Lesson 3
RESEARCH METHODS IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY AND
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Learning Objectives:
1. to describe the advantages and limitations of the case study method,
correlational method, longitudinal method, and experimental
method;
2. to enumerate the major ethical issues to consider when conducting
clinical research.
Some common methods in Clinical Psychological research:
1. Observation: using senses to gather information or data as
they happen. It may be unsystematic (casual noting of
observations) and naturalistic (more systematic and rigorous).
Advantage: easier to conduct
Disadvantages: issues of generalizability (How generalizable
are the results); interference of the observer)
See example:
A group of babies may be exposed, one at a time, to a
laboratory situation called stranger approaches. A
stony-faced stranger approaches the mother and
takes the baby out of her arms. Around the age of 7-8
months, some babies seem to find this very alarming.
Some cry even at the sight of an approaching
stranger. However, not all babies go through this
"stranger anxiety" phase. Researchers can test
hypotheses about what factors make stranger anxiety
more or less likely by testing a variety of mother/baby
pairs. The controlled setting and carefully arranged
conditions allow researchers to compare reactions of
different children.
Source: https://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch01-psychology-and-science/observational-research.html
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2. Case study method: it involves the intensive study of a client
or patient who is in treatment. For Clinical Psychology, it
includes material from interviews, test responses, and
treatment accounts. Such material might also be biographical
and autobiographical data, letters, diaries, life-course
information, medical histories, and so on. It is an intensive
study and description of one person.
Advantage: richness of data; may generate new insights
Disadvantage: no-case and effect relationship which is the
gold standard; issue of generalizability
See example here:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1O7jCcxKtN48QoY6k4gMX-
3pdh4Xd4eIH/view?usp=sharing
3. Correlational Methods: this technique enables us to determine
whether variable X is related to Y. Sample question: “Is the
length of quarantine related to number of people who inflicted
with mental health disorders?” The Pearson product-moment
correlation coefficient is a commonly used index to determine
the degree of relationship between 2 variables. This is
symbolized by r, which may vary anywhere from -1.00 to
+1.00.
Disadvantage: Correlation does not indicate causality.
https://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:B_PgSIMj5S0J:https://www.scielo.br/j/motriz/a 26
/vpRJjSw9HVqfRh6WD9HYcHn/%3Fformat%3Dpdf%26lang%3Den+&cd=14&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=ph
4. Cross-sectional vs Longitudinal Approaches
-Cross-sectional design is one that evaluates or compares
individuals, perhaps, of different age groups, at the same point
in time; while longitudinal design follows the same subjects
over time.
-Cross-sectional design approaches are correlational because
the investigator cannot manipulate so results reflect
differences among age groups employed. Longitudinal studies
are also those in which we collect data on the same people
over time. Basic disadvantage of longitudinal studies is that
they are costly.
See example here:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1uqisig6Dp8dyxC1r8gPj2wA4
NNw8WxEQ/view?usp=sharing
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5. Experimental Method
-It determines the psychological case-effect relationships
among events.
-It usually consists of experimental and control groups.
-Participants are randomly assigned to any of these groups.
-Several features of a typical experimental study are
experimental hypothesis, independent variable (controlled by
the researcher), and dependent variable (the change that is
expected to occur).
Disadvantage: Extraneous variables may confound the results
of the study.
See example here:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1cb2iz9ILvUhc7Kd-
h4O2BPoCKBwf24TT/view?usp=sharing
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Source: Trull & Prinstein (2012)
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Statistical vs Clinical Significance
A psychological result that is statistically significant (occurring by
chance) may not always be clinically significant (practical and genuine use
of the results). For example: a significant high correlation between levels
of anxiety and mindfulness exercises does not mean it is clinically
significant when there are no positive, identifiable positive effects on
people with anxiety’s daily lives.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
(APA, 2010)
General Principles
Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence Psychologists strive to
benefit those with whom they work and take care to do no harm.
Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility Psychologists establish
relationships of trust with those with whom they work. They are aware of
their professional and scientific responsibilities to society and to the
specific communities in which they work.
Principle C: Integrity Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty,
and truthfulness in the science, teaching, and practice of psychology.
Principle D: Justice Psychologists recognize that fairness and justice
entitle all persons to access to and benefit from the contributions of
psychology and to equal quality in the processes, procedures, and services
being conducted by psychologists.
Principle E: Respect for People's Rights and Dignity Psychologists
respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to
privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination.
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The Psychological Association of the Philippines Code of
Ethics (PAP, 2008)
General Principles
PRINCIPLE I
Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Peoples
“THEREFORE, psychologists accept as fundamental the Principle of Respect for
the Dignity of Persons and Peoples. In so doing, they accept the following related
values:
a) respect for the unique worth and inherent dignity of all human beings;
b) respect for the diversity among persons and peoples;
c) respect for the customs and beliefs of cultures, to be limited only when a custom
or a belief seriously contravenes the principle of respect for the dignity of persons
or peoples or causes serious harm to their well-being;
d) free and informed consent, as culturally defined and relevant for individuals,
families, groups, and communities;
e) privacy for individuals, families, groups, and communities;
f) protection of confidentiality of personal information, as culturally defined and
relevant for individuals, families, groups, and communities;
g) fairness and justice in the treatment of persons and peoples.
PRINCIPLE II
Competent Caring for the Well-Being of Persons and Peoples
“THEREFORE, psychologists accept as fundamental the Principle of Competent
Caring for the Well-Being of Persons and Peoples. In so doing, they accept the
following related values:
a) active concern for the well-being of individuals, families, groups, and
communities;
b) taking care to do no harm to individuals, families, groups, and communities;
c) maximizing benefits and minimizing potential harm to individuals, families,
groups, and communities;
d) correcting or offsetting harmful effects that have occurred as a result of their
activities;
e) developing and maintaining competence;
f) self-knowledge regarding how their own values, attitudes, experiences, and
social contexts influence their actions, interpretations, choices, and
recommendations;
g) respect for the ability of individuals, families, groups, and communities to make
decisions for themselves and to care for themselves and each other.”
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PRINCIPLE III
Integrity
THEREFORE, psychologists accept as fundamental the Principle of Integrity. In so
doing, they
accept the following related values:
a) honesty, and truthful, open and accurate communications;
b) avoiding incomplete disclosure of information unless complete disclosure is
culturally inappropriate, or violates confidentiality, or carries the potential to do
serious harm to individuals, families, groups, or communities;
c) maximizing impartiality and minimizing biases;
d) not exploiting persons or peoples for personal, professional, or financial gain;
e) avoiding conflicts of interest and declaring them when they cannot be avoided or
are inappropriate to avoid.
PRINCIPLE IV
Professional and Scientific Responsibilities to Society
THEREFORE, psychologists accept as fundamental the Principle of Professional
and Scientific
Responsibilities to Society. In so doing, they accept the following related values:
a) the discipline’s responsibility to increase scientific and professional knowledge
in ways that allow the promotion of the well-being of society and all its members;
b) the discipline’s responsibility to use psychological knowledge for beneficial
purposes and to protect such knowledge from being misused, used incompetently,
or made useless;
c) the discipline’s responsibility to conduct its affairs in ways that are ethical and
consistent with the promotion of the well-being of society and all its members;
d) the discipline’s responsibility to promote the highest ethical ideals in the
scientific, professional and educational activities of its members;
e) the discipline’s responsibility to adequately train its members in their ethical
responsibilities and required competencies;
f) the discipline’s responsibility to develop its ethical awareness and sensitivity,
and to be as self-correcting as possible.
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Exercises:
I. Answer the following questions based on the abstract presented. 5 points each.
(3-points for content; 2-points for clarity)
A.
ABSTRACT: This study evaluated the specific effectiveness of cognitive-behavior therapy
(CBT) combined with medication tapering for benzodiazepine discontinuation among
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) patients by using a nonspecific therapy control group.
Sixty-one patients who had used benzodiazepines for more than 12 months were randomly
assigned to the experimental conditions. Nearly 75% of patients in the CBT condition
completely ceased benzodiazepine intake, as compared with 37% in the control condition.
Results of the 3-, 6-, and 12-month follow-ups confirmed the maintenance of complete
cessation. Discontinuation rates remained twice as high in the CBT condition. The number
of patients who no longer met GAD criteria was also greater in the CBT condition. The
addition of specific CBT components thus seemed to facilitate benzodiazepine tapering
among patients with GAD. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)
___________________________________________________
1. Based on the abstract presented, what is most likely research method that
was used?
2. Why did you say so? What were the elements present?
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B.
ABSTRACT: Two key tasks facing parents across cultures are managing children's
behaviors (and misbehaviors) and conveying love and affection. Previous research has
found that corporal punishment generally is related to worse child adjustment, whereas
parental warmth is related to better child adjustment. This study examined whether the
association between corporal punishment and child adjustment problems (anxiety and
aggression) is moderated by maternal warmth in a diverse set of countries that vary in a
number of sociodemographic and psychological ways. Interviews were conducted with
7- to 10-year-old children (N = 1,196; 51% girls) and their mothers in 8 countries:
China, Colombia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United
States. Follow-up interviews were conducted 1 and 2 years later. Corporal punishment
was related to increases, and maternal warmth was related to decreases, in children's
anxiety and aggression over time; however, these associations varied somewhat across
groups. Maternal warmth moderated the effect of corporal punishment in some
countries, with increases in anxiety over time for children whose mothers were high in
both warmth and corporal punishment. The findings illustrate the overall association
between corporal punishment and child anxiety and aggression as well as patterns
specific to particular countries. Results suggest that clinicians across countries should
advise parents against using corporal punishment, even in the context of parent–child
relationships that are otherwise warm, and should assist parents in finding other ways
to manage children's behaviors.
______________________________________________________________________
3. The study is longitudinal. Provide some reasons why the study is a
longitudinal one?
4. What do you think are the limitations in doing a longitudinal study
especially involving children and mothers?
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C.
ABSTRACT: The present study examined how the endorsement of traditional masculinity
ideology, conformity to masculine norms, and help seeking style are related to the
avoidance of academic help seeking by college men in psychology courses. One hundred
seventy eight undergraduate males participated in the study. Results indicated that greater
conformity to masculine norms was significantly associated with avoidance of academic
help seeking above and beyond the contribution of demographics, amount of course work
taken, and propensity for using the executive help-seeking style. The endorsement of
aspects of traditional masculinity ideology was associated with avoidance of help seeking.
These results indicate that masculinity variables are associated with men's avoidance of help
seeking in academic situations similar to their associations with men's avoidance of help
seeking in other areas. Two main aspects of masculinity tapped by both measures are most
strongly associated with the avoidance of help seeking when struggling academically: self-
reliance and dominance.
_______________________________________________________________________
5. The phrase “endorsement of aspects of traditional masculinity ideology
was associated with avoidance of help seeking” connotes what kind of
research method? Why did you say so?
6. The study is a cross-sectional study. What are the indications that made
it so? Provide concrete answers BASED on the PRESENTED
ABSTRACT.
7. Does the study establish causality? Why or why not?
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II. By using the 4 General Principles of the Code of Ethics of the Psychological
Association of the Philippines (PAP): Respect for the Dignity of Persons and
Peoples; Competent Caring for the Well-being of Persons and Peoples;
Integrity; Professional and Scientific Responsibility to Society, determine the
salient ethical issues from the following cases. Click the following links to
access the videos. Explain in CONCRETE terms why you said so by
answering the following questions:
What were your significant observations?
What were problematic about what you just watched?
Were there ethical issues? If there are, discuss them.
Five (5) points each (3-points for content; 2-points for clarity).
1. AGAINST YOUR WILL:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zSbTBtInUso
2. CONVERSION THERAPY:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n3ujZmHyfP8
3. DUTERTE’S PSYCHOLOGICAL REPORT
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZQSaeP1XQkU
4. MENTAL HEALTH SERVICES IN PH
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QAOLYu6X4kE
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