84

Research-based Principles of Learning & Teaching Strategies

Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence
Carnegie Mellon University

The following list presents the basic principles and teaching strategies that underlie effective learning. These principles are
distilled from research from a variety in disciplines.
1. Students’ prior knowledge can help or knowledge. When those connections form knowledge
hinder learning. structures that are accurately and meaningfully organized,
students are better able to retrieve and apply their knowl-
Students come into our courses with knowledge, beliefs, edge effectively and efficiently. In contrast, when knowledge
and attitudes gained in other courses and through daily life. is connected in inaccurate or random ways, students can fail
As students bring this knowledge to bear in our classrooms, to retrieve or apply it appropriately. To apply this principle,
it influences how they filter and interpret what they are consider the following teaching techniques:
learning. If students’ prior knowledge is robust and accurate
and activated at the appropriate time, it provides a strong •• Provide students with the organizational structure of
foundation for building new knowledge. However, when the course.
knowledge is inert, insufficient for the task, activated inap- •• Share the organization of each lecture, lab, or discus-
propriately, or inaccurate, it can interfere with or impede sion explicitly (See “How to Make Lectures More
new learning. To apply this principle, consider the follow- Effective,” p. 124).
ing teaching techniques: •• Make connections among concepts explicit.
•• Ask students to draw a concept map to expose their
•• Administer a diagnostic assessment or have students understanding of how course material is organized.
assess their own prior knowledge (See “Selected
Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs) for Getting 4. To develop mastery, students must acquire
Feedback on Student Learning,” pg 85). component skills, practice integrating
•• Use brainstorming to reveal prior knowledge. them, and know when to apply what they
•• Identify discipline-specific conventions explicitly.
•• Ask students to make and test predictions (See
have learned.
“Teaching for Retention in Science, Engineering & Students must develop not only the component skills (i.e.,
Mathematics,” p. 53). fundamental skills) and knowledge necessary to perform
complex tasks, they must also practice combining and in-
2. Students’ motivation determines, directs, tegrating them to develop greater fluency and automatic-
and sustains what they do to learn. ity. Finally, students must learn when and how to apply the
As students enter college and gain greater autonomy over skills and knowledge they learn. As instructors, it is impor-
what, when, and how they study and learn, motivation tant that we develop conscious awareness of these elements
plays a critical role in guiding the direction, intensity, per- of mastery so as to help our students learn more effectively.
sistence, and quality of the learning behaviors in which they To apply this principle, consider the following teaching
engage. When students find positive value in a learning goal techniques:
or activity, expect to successfully achieve a desired learning •• Provide isolated practice of weak or missing skills.
outcome, and perceive support from their environment, •• Give students opportunities to practice skills includ-
they are likely to be strongly motivated to learn. To apply ing low-stakes, ungraded assignments See “Selected
this principle, consider the following teaching techniques: Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs) for Getting
•• Connect the material to students’ interests. Feedback on Student Learning,” p. 88).
•• Provide authentic, real-world tasks (See “Teaching for •• Give students opportunities to apply skills or knowl-
Retention in Science, Engineering & Mathematics,” edge in diverse contexts.
p. 53). •• Specify skills or knowledge and ask students to iden-
•• Show relevance to students’ current academic lives. tify contexts in which they apply.
•• Provide rubrics (See “Best Practices for Designing & 5. Goal-directed practice coupled with
Grading Exams,” p. 132, and “Sample Laboratory
Report Rubrics,” p. 121).
targeted feedback enhances the quality of
students’ learning.
3. How students organize knowledge Learning and performance are best fostered when students
influences how they learn and apply what engage in practice that focuses on a specific goal or criterion,
they know. targets an appropriate level of challenge, and is of sufficient
Students naturally make connections between pieces of quantity and frequency to meet the performance criteria.
Practice must be coupled with feedback that explicitly com-

University of Michigan GSI Guidebook

 85
municates about some aspect(s) of students’ performance •• Model inclusive language, behavior, and attitudes (See
relative to specific target criteria, provides information to p. 50 for guideance).
help students progress in meeting those criteria, and is given •• Establish and reinforce ground rules for interaction
at a time and frequency that allows it to be useful. To apply (See “Guidelines for Class Participation,” p. 58).
this principle, consider the following teaching techniques: •• Use the syllabus and first day of class to establish the
•• Be explicit about your goals in your course materials course climate (See “Creating your Syllabus,” p. 18).
(See “Strategies for Effective Lesson Planning,” p. 37). 7. To become self-directed learners, students
•• Stage assignments by breaking tasks into smaller as- must learn to monitor and adjust their
signments.
•• Look for patterns of errors in student work. approaches to learning.
•• Prioritize your feedback (See “Responding to Student Learners may engage in a variety of metacognitive processes
Writing – A Sample Commenting Protocol,” p. 137). to monitor and control their learning—assessing the task
•• Incorporate peer feedback. at hand, evaluating their own strengths and weaknesses,
planning their approach, applying and monitoring vari-
6. Students’ current level of development ous strategies, and reflecting on the degree to which their
interacts with the social, emotional, and current approach is working. Unfortunately, students tend
intellectual climate of the course to impact not to engage in these processes naturally. When students
learning. develop the skills to engage these processes, they gain intel-
lectual habits that not only improve their performance but
Students are not only intellectual but also social and emo-
also their effectiveness as learners. To apply this principle,
tional beings, and they are still developing the full range
consider the following teaching techniques:
of intellectual, social, and emotional skills. While we can-
not control the developmental process, we can shape the •• Check students’ understanding of the task.
classroom climate in developmentally appropriate ways. In •• Have students do guided self-assessments.
fact, many studies have shown that the climate we create has •• Require students to reflect on and annotate their own
implications for our students. A negative climate may im- work.
pede learning and performance, but a positive climate can •• Prompt students to analyze the effectiveness of their
energize students’ learning. To apply this principle, consider study skills.
the following teaching techniques: •• Have students engage in peer feedback.
•• Make uncertainty safe.
•• Examine your assumptions about students.

References
Ambrose, S., Bridges, M., DiPietro, M., Lovett, M., Norman, M. (2010) How learning works. San Francisco: Jossey Bass
Adapted with permission from Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsyl-
vania.
Eberly Center for Teaching Excellence, Carnegie Mellon University (n.d.) Theory and Research-based Principles of Learn-
ing. Retrieved from http://www.cmu.edu/teaching/principles/learning.html

Center for Research on Learning and Teaching