LARRY D. BUBAN, Ph.

D
Science Education - Physics
CAS – WVSU
 Topics Outline
Heat and Temperature
Mechanics of Heat Transfer
Heat Quantities
Thermal Properties of Heat
First Law of Thermodynamics
Entropy and Second Law of
Thermodynamics
What is the difference between a hot and an
iced cup of coffee?

The temperatures of the two are different.

The molecules in the hot coffee are moving faster.
What happens to the hot and iced coffee after some
time?

The hot coffee cools, the iced coffee warms up to room

temperature.
The hot coffee loses heat to the surrounding air, the iced
coffee gains heat from the surrounding air.

Heat is energy that transferred from one substance to

another
(from Higher to Lower temperature)
 TEMPERATURE DEFINED:

A quantitative description of the degree

of hotness or coldness of a body.
An operational definition of temperature is that,
it is a measure of the average translational
kinetic energy associated by the disordered
microscopic motion of atoms & molecules.
Temperature Measurement
When the average kinetic energy of
molecules in a substance increases,
the increased jiggling and jostling of the
molecules tends to spread them further apart
on average.

Typically, objects expand when warmed.

They contract when cooled.
Temperature Measurement
Thermometers can be constructed by using the
expansion or contraction of a substance as a way to
sense temperature.

Glass thermometer: uses mercury or colored alcohol:

Calibration:
Place in freezing water, mark
Place in boiling steam, mark
Divide scale into even divisions (degrees)
Temperature Scales
 Centrigrade/Celsius Scale ( °C )
( Anders Celsius )
 100 : boiling point of water
 0 : freezing point of water
 -273: absolute zero

 Fahrenheit Scale ( °F )
( Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit )
 212 : boiling point of water
 32 : freezing point of water
 -460 : absolute zero
 1 deg F = 5/9 deg C
Kelvin Scale ( K )
( William Thomson Kelvin popularly called
as Lord Kelvin )
373: steam point ( water boils )
273: ice point ( water freezes )
0 : absolute zero (zero KE of molecules)
Rankine Scale ( °R )
( William J.M. Rankine )
672: steam point ( water boils )
492: ice point ( water freezes )
0 : absolute zero (zero KE of molecules)
 TEMPERATURE SCALES
K °C °R °F

STEAM POINT 373 100 672 212

ICE POINT 273 0 492 32

ABSOLUTE 0 -273 0 -460

ZERO
CONVERSION FORMULAS OF TEMP.

°C = 5/9 ( °F – 32 )

 ° F = 9/5°C + 32

° F = °R - 460 °

 °R = °F + 460 °

K = °C + 273

 °C = K - 273
 Thermal equilibrium
 a state where two bodies that
are in contact have the same temperature.
- no heat movement between system's
parts: the condition of a system in
which there is no net heat exchange
between any of its parts.
Temperature is a measure of the total kinetic
energy of a substance. True or False?

False, temperature measures the average translational

kinetic energy of molecules in a substance.
“Translational” kinetic energy refers to energy of
molecules moving and bumping into one another.
Molecules may also rotate or vibrate without interacting.
This doesn’t contribute to temperature
Which has a higher average translational
kinetic energy, 2 liters or 1 liter of
boiling water?

The temperature of boiling water will be the same, so the

“average” translational energy is the same for either
volume. The 2 liters has a higher total translational
kinetic energy.
 Heat
Touching a hot stove, energy transfers from the hotter stove to
your colder hand.
Touching an ice cube, energy transfers from your warmer hand
to the colder ice cube.
Spontaneous Energy transfer always occurs from a warmer
object (higher temperature) to a colder object (lower
temperature).

Heat: The energy transferred from one object to another

due to a temperature difference.

Heat is not contained in an object, molecular kinetic (and

potential) energy are present.
(comparison: work is not contained in an object, but an object
an have work done on it or done by it)
The temperature of the sparks
from a 4th of July sparkler can
reach 2000 degrees C. Why is this
safe for kids to play with?

If a spark lands on the skin of your arm, it does transfer heat

because of the large temperature difference.
But the sparkle is very small, so although it has a large average
kinetic energy per molecule, there are not many molecules
compared to the number of molecules in part of your arm.
We must distinguish between average energy per molecule
(temperature) and the total available thermal energy.
 Internal Energy
Internal Energy of a substance is the total of all energies:
Translational kinetic energy (thermal)
Rotational/vibrational kinetic energy
Potential energy
Heat energy flow into / out of a substance increases / decreases
the internal energy.
Heat flow does not always increase or decrease temperature.
Ex: ice melting: heat goes into bringing the temperature of the
ice to 0 degrees C, but additional heat then causes a change of
phase from solid to liquid, without a change in temperature.
 If we heat the two quantities of water on
the stove with the same heat flow into
each, which has a higher temperature?

The smaller amount/volume of water.

Since heat increase the average
translational kinetic energy. The same
heat applied to the liquid with fewer
molecules leads to a higher average
translational kinetic energy per
molecule.

The amount of heat transferred depends both on the temperature

difference and the amount of material.
Ex: A sparkler doesn’t burn the skin, a hot iron can transfer much
more heat
 Heat Measures:
Heat is a measure of energy flowing
from a higher to lower temperature
substance. It is measured in Joules
(metric mks system)
 UNITS OF HEAT
Calorie (cal) – amount of heat required to change the
temperature of one gram of water from 14.5°C to 15.5°C.

British Thermal Unit (BTU) – the amount of heat

required to raise the temperature of 1 lb of water by 1°F;
its temperature falls by 1F when 1BTU of heat is
removed from 1 lb of water.
Unit of Measure
1 Cal = 1000 cal
1 Kcal = 1000 cal
1 cal = 4.186 J
1 BTU = 252 cal
1 BTU = 0.252 Kcal
1 Kcal = 3.97 BTU
1 BTU = 1055 J
The calorie is defined as the heat required to raise 1 gram of
water by 1 degree Celsius. (1 calorie = 4.184 Joules)

Food is rated for energy content in terms of Calories,

which is actually a kilocalorie (1 Calorie = 1 kilocalorie
= 1000 calories).
The kilocalorie is the amount of heat required to raise 1 kg
of water 1 degree C.
 How much energy does an average person
require daily?

2000 Calories = 2000 kcal x 1000 cal/kcal x 4.184 J/cal ~

8,000,000 J
Average power: 8,000,000/(3600x24 sec) = 92.6 Watts
(same power consumption as light bulb!)
The amount of heat involved when a
quantity of (m) of a substance undergoes a
change in temperature of (∆T) is, Q =mc
(∆T)
where:
Q = heat transferred
m = mass
c = specific heat capacity
∆T = change in temperature
 Heat Capacity of water
Water has a high heat capacity
compared to common substances.

Water is a natural cooling agent.

Use in automobile and other cooling
systems can store heat and release it
over time.

Bodies of waters regulate temperature Temperature of

locally and globally. water rise
less than
that of land
during day,
but cools
less at night.
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY
Amount of heat that must be added or removed from a
unit mass of it to change its temperature by 1°.
Also referred to as thermal inertia.
 High specific heat capacity
High specific heat of a substance (c)
- A relatively small change in temperature for a
given change in internal energy content just as a
large inertial mass means a small acceleration when
a given force is applied.
Units of (c)
1. MKS system = kcal/kg °C
2. FPS system = BTU/lb °F
The numerical value for the specific heat of a
substance is the same in both systems of units.
Heat of Fusion
The energy required to change
a gram of a substance from the
solid to the liquid state without
changing its temperature

This energy breaks down the

solid bonds but leaves a
significant amount of energy
associated with intermolecular
forces of the liquid state.
Heat of Vaporization
The energy required to
change a gram of a liquid
into a gaseous state at the
boiling point.

This energy breaks down

the intermolecular
attractive forces, and also
must provide energy
necessary to expand the
gas.
 THERMAL EXPANSIONS
A. Linear Expansion - the quantity (α) the coefficient of
linear expansion is a constant value depends upon the
nature of the material.

∆L = α L0 ∆T
Change in temp. (°C)

Initial length of the rod (m)

Change in length (m)

Coefficient of linear expansion (1/C°)

 Thermal Expansion:

Lo L

dL
 L0
Woohh, its dT
getting hot!
 L   Lo  T  To 
B. Area Expansion – is like a photographic enlargement.

∆A = γA0 ∆T

Change in temp. ( °c)

Change in area (m2) Initial area of the material (m)

• Coefficient of area expansion (1/ °C)

• 2α
 C. Volume Expansion - a solid or a liquid whose
temperature changes by ∆T would have a change in
volume equal to

∆V = β Vo ∆T
Change in temp. ( °c)

Change in volume
Initial volume of the material (m3)

• Coefficient of volume expansion (1/°C)

• 3α
Water structure
When water turns into a solid (freezes), the molecule align in a
crystal structure that is a larger volume than the liquid form.
This results in ice have a lower density than liquid water.
 Water
expands when
heated, like
most
substances,
except for in
the range from
0 to 4 degree
C.
When ice melts at 0 degrees, some microscopic crystals remain. This slightly
increases the volume of the slushy mix.
As the slush increases in temperature:
– Ice crystals melt  decreasing volume
– Liquid water volume expands due to increase molecular motion
These effects balance at 4 degrees, which is the point where the volume is
minimized, but density is maximized.
This is important for life living in water
Why does ice form at the top of bodies of water?

Ice is less dense than liquid water, so it will float.

If water had its maximum density at 0 degrees C, then the

coldest water would sink to the bottom.

Further cooling would lead to complete freezing of the body.

Water’s highest density occurs at 4 degrees C. This
warmer water sinks. Cooler water sits at the surface
and can cool to form ice which will float on the
surface.
(aquatic life can survive in the cool depths at 4
degrees)

For the surface to freeze, all the water in the body

must cool to 4 degrees (as the water cools, the cooler
water sinks below deeper warmer water).
Large bodies of water don’t freeze over
 Wh e n t h e t e m p e ra t u re o f a m e t a l rin g
in c re a s e s , d o e s t h e h o le b e c o m e la rg e r?
S m a lle r? O r re m a in t h e s a m e s iz e ?
1 . La rg e r 2 . S m a lle r
3 . R e m a in t h e s a m e s iz e

When the temperature increases, the metal expands—in all directions. It gets thicker; its inner as
well as its outer diameter increases; every part of it increases by the same proportion. To
better see this, pretend that the ring is cut in four pieces before being heated. When heated
they all expand. Can you see when they are reassembled that the hole is larger?
Test this yourself the next time you can’t open the metal lid on a
jar. Heat the lid by placing it over a hot stove or under hot water so that its temperature
momentarily increases more than the glass jar. Its inner circumference will increase and you’ll
easily unscrew the lid!
 Wa t e r m o le c u le s in ic e lin k t o g e t h e r t o fo rm a n
o p e n - s p a c e d s t ru c t u re . The o p e n p o c k e t s in
t h e s t ru c t u re a re w h a t m a k e s ic e le s s d e n s e
t h a n w a t e r, w h ic h is w h y ic e flo a t s o n w a t e r.
To b e s u re y o u in t e rp re t t h is c o rre c t ly , a n s w e r
t h is : Wh a t ’s in s id e t h e o p e n p o c k e t s ?

1 . Air
2 . Wa t e r v a p o r
3 . No t h in g

Answer: 3
If there were air in the open spaces, the illustration would have to
show the molecules of air, such as O2 and N2, which are
comparable in size to water molecules. Any water vapor would be
seen as unassociated water molecules spaced relatively far apart.
Neither of these are shown in the illustration. Instead, the open
pockets represent nothing but empty space—void.
Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
A. Heat Conduction
> conduction is heat
transfer by means of
molecular agitation
within a material
without any motion of
the material as a whole.
B. Convection
> is heat transfer by
mass motion of a fluid
such as air or water
away from the source
of heat, carrying
energy with it.
C. Radiation
> is heat
transfer by the
emission of
electromagnetic
waves which carry
energy away from
the emitting object
> Stefan-
Boltzmann Law –
relationship
governing radiation
from hot objects.