinetic energy.
The high speed jet then impinges on bucket-shaped vanes that transfer energy to the turbine
shaft, as shown in the figure below.

28
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Figure: Pelton wheel type impulse turbine, (a) Side view, absolute reference frame, and
(b) Bottom view of a cross section of bucket n, rotating reference frame.

Figure: Pelton wheel bucket design

29
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Figure: A view from the bottom of an operating Pelton wheel illustrating the splitting and turning
of the water jet in the bucket. The water jet enters from the left, and the Pelton wheel is turning to
the right.

The modern and most efficient type of impulse turbine was invented by Lester A. Pelton (1829–
1908) in 1878, and the rotating wheel is now called a Pelton wheel.
The buckets of a Pelton wheel are designed so as to split the flow into half, and turn the flow
nearly 180° around (with respect to a frame of reference moving with the bucket)

We analyze the power output of a Pelton wheel turbine by using the Euler turbomachine
equation.

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 = 𝜔𝑇𝑆 = 𝜌𝜔𝑉̇ (𝑉2,𝑡 𝑟2 − 𝑉1,𝑡 𝑟1 )

Since this is an energy-producing rather than an energy-absorbing device, for turbines, it is

conventional to define point 2 as the inlet and point 1 as the outlet.

Since both the size of the bucket and the diameter of the water jet are small compared to the
wheel radius, we take a radius of the pelton wheel equal to r.
Assume that the water is turned through angle β without losing any speed;in the relative frame of
reference moving with the bucket, the relative exit speed is thus Vj - ωr (the same as the relative
inlet speed)
The tangential component of velocity at the inlet, V2, t, is simply the jet speed itself, Vj.

To calculate the tangential component of velocity at the outlet, V1, t, Consider the following
velocity diagram at the outlet

30
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Figure: Velocity diagram at the outlet,

Noting that sin (β - 90°) = -cos β,

V1, t = rω+ (Vj -rω) cos β

Substituting in the equation for shaft power,

𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡, 𝐸𝑆 = 𝜔𝑇𝑆 = 𝜌𝑟𝜔𝑉̇ (𝑉𝑗 − [𝑟𝜔 + (𝑉𝑗 − 𝑟𝜔)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽])

This simplifies to

𝐸𝑆 = 𝜔𝑇𝑆 = 𝜌𝑟𝜔𝑉̇ (𝑉𝑗 − 𝑟𝜔)(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽)-------------------------------------------------------5

From the above equation, the shaft power output is zero if rω = 0 (wheel not turning at all).
Also shaft power output is zero if rω=Vj (bucket moving at the jet speed).
Somewhere in between these two extremes lies the optimum wheel speed.

The value of rω for maximum power is obtained by differentiating Eq. 5 with respect to ω and
equating it to zero, i.e.
𝑑{𝐸𝑆 }
=0
𝑑𝜔
It can be shown that, the theoretical maximum power achievable by a Pelton turbine occurs when
the wheel rotates at
𝑉
𝜔 = 2𝑟𝑗 (Students to show this)I.e. when the bucket is moving at half the jet speed

31
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Example

A Pelton wheel is used to produce hydroelectric power. The average radius of the wheel is 1.83
m, and the jetvelocity is 102 m/s from a nozzle of exit diameter equal to 10.0 cm. The turning
angle of the buckets is β = 165°.
(a) Calculate the volume flow rate through the turbine in m3/s. (b) What is the optimum rotation
rate (in rpm) of the wheel (for maximum power)?
(c) Calculate the output shaft power in MW if the efficiency of the turbine is 82 percent.

Example

In a Pelton wheel the diameter of the bucket circle is 2 m and the deflecting angle of the bucket is
162°. The jet is of 165mm diameter, the pressure behind the nozzle is 1000kN /m2 and the wheel
rotates at 320 rpm. Neglecting friction, find the power developed by the wheel and the hydraulic
efficiency. (701 Kw, 73.3 percent)

32
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Reaction Turbines

The other main type of energy-producing hydroturbine is the reaction turbine, which consists of
fixed guide vanes called stay vanes, adjustable guide vanes called wicket gates, and rotating
blades called runner blades
Flow enters tangentially at high pressure, is turned toward the runner by the stay vanes as it
moves along the spiral casing or volute, and then passes through the wicket gates with a large
tangential velocity component.
Momentum is exchanged between the fluid and the runner as the runner rotates, and there is a
large pressure drop. Unlike the impulse turbine, the water completely fills the casing of a reaction
turbine. For this reason, a reaction turbine generally produces more power than an impulse
turbine of the same diameter, net head, and volume flow rate. The angle of the wicket gates is
adjustable so as to control the volume flow rate through the runner.
There are two main types of reaction turbine—Francis and Kaplan. The
Francis turbine is somewhat similar in geometry to a centrifugal, but with the flow in the
opposite direction.
In contrast, the Kaplan turbine is somewhat like an axial-flow fan running backward.

33
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Just like pumps are classified according to the angle at which the flow exits the impeller blade—
centrifugal (radial), mixed flow, or axial, in a similar but reversed manner, we classify reaction
turbines according to the angle that the flow enters the runner. If the flow enters the runner
radially, the turbine is called a Francis radial-flow turbine. If the flow enters the runner at some
angle between radial and axial the turbine is called a Francis mixed-flow turbine.

Fig: reaction turbines: (a) Francis radial flow (b) Francis mixed flow

The runner of a Francis The runner of a Francis

radial-flow mixed-flow
turbine turbine
radial-flow
turbine
Consider a typical hydroelectric dam that utilizes Francis reaction turbines to generate electricity.
The overall or gross head Hgross is defined as the elevation difference between the reservoir
surface upstream of the dam and the surface of the water exiting the dam,
𝐻gross = 𝑧𝐴 – 𝑧𝐸.

34
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

If there were no irreversible losses anywhere in the system, the maximum amount of power that
could be generated per turbine would be
̇ = 𝜌𝑔 𝑉̇ 𝐻𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠
𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙

But since there are losses within the system, actual power is lower than Ideal

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑊̇ = 𝑏ℎ𝑝

Turbine efficiency is based on net head H rather than gross head Hgross.
Turbine efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake horsepower output (actual turbine output shaft
power) to water horsepower (power extracted from the water flowing through the turbine)

𝑊̇𝑆ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡 𝑏ℎ𝑝
𝜂𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 = =
𝑊̇ 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝜌𝑔𝐻𝑉̇
Where,

𝐻 = 𝐸𝐺𝐿𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝐺𝐿𝑜𝑢𝑡

EGL=Energy grade line

35
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Consider the top view of the Francis turbine.

Velocity vectors are drawn in the figure below.

Figure: Inlet velocity diagram

From the velocity diagram,

𝑉2,𝑛
𝑉2,𝑡 = 𝜔𝑟2 −
tan 𝛽2

Figure: Inlet velocity diagram

From the velocity diagram,

𝑉1,𝑛
𝑉1,𝑡 = 𝜔𝑟1 −
tan 𝛽1

Example

A retrofit Francis radial-flow hydroturbine is being designed to replace an old turbine in a

hydroelectric dam. The new turbine must meet the following design restrictions in order to
properly couple with the existing setup: The runner inlet radius is r2= 2.50 m and its outlet radius
is r1 =1.77 m. The runner blade widths are b2 = 0.914 m and b1= 2.62 m at the inlet and outlet,

36
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

respectively. The runner must rotate at n = 120 rpm to turn the 60-Hz electric generator. The
wicket gates turn the flow by angle α2= 33° from radial at the runner inlet, and the flow at the
runner outlet is to have angle α2 = 10° from radial for proper flow through the draft tube. The
volume flow rate at design conditions is 599 m3/s, and the gross head provided by the dam is
Hgross = 92.4 m. Calculate the inlet and outlet runner blade angles β2 and β1 , respectively, and
predict the power output and required net head if irreversible losses are neglected.

Example

A Francis radial-flow hydroturbine is being designed with the following dimensions: r2 = 2.00 m,
r1 = 1.42 m, b2= 0.731 m, and b1 = 2.20 m. The runner rotates at n = 180 rpm. The wicket gates
turn the flow by angle α2 = 30°from radial (figure below) at the runner inlet, and the flow at the
runner outlet is at angle α1 = 10° from radial. The volume flow rate at design conditions is 340
m3/s, and the gross head provided by the dam is Hgross = 90.0 m. For the preliminary design,
irreversible losses are neglected. Calculate the inlet and outlet runner blade angles β2 and β1,
respectively, and predict the power output (MW) and required net head (m).Is the design
feasible?
(β2=66.2 and β1=36.1, Power = 246MW, H=73.9m)

37
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Dimensional Analysis and Similarity Laws

Dimensional analysis is a method for reducing the number and complexity of experimental
variables which affect a given physical phenomenon, by using a sort of compacting technique.

Using dimensional analysis, it becomes possible to predict the performance of one machine from
the results of a geometrically similar machine.
Repeating variable method is applied to the relationship between dependent and independent
variables.

Consider the pump shown below,

Figure: parameters affecting rotodynamic machine

Let W be the work done by this rotodynamic machine per unit mass

By definition,

𝑊 = 𝑔𝐻

W and bhp are functions of the following independent variables

𝑊 = 𝑔𝐻 = 𝑓1 (𝑉̇ , 𝐷, 𝜀, 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝜔)
And

𝑏ℎ𝑝 = 𝑓2 (𝑉̇ , 𝐷, 𝜀, 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝜔)
Where

𝑉̇ = Volume flow rate, D = diameter of the impeller blades, 𝜀 = blade surface roughness height,
𝜔 = Impeller rotational speed, 𝜌 = fluid density, 𝜇 = viscosity

38
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

We apply method of repeating variables to obtain dimensionless parameters

Set 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜔 as the repeating parameters

We use Pi (π) theorem method to obtain Pi’s

Noting that 𝐾 = 𝑛 − 𝑗 = 7 − 3 = 4
Therefore, the number of Pis = 4
The following steps can be used

Determination of pi (π) Groups

The following are steps used in determination of π groups:

1. List all the parameters that influence the phenomenon concerned. There are normally three
types of parameters in fluid flow; fluid properties, flow geometry, and flow parameters.
2. Select a set of primary dimensions. The most commonly used sets are MLT (mass, length, and
time) system, FLT (force, length and time) system
3. List the dimensions of all parameters in terms of the chosen set.
4. Select from the list of parameters a set of repeating parameters equal to the number of primary
dimensions.
5. Set up a dimensional equation with the repeating set and one of the remaining parameters, in
turn to obtain n-m such equations, to determine n-m number of π terms.
6. Check whether π terms obtained are dimensionless.

Work done per unit mass

𝑔𝐻 = 𝑓1 (𝑉̇ , 𝐷, 𝜀, 𝜇, 𝜌, 𝜔)
List all units for all the variables in MLT system,

gH 𝑉̇ 𝐷 𝜀 𝜇 𝜌 𝜔

𝐿2 𝑇 −2 𝐿3 𝑇 −1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝑀1 𝐿−3 𝑇 −1

The following π’s are obtained

For 𝜋1 ………….

𝜋1 = 𝑔𝐻(𝐷)𝑎1 (𝜌)𝑏1 (𝜔)𝑐1

𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 0 = 𝐿2 𝑇 −2 (𝐿1 )𝑎1 (𝑀1 𝐿−3 )𝑏1 (𝑇 −1 )𝑐1

b1=0, a1=-2, c1=-2

39
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

𝑔𝐻
Therefore 𝜋1 = 𝑔𝐻𝐷−2 𝜔−2 =
𝐷 2 𝜔2

𝑔𝐻 𝑉̇ 𝜔𝜌𝐷 2 𝜀
𝜋1 = 𝜔2 𝐷2, 𝜋2 = 𝜔𝐷3 , 𝜋3 = , 𝜋4 = 𝐷
𝜇

Therefore,
𝑔𝐻 𝑉̇ 𝜇 𝜀
= 𝑓1 ( , , ) − − − − − − − − − − − −(6)
𝜔 2 𝐷2 𝜔𝐷3 𝜔𝜌𝐷2 𝐷
Similarly, for bhp,

𝑏ℎ𝑝 𝑉̇ 𝜇 𝜀
3 5
= 𝑓2 ( 3
, 2
, ) − − − − − − − − − − − (7)
𝜌𝜔 𝐷 𝜔𝐷 𝜔𝜌𝐷 𝐷

bhp 𝑉̇ 𝐷 𝜀 𝜇 𝜌 𝜔

𝑀1 𝐿2 𝑇 −3 𝑀3 𝑇 −1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝑀1 𝐿−1 𝑇 −1 𝑀1 𝐿−3 𝑇 −1

From the above equations (6,7)the following pump parameters can be obtained and named as
below,

𝑔𝐻
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝐻 =
𝜔 2 𝐷2

𝑉̇
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑄 =
𝜔𝐷3
𝑏ℎ𝑝
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑃 =
𝜌𝜔 3 𝐷5
𝜀
𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐾 =
𝐷

𝜔𝜌𝐷2
𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

Equation (6, 7) can be interpreted as follows;

Consider two pumps A and b which are geometrically similar (i.e. A is proportional to B),

40
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Figure: geometrically similar pumps. If all the dimensionless pump parameters of pump A are
equivalent to those of pump B, the two pumps are dynamically similar.

Independent πs are equal to each other. Mathematically;

𝐶𝑄 𝐴 = 𝐶𝑄 𝐵, 𝑅𝑒 𝐴 = 𝑅𝑒 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾𝐴 = 𝐾𝐵
If that is the case, dependent variables are equal as well;

𝐶𝑃 𝐴 = 𝐶𝑃 𝐵
𝜀
For many practical problems, effects of 𝑅𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷can be neglected

Therefore equations 6,7 becomes

𝐶𝐻 = 𝑓1 (𝐶𝑄 )
And
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑓2 (𝐶𝑄 )
Pump efficiency,

𝜌𝑉̇ (𝑔𝐻)
𝜂𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 =
𝑏ℎ𝑝
Which can be written as
𝜌(𝜔𝐷3 𝐶𝑄 )(𝜔2 𝐷2 𝐶𝐻 ) 𝐶𝑄 𝐶𝐻
=
𝜌𝜔 3 𝐷5 𝐶𝑃 𝐶𝑃

41
EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Pump specific speed

Another useful dimensionless parameter called pump specific speed (NSp) is formed by a
combination of parameters CQ and CH: this speed is useful when selecting a pump. Pump
specific speed is used to characterize the operation of a pump at its optimum conditions (best
efficiency point) and is useful for preliminary pump selection.
Nsp can be formed by combining CQ and CH

0.5
𝑉̇
𝐶𝑄0.5 (𝜔𝐷3 ) ̇
𝜔𝑉 0.5
𝑝𝑢𝑚𝑝 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑁𝑆𝑃 = = 0.75 =
𝐶𝐻0.75 𝑔𝐻 (𝑔𝐻)0.75
(𝜔2 𝐷2 )

Affinity laws / similarity rules

Similarity relationships for two similar pumps A and B can be summarized in ratios as follows;

1. Volume flow rate

𝑉𝐵̇ 𝜔𝐵 𝐷𝐵 3
= ( ) − − − − − − − − − − − (𝑎)
𝑉𝐴̇ 𝜔𝐴 𝐷𝐴
2. Head
𝐻𝐵 𝜔𝐵 2 𝐷𝐵 2
= ( ) ( ) − − − − − − − − − −(𝑏)
𝐻𝐴 𝜔𝐴 𝐷𝐴
3. Power

𝑏ℎ𝑝𝐵 𝜌𝐵 𝜔𝐵 3 𝐷𝐵 5
= ( ) ( ) − − − − − − − − − −(𝑐)
𝑏ℎ𝑝𝐴 𝜌𝐴 𝜔𝐴 𝐷𝐴

Equations a,b,c applies to both pumps and turbines

Example 1

A fluid Professor uses a small closed-loop water tunnel to perform flow visualization research.
He would like to double the water speed in the test section of the tunnel and realizes that the least
expensive way to do this is to double the rotational speed of the flow pump. What he doesn't
realize is how much more powerful the new electric motor will need to be. If the Professor
doubles the flow speed, by approximately what factor will the motor power need to be increased?

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Example 2

A 20 cm diameter centrifugal pump operating at 1200 rpm is geometrically similar to the 30-cm
diameter pump which has the following performance characteristics while operating at 1000 rpm
and for peak efficiency: CQ = 0.0625, CH = 0.19, and CP = 0.014. The working fluid is water at
200C. For peak efficiency, determine the following parameters for the smaller pump.

(i) Discharge,
(ii) Actual head rise,
(iii) The shaft power.

Example 3
In a test on a centrifugal fan it was found that the discharge was 2.75m3 s−1and the total pressure
63.5 mm water column. The shaft power was 1.7 kW. If a geometrically similar fan having
dimensions 25 per cent smaller but twice the rotational speed was used, calculate the discharge,
pressure generated and shaft power required. The air conditions are the same in both cases. [2.32
m3 s−1, 142.9 mm H2O, 3.2 kW]]

Tutorial Question

1. A one-fifth scale model of a water turbine is tested in a laboratory. The diameter of the
model is 8.0 cm, its volume flow rate is 17.0 m3/h, it spins at 1500 rpm, and it operates
with a net head of 15.0 m. At its best efficiency point, it delivers 450 W of shaft power.
Calculate the efficiency of the model turbine. Answers: 64.9%
2. The prototype turbine corresponding to the one fifth scale model turbine discussed in
Prob. 1 (above) is to operate across a net head of 50 m. Determine the appropriate rpm
and volume flow rate for best efficiency. Predict the brake horsepower output of the
prototype turbine, assuming exact geometric similarity. (548 rpm, 776 m3 /hr, 68,500 W)

TURBINE SCALING LAWS

Dimensionless Turbine Parameters

We define dimensionless groups (Pi groups) for turbines in much the same way as we did for
pumps. Neglecting Reynolds number and roughness effects, we deal with the same dimensional
variables:
𝑔𝐻, 𝑉̇ , 𝐷, 𝜌, 𝜔, 𝑏ℎ𝑝 as illustrated in Figure below.
Dimensional analysis is identical whether analyzing a pump or a turbine, except for the fact that
for the efficiency.

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Figure: The main variables used for dimensional analysis of a turbine.

Dimensionless turbine parameters:

𝑔𝐻
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝐻 =
𝜔 2 𝐷2

𝑉̇
𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑄 =
𝜔𝐷3
𝑏ℎ𝑝
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑃 =
𝜌𝜔 3 𝐷5
For turbine;

𝐶𝑃
𝜂𝑇𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒 =
𝐶𝑄 𝐶𝐻

The affinity laws (Eqs. a,b,c) can be applied to turbines as well as to pumps, allowing us to scale
turbines up or down in size. We also use the affinity laws to predict the performance of a given
turbine operating at different speeds and flow rates in the same way as we did previously for
pumps.

Turbine specific speed

Pump specific speed (NSp) is defined based on CQ and CH. We could use the same definition of
specific speed for turbine but we use CP rather than CQ for turbines. The turbine specific speed
(NSt) is defined in terms of CP and CH, thus;

𝑏ℎ𝑝 1/2
1/2 (𝜌𝜔3 𝐷5 )
𝐶𝑝 𝜔(𝑏ℎ𝑝)1/2
𝑁𝑆𝑡 = 5/4
= 5/4
= 0.5
𝐶𝐻 𝑔𝐻 𝜌 (𝑔𝐻)5/4
(𝜔 2 𝐷 2 )

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Example
A Francis turbine is being designed for a hydroelectric dam. Instead of starting from scratch, the engineers
decide to geometrically scale up a previously designed hydroturbine that has an excellent performance
history. The existing turbine (turbine A) has diameter DA = 2.05 m, and spins at NA= 120rpm, At its best
efficiency point, 𝑉𝐴̇ = 350𝑚3 /𝑠, HA = 75.0 m of water, and 𝑏ℎ𝑝𝐴 = 242 MW. The new turbine (turbine
B) is for a larger facility. Its generator will spin at the same speed (120 rpm), but its net head will be
higher (HB = 104 m). Calculate the diameter of the new turbine such that it operates most efficiently. Also
calculate 𝑉𝐵 and 𝑏ℎ𝑝𝐵

(2.41 m, 572 m3/s, 548 MW)

After graduation, you go to work for a pump manufacturing company. One of your company’s best-selling
products is a water pump, which we shall call pump A. Its impeller diameter is DA = 6.0 cm, and its
performance data when operating at NA = 1725 rpm (ωA = 180.6 rad/s) are shown in Table below. The
marketing research department is recommending that the company design a new product, namely, a larger
pump (which we shall call pump B) that will be used to pump liquid refrigerant R-134a at room
temperature. The pump is to be designed such that its best efficiency point occurs as close as possible to a
volume flow rate of VB =2400 cm3/s and at a net head of HB = 450 cm (of R-134a). The chief engineer
tells you to perform some preliminary analyses using pump scaling laws to determine if a geometrically
scaled-up pump could be designed and built to meet the given requirements.
(a) Plot the performance curves of pump A in both dimensional and dimensionless form, and identify the
best efficiency point.
(b) Calculate the required pump diameter DB, rotational speed NB, and brake horsepower bhpB for the
new product.

Flow rate V (cm3/s) Head H (cm) of water Pumpefficiency (%)

100 180 32

200 185 54

300 175 70

400 170 79

500 150 81

600 95 66

700 54 38

Table: Manufacturer’s performance data for a water pump operating at 1725 rpm and room
temperature

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Hydrodynamic Transmission
Ordinarily power is transmitted by mechanical means like gear drive or belt drive. In the case of
gear drive there is a rigid connection between the driving and driven shafts. The shocks and
vibrations are passed on from one side to the other which is not desirable. Also gear drives cannot
provide a stepless variation of speeds. In certain cases where the driven machine has a large
inertia, the driving prime mover like electric motor will not be able to provide a large starting
torque. Instead of the mechanical connection if fluids can be used for such drives, high inertia can
be met. Also shock loads and vibration will not be passed on. Smooth speed variation is also
possible. The power transmitting systems offer these advantages. There are two types power
transmitting devices. These are (i) Fluid coupling and (ii) Torque converter or torque multiplier.

Fluid Coupling
A sectional view of a fluid coupling is shown in the figure below

In this device the driving and driven shafts are not rigidly connected. The drive shaft carries a
pump with radial vanes and the driven shaft carries a turbine runner. Both of these are enclosed in
a casing filled with oil of suitable viscosity. The pump accelerates the oil by imparting energy to
it. The oil is directed suitably to hit the turbine vanes where the energy is absorbed and the oil is
decelerated. The decelerated oil now enters the pump and the cycle is repeated. There is no flow
of fluid to or from the outside. The oil transfers the energy from the drive shaft to the driven
shaft. As there is no mechanical connection between the shafts, stock loads or vibration will not
be passed on from one to the other. The turbine will start rotating only after a certain level of
energy picked up by the oil from the pump. Thus the prime mover can pick up speed with lower
starting torque before the power is transmitted.
In this way heavy devices like power plant blowers can be started with motors with lower starting
torque. The pump and turbine cannot rotate at the same speeds. In case these do run at the same
speed, there can be no circulation of oil between them as the centrifugal heads of the pump and

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

turbine are equal, and no energy will be transferred from one to the other. The ratio of difference
in speeds to the driver speed is known as slips, S.

𝜔𝑝 − 𝜔𝑟
𝑆=
𝜔𝑝

Where ꞷp is the pump speed and ꞷT is the turbine speed.

Torque Converter
In the case of fluid coupling the torque on the driver and driven members are equal. The
application is for direct drives of machines. But there are cases where the torque required at the
driven member should be more than the torque on the driver. Of course the speeds in this case
will be in the reverse ratio. Such an application is in automobiles where this is achieved in steps
by varying the gear ratios.
The desirable characteristic is a stepless variation of torque. This is shown in Fig. a.
The torque converter is thus superior to the gear train with few gear ratios. A sectional view of
torque converter is shown in Fig. b Torque converter consists of three elements namely pump
impeller, a turbine runner and a fixed guide wheel as shown in Fig. 26. The pump is connected to
the drive shaft. The guide vanes are fixed. The turbine runner is connected to the driven shaft. All
the three are enclosed in a casing filled with oil. The oil passing through the pump impeller
receives energy. Then it passes to the turbine runner where energy is extracted from the oil to turn
the shaft. Then the oil passes to the stationary guide vanes where the direction is changed. This
introduces a reactive torque on the pump which increases the torque to be transmitted. The shape
and size and direction of the guide vanes control the increase in torque. More than three elements
have also been used in advanced type of torque converters. It may be noted that the speed ratio
will be the inverse of torque ratio. The efficiency is found to be highest at speed ratio of about
0.6.

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EMG 2508 Notes JKUAT

Fig: a fluid coupling

Fig b: fluid coupling

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