Occ of DC Shunt
Occ of DC Shunt
Occ of DC Shunt
Rsh drwan on same graph(slope =dV/dI) & perform OCC for different speeds(below rated speed), for
one occ Rsh becomes the tangent.. that speed=Nc(or u can calculate by indirect method).
Q) y motor field rheostat at minimum resistance position and generator field rheostat at maximum
resistance position.----. At the time of starting of motor, the armature resistance is kept at
maximum position to control and reduce the high starting current and field rheostat
atminimum position to ensure that speed does not go beyond rated value and to have
high starting torque.
1). If a sudden heavy load is thrown on the motor, the series field winding will draw a heavy
current from the supply and thus cause the total flux to reduce to a very small value. The
motor will now attain a dangerously high speed like a series motor. Therefore, this motor is
not used at places where there is a possibility of overloading the motor.
2). When the motor is started, the shunt field winding takes sometime to build up field flux as
it has high resistance. However, the flux due to the series winding is at once set up due to the
heavy rush of current through the series field and armature winding. This establishes a
reverse polarity on the poles when the motor is switched on and thus the motor starts rotating
in the reverse direction. Meanwhile the flux of shunt field winding is established which tries
to rotate motor in its proper direction.
This difficulty is removed by short circuiting the series field winding at the time of starting.
Also, when the motor has attained its normal speed, this winding is put in the circuit.
Centrifugal pumps, weaving and lathe machines, lifts, fans, blowers, spinning
machines, conveyors, and other applications use shunt DC motors.
Armature Reaction—
The geometrical neutral axis (GNA) is the axis that bisects the angle between the centre line of
adjacent poles. The magnetic neutral axis (MNA) is the axis drawn perpendicular to the mean
direction of the flux passing through the centre of the armature. No e.m.f. is produced in the
armature conductors along this axis because then they cut no flux. [6] When no current is there in
the armature conductors, the MNA coincides with GNA.
The brushes of a generator must be set in the neutral plane; that is, they must contact segments
of the commutator that are connected to armature coils having no induced emf. If the brushes
were contacting commutator segments outside the neutral plane, they would short-circuit "live"
coils and cause arcing and loss of power.
Without armature reaction, the magnetic neutral axis (MNA) would coincide with geometrical
neutral axis (GNA). Armature reaction causes the neutral plane to shift in the direction of rotation,
and if the brushes are in the neutral plane at no load, that is, when no armature current is
flowing, they will not be in the neutral plane when armature current is flowing. For this reason it is
desirable to incorporate a corrective system into the generator design.
These are two principal methods by which the effect of armature reaction is overcome. The first
method is to shift the position of the brushes so that they are in the neutral plane when the
generator is producing its normal load current. in the other method, special field poles, called
interpoles, are installed in the generator to counteract the effect of armature reaction.
The brush-setting method is satisfactory in installations in which the generator operates under a
fairly constant load. If the load varies to a marked degree, the neutral plane will shift
proportionately, and the brushes will not be the correct position at all times. The brush-setting
method is the most common means of correcting for armature reaction in small generators (those
producing approximately 1,000 W or less). Larger generators require the use of interpoles.
In simplex wave winding, the back pitch (YB) and front pitch (YF) are both
odd and are of same sign.
The back-pitch and front-pitch are nearly equal to the pole pitch and
maybe equal or differ by ±2. + for progressive winding, – for retrogressive
winding.
LAP-
Calculation of Efficiency
Let, I0 is the no load current (it can be measured by ammeter A1)
Ish is the shunt field current (it can be measured by ammeter A2)
Then,
After calculating the no load constant losses now we can determine the
efficiency at any load.
Let, I is the load current at which we have to calculate the efficiency of the
machine.
Then, armature current (Ia) will be (I – Ish), when the machine is motoring.
Power input = VI
Constant losses,
Power input = VI
Constant losses,
1.
1. This test is very convenient and economical as it is required very
less power from supply to perform the test.
2. Since constant losses are known, efficiency of Swinburne’s
test can be pre-determined at any load.
Disadvantages of Swinburne’s Test
The main disadvantages of this test are :
1.
1. Iron loss is neglected though there is change in iron loss from no
load to full load due to armature reaction.
2. We cannot be sure about the satisfactory commutation on loaded
condition because the test is done on no-load.
3. We can’t measure the temperature rise when the machine is
loaded. Power losses can vary with the temperature.
4. In DC series motors, the Swinburne’s test cannot be done to find
its efficiency as it is a no load test.
4 point starter-
TWO point starter-
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Advantages of Hopkinson’s Test
The merits of this test are…
1. This test requires very small power compared to full-load power of the motor-generator
coupled system. That is why it is economical. Large machines can be tested at rated load
without much power consumption.
2. Temperature rise and commutation can be observed and maintained in the limit because
this test is done under full load condition.
3. Change in iron loss due to flux distortion can be taken into account due to the advantage of
its full load condition.
4. Efficiency at different loads can be determined.
Disadvantages of Hopkinson’s Test
The demerits of this test are
Slip-Joint Pliers: for holding or bending flat or round stock, can crimp
sheet metal, loop a wire, cut soft wire nails, remove cotter pins, and, if
handles so that reaching between joists and into awkward spaces is easier.
Linesman’s Pliers: cutting,joining
Locking Pliers: The multipurpose locking pliers can be used in place of
pipe wrenches, adjustable wrenches, or even clamps. As with other
varieties of pliers, locking pliers should be used rarely, if at all, on nuts, bolt
though they are also useful for bending and holding metal fittings. Their
jaws taper to a point, and at the nose have serrations on the gripping
surface. At the throat of the tool near the pivot there is a side cutter.
Fencing pliers: drive staples or remove them, grip wire for twisting, splicing, and
tensioning, or cut right through it.
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drilling-machines
i) The tool has two parts one is tool bit and other is tool holder.
2) The bit is made of carbon steel.
3) It is used for making holes in bricks and concrete walls.
4) Fibre plugs or PVC plugs are inserted in them to fix the wooden batten or casing and
capping for fixing it.
5) screws are driven in the plugs which cause the plug to expand and grip the wall.
6) while using the tool it should be rotated slowly after hammering
7) The sit is available according to numbers such as 8.10.12 and 14 numbers.
Diameter
Standard Wire
Gauge
SWG
inches mm
1 0.300 7.620
2 0.276 7.010
3 0.252 6.401
4 0.232 5.893
5 0.212 5.385
Diameter
Standard Wire
Gauge
SWG
inches mm
6 0.192 4.877
7 0.176 4.470
8 0.160 4.064
9 0.144 3.658
10 0.128 3.251
11 0.116 2.946
12 0.104 2.642
13 0.092 2.337
14 0.080 2.032
15 0.072 1.829
16 0.064 1.626
17 0.056 1.422
18 0.048 1.219
19 0.040 1.016
20 0.036 0.914
21 0.032 0.813
22 0.028 0.711
23 0.024 0.610
24 0.022 0.559
Diameter
Standard Wire
Gauge
SWG
inches mm
25 0.020 0.508
26 0.018 0.457
27 0.0164 0.417
28 0.0148 0.376
29 0.0136 0.345
30 0.0124 0.315
31 0.0116 0.295
32 0.0108 0.274
33 0.0100 0.254
34 0.0092 0.234
35 0.0084 0.213
36 0.0076 0.193
37 0.0068 0.173
38 0.006 0.152
39 0.0052 0.132
40 0.0048 0.122
41 0.0044 0.112
42 0.004 0.102
Diameter
Standard Wire
Gauge
SWG
inches mm
43 0.0036 0.091
44 0.0032 0.081
45 0.0028 0.071
46 0.0024 0.061
47 0.002 0.051
48 0.0016 0.041
49 0.0012 0.030
50 0.001 0.025
Entirely different from the regular switches available in the market, this soft touch
operating switch is generally used in places like hospitals and hotels. Do Not Disturb
Switch is generally used to ensure privacy and silence.
A Bell Push switch is connected to a doorbell. So, when the switch is pushed, it rings
the bell connected to it. It can be used at homes, offices or at any other place
wherever required. A Bell Push switch always maintains a broken circuit, unless the
button is pressed.
LED
Fluorescen
Halogen
Incandescent t
Philips L Daylight
Generic Philips
Prize[100] (TCP)
Electric power
60 42 14 10 12.5 9.7 9.8
(W)
Light output (lm) 860 650 800 800 800 910 950
Luminous
14.3 14.42 57.14 80 64 93.4 96.94
efficacy (lm/W)
Color
2700 3100[101] 2700 3000 2700 2727 5000
temperature (K)
Not
CRI 100 100 >75 >85 85 93
listed
A color rendering index (CRI) is a quantitative measure of the ability of a light source to reveal
the colors of various objects faithfully in comparison with a natural or standard light source. Light
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types-of-fuses.html
supply circuits. These are available in 15 Amp, 30 Amp, 60 Amps and 100 amperes
current rating. In these switches, either two numbers of fuse links are provided or a
I.C.T.P Switch: Iron Clad Triple Pole main switches are used to control the three phase
supply circuit. These are available in 15 Amp, 30 Amp, 60 Amp,100 Amp, 150 Amp and
250 Amps current rating. Generally these switches are also known as 3 phase 4 wires main
switches.
1 pole mcb,2 pole mcb, 3 pole mcb ,3 pole with neutral fuse mcb, 4 pole mcb & so on
1 pole mcb is for single phase ac system .connected on phase line of the system . Mostly
uses in our houses,
2 pole mcb is also used for single phase ac system .but it protect both phase and neutral
lines .
3 pole mcb is used For 3 phase ac system .it protect only R,Y,B of 3 phase line
4 pole mcb is used for .3 phase ac system ..but it protect R,Y,B & neutral line also ..
WIRES—
i. Vulcanised Indian Rubber (V.I.R.) Insulated Wires:
In this wire tinned copper or aluminium is used as conductor. On this conductor one or
more layers of vulcanised Indian Rubber, i.e. rubber treated with sulphur at high
temperature, is applied. In order to remove the bad effect of sulphur on copper or
aluminium, the conductor is thoroughly tinned or a layer of pure rubber is applied on the
conductor at first. But now-a-days single-core P.V.C. wires have largely replaced V.I.R.
wires from different fields of application..
What Is Tinned Copper Wire? Tinned copper wire is an uninsulated wire that is
coated by a layer of tin. Why do you need tin-plated copper wire? Recently
manufactured, fresh bare copper conductor works very well, but bare copper wire is
prone to oxidation over time much more than its tinner counterpart
ii. Tough Rubber Sheathed (T.R.S.) or Cab Tyre Sheathed (C.T.S.) Wires:
In these cables also tinned copper or aluminium conductor is used. Over the conductor a
layer of pure rubber or rubber treated with sulphur is applied. As outer protective layer
tough rubber sheath in T.R.S. wires and cab tyre sheath in C.T.S. wires are provided.
These sheaths are not readily affected by sun or water. Hence, they may be used in
damp places or in open atmosphere. For service connections and house wiring at
present P.V.C. wires are preferred over T.R.S. or C.T.S. wires.
Lead sheathed cables are available in single-core, twin-core flat, three-core flat and twin-
core flat with an earth continuity conductor. Here also rubber insulations over the
conductor have different colours for different cores.
1. Current strength The effect of current on the human body system is an under Milli amps
mA Effect 1 to 8 mA Perceptible but not pain full (just bearable) 81 to15 mA Pain full
shock (Muscular control is not lost) 15 to20 mA Painful shock (Muscular control lost) 20
to 50 mA Severe muscular contraction (Breathing will be difficult) 50 to100 mA possible
death (no remedy) 200 mA and above certain death. Heart damages, burns... 2. The body
resistance Body resistance differs to persons and upon conditions. For dry Body -
70000Ω to 100000 Ω/sq.cm Wet Body - 700Ω to 1000 Ω/sq.cm Average body resistance
- 5000 Ω when dry 1000Ω when wet 3. Frequency of current For low frequency shock is
more severe and dangerous and direct current shock is most
Pipe Earthing:- This method is very common and best system of earthing. A pipe of
required diameter is used to carry the fault current. Size of pipe is depending on the current to
be carried and type of soil. As per ISI specifications for ordinary soil 38mm dia and 2m
length is used. The pipe must be placed in a wet ground. The depth is depending upon the
soil. As per ISI specifications pipe should be placed at a depth of 4.75 m. The pipe is tapered
at the bottom. The charcoal and salt are filled in that pit in alternate layers up to 2m and 15cm
around the pipe. The pipes drilled with holes so that water poured from top is made to spread
in the layers. At the top a cement concrete work is made for the protection. A funnel with
wire mesh is provided in the concrete work to pour the water. The pipe to which funnel is
connected is further connected to main earthing pipe. 3 to 4 buckets of water should be put
into the funnel. Another GI pipe is taken from the funnel towards outside for its connection to
earth wire. The SWG / 14SWG Earth wire from GI pipe of 19mm dia should be carried in a
GI pipe of dia 12.7mm at a depth of about 60cm below the ground
Plate Earthing:- In this method Earthing is done by embedding GI or copper plate. Size
of plate is 60 x 60 cm x 3.18mm for copper plate. Due to higher cost copper is not used
mainly.4m deep pit is dug and the earth electrode is placed vertically. The space around the
plate is filled with charcoal and salt of 15cm thickness. The plate is connected with GI pipe of
12.7mm dia for carrying GI earth wire for connection to earth electrode. Earth wire bolted to
the earth plate with nut, bolt washer and GI thimbles. There are all must be copper for copper
plating and GI for galvanized plating. The pit is connected with a pipe for pouring water for
the purpose of increasing dampness and moisture to reduce resistance. The cement work is
covered with iron plate for penodic opening. It is better to have an independence earth plate
for domestic applications. The diagram shows the details of all
---Difference between neutral and earth Neutral wire Earth wire 1 2 3 4 5 This is connected to
the neutral point of transformer which is earthed at sub station Slight potential exists
Unbalanced current flows Return current passes through the load Provide single phase supply
This is a solid earth at the sub stations Zero potential No current flow Fault current only
flows Protect from electric shocks..
-----------The voltage drop should not be more than 3 percent of the voltage at the main
switch board under normal conditions .Since use of copper has gone very costly for
general purposes, an aluminum conductor cable of 1/1.40 mm. (1 is strand and
1.40 m is the diameter of conductor) size is used as a minimum size for
an ordinary sub circuit.
1.5mmsq(1.40mm dia) cable upto 10amps—used for all domestic sub ckts
For 15 Amp. Socket –outlet in kitchen = the wire of size 4mm2 or 1/2.24 mm
aluminum conductor single Core.
For 15 Amp .socket outlet = the wire of size 6 mm2 or 1/2.80 al. conductor single
core.
Squirrel cage motors are normally more efficient than slip-ring motors, and higherspeed
motors are normally more efficient than lower-speed motors. Efficiency is also a function
of motor temperature. Totally-enclosed, fan-cooled (TEFC) motors are more efficient
than screen-protected, drip-proof (SPDP) motors. Also, as with most equipment, motor
efficiency increases with the rated capacity.
----------Motors fail for various reasons. A frequent cause is breakdown of the stator
winding insulation due to repeated motor overheating, extreme one-time heating (possibly
caused by loss of one of the three electrical phases), or water entering the motor.
Normally, failure due to breakdown of stator winding insulation does not damage the
core, and the core can be rewound if the old winding is carefully removed.
- Old to new
- Incandescent(60,100w) to CFL(25,9w)
- High pressure Mercury vapour lamp(250,400w)—HP sodium vapour lamp(150,250)
-----------Metal halide lamps provide high color rendering index when compared with
mercury & sodium vapour lamps. These lamps offer efficient white light. Hence, metal
halide is the choice for colour critical applications where, higher illumination levels are
required. These lamps are highly suitable for applications such as assembly line,
inspection areas, painting shops, etc. It is recommended to install metal halide lamps
where colour rendering is more critical.
-----------------The LEDs have the following merits over the filament lamps. - Lesser
power consumption (Less than 1 W/lamp) - Withstand high voltage fluctuation in the
power supply. - Longer operating life (more than 1,00,000 hours) It is recommended to
install LEDs for panel indicator lamps at the design stage.