THE SOFT SOIL MODEL

9 THE SOFT SOIL MODEL

As soft soils we consider near-normally consolidated clays, clayey silts and peat. A
special feature of such materials is their high degree of compressibility. This is best
demonstrated by oedometer test data as reported for instance by Janbu in his Rankine
lecture (1985). Considering tangent stiffness moduli at a reference oedometer pressure
of 100 kPa, he reports for normally consolidated clays Eoed = 1 to 4 MPa, depending on
the particular type of clay considered. The differences between these values and
stiffnesses for NC-sands are considerable as here we have values in the range of 10 to
50 MPa, at least for non-cemented laboratory samples. Hence, in oedometer testing
normally consolidated clays behave ten times softer than normally consolidated sands.
This illustrates the extreme compressibility of soft soils.
A feature of soft soils is the linear stress-dependency of soil stiffness. According to the
Hardening Soil model we have:
 
ref −σ '1 m
Eoed = Eoed
pref
at least for c = 0 and σ '3 = K0nc σ1 ' and a linear relationship is obtained for m = 1. Indeed,
on using an exponent equal to unity, the above stiffness law reduces to:

−σ '1 ∗ pref
Eoed = where λ =
λ∗ ref
Eoed

For this special case of m = 1, the Hardening Soil model yields ε̇ = λ∗ σ̇ '1 /σ '1 , which can
be integrated to obtain the well-known logarithmic compression law ε = −λ∗ ln(−σ '1 ) for
primary oedometer loading.
For many practical soft-soil studies, the modified compression index λ∗ will be known and
the PLAXIS user can compute the oedometer modulus from the relationship:

ref pref
Eoed =
λ∗
From the above considerations it would seem that the Hardening Soil model is quite
suitable for soft soils. Indeed, most soft soil problems can be analysed using this model,
but the Hardening Soil model is not suitable when considering very soft soils with a high
compressibility, i.e Eoed
ref ref
/E50 < 0.5. For such soils, the Soft Soil model may be used.
Some features of the Soft Soil model are:
• Stress dependent stiffness (logarithmic compression behaviour).
• Distinction between primary loading and unloading-reloading.
• Memory for pre-consolidation stress.
• Failure behaviour according to the Mohr-Coulomb criterion.

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9.1 ISOTROPIC STATES OF STRESS AND STRAIN (σ '1 = σ '2 = σ '3 )

In the Soft Soil model, it is assumed that there is a logarithmic relation between changes
in volumetric strain, εv , and changes in mean effective stress, p', which can be
formulated as:
 
∗ p' + c cot ϕ
εv − ε0v = −λ ln 0 (virgin compression) (9.1)
p + c cot ϕ
In order to maintain the validity of Eq. (12.1) a minimum value of p' is set equal to a unit
stress. The parameter λ∗ is the modified compression index, which determines the
compressibility of the material in primary loading. Note that λ∗ differs from the index λ as
used by Burland (1965). The difference is that Eq. (12.1) is a function of volumetric strain
instead of void ratio. Plotting Eq. (12.1) gives a straight line as shown in Figure 12.3.
During isotropic unloading and reloading a different path (line) is followed, which can be
formulated as:
 
∗ p' + c cot ϕ
εev − εe0
v = −κ ln (unloading and reloading) (9.2)
p0 + c cot ϕ
Again, a minimum value of p' is set equal to a unit stress. The parameter κ∗ is the
modified swelling index, which determines the compressibility of the material in unloading
and subsequent reloading. Note that κ∗ differs from the index κ as used by Burland. The
ratio λ∗ /κ∗ is, however, equal to Burland's ratio λ/κ. The soil response during unloading
and reloading is assumed to be elastic as denoted by the superscript e in Eq. (12.2). The
elastic behaviour is described by Hooke's law. Eq. (12.2) implies linear stress
dependency on the tangent bulk modulus such that:

Eur p' + c cot ϕ

Kur ≡ = (9.3)
3(1 − 2νur ) κ∗
in which the subscript ur denotes unloading / reloading. Note that effective parameters
are considered rather than undrained soil properties, as might be suggested by the
subscripts ur . Neither the elastic bulk modulus, Kur , nor the elastic Young's modulus,
Eur , is used as an input parameter. Instead, νur and κ∗ are used as input constants for
the part of the model that computes the elastic strains.
An infinite number of unloading / reloading lines may exist in Figure 9.1, each
corresponding to a particular value of the isotropic pre-consolidation stress pp . The
pre-consolidation stress represents the largest stress level experienced by the soil.
During unloading and reloading, this pre-consolidation stress remains constant. In
primary loading, however, the pre-consolidation stress increases with the stress level,
causing irreversible (plastic) volumetric strains.

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εv

1
λ*

κ*
1

pp ln p'

Figure 9.1 Logarithmic relation between volumetric strain and mean stress

9.2 YIELD FUNCTION

The yield function of the Soft Soil model is defined as:

f = f − pp (9.4)

where f is a function of the stress state (p', q

e) and pp , the pre-consolidation stress, is a
function of plastic strain such that:

e2
q
f = + p' (9.5)
M 2 (p' + c cot ϕ)
 
0 −εpv
pp = pp exp ∗ (9.6)
λ − κ∗
and q
e is a similar deviatoric stress quantity as defined for the cap yield surface in the
Hardening Soil model: q e = σ '1 + (α − 1)σ '2 − ασ '3 where α = (3 + sin ϕ)/(3 − sin ϕ).
The yield function (f = 0) describes an ellipse in the p' - qe-plane, as illustrated in Figure
9.2. The parameter M in Eq. (9.5) determines the height of the ellipse. The height of the
ellipse is responsible for the ratio of horizontal to vertical stresses in primary
one-dimensional compression.
As a result, the parameter M determines largely the coefficient of lateral earth pressure
K0nc . In view of this, the value of M can be chosen such that a known value of K0nc is
matched in primary one-dimensional compression. Such an interpretation and use of M
differs from the original critical state line idea, but it ensures a proper matching of K0nc .
The tops of all ellipses are located on a line with slope M in the p' - q e-plane. In (Burland,
1965) and (Burland, 1967) the M -line is referred to as the critical state line and
represents stress states at post peak failure. The parameter M is then based on the
critical state friction angle. In the Soft Soil model, however, failure is not necessarily
related to critical state. The Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion is a function of the strength
parameters ϕ and c , which might not correspond to the M -line. The isotropic
pre-consolidation stress pp determines the extent of the ellipse along p' axis. During
loading, an infinite number of ellipses may exist (see Figure 9.2) each corresponding to a

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e
q M
1 ine
re l
ailu
m bf
ulo
- Co
hr cap
Mo

threshold ellipse
p'
pp
c cot ϕ
Figure 9.2 Yield surface of the Soft Soil model in p' - q-plane

particular value of pp . In tension (p' < 0), the ellipse extends to c cot ϕ (Eq. (9.5) and
Figure 9.2). In order to make sure that the right hand side of the ellipse (i.e. the 'cap') will
remain in the 'compression' zone (p' > 0) a minimum value of c cot ϕ is adopted for pp .
For c = 0, a minimum value of pp equal to a stress unit is adopted. Hence, there is a
'threshold' ellipse as illustrated in Figure 9.2.
The value of pp is determined by volumetric plastic strain following the hardening relation,
Eq. (9.6). This equation reflects the principle that the pre-consolidation stress increases
exponentially with decreasing volumetric plastic strain (compaction). pp0 can be regarded
as the initial value of the pre-consolidation stress. The determination of pp0 is treated in
Section 2.8. According to Eq. (9.6) the initial volumetric plastic strain is assumed to be
zero.
In the Soft Soil model, the yield function, Eq. (9.4), describes the irreversible volumetric
strain in primary compression, and forms the cap of the yield contour. To model the
failure state, a perfectly-plastic Mohr-Coulomb type yield function is used. This yield
function represents a straight line in p' - q
e-plane as shown in Figure 9.2. The slope of the
failure line is smaller than the slope of the M -line.
The total yield contour, as shown by the bold lines in Figure 9.2, is the boundary of the
elastic stress area. The failure line is fixed, but the cap may increase in primary
compression. Stress paths within this boundary give only elastic strain increments,
whereas stress paths that tend to cross the boundary generally give both elastic and
plastic strain increments.


For general states of stress p', q e , the plastic behaviour of the Soft Soil model is defined
by the combination of the cap yield function and the Mohr-Coloumb yield functions. The
total yield contour in principal stress space is indicated in Figure 9.3.

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-σ '1

cap

failure surface

-σ '3

-σ '2

Figure 9.3 Representation of total yield contour of the Soft Soil model in principal stress space

9.3 PARAMETERS OF THE SOFT SOIL MODEL

The parameters of the Soft Soil model include compression and swelling indicies, which
are typical for soft soils, as well as the Mohr-Coulomb model failure parameters. In total,
the Soft Soil model requires the following parameters to be determined:
Basic parameters:
λ∗ : Modified compression index [-]
∗
κ : Modified swelling index [-]
c : Effective cohesion [kN/m2 ]
ϕ : Friction angle [◦ ]
ψ : Dilatancy angle [◦ ]
σt : Tensile strength [kN/m2 ]
Advanced parameters (use default settings):
νur : Poisson’s ratio for unloading / reloading [-]
K0nc : Coefficient of lateral stress in normal consolidation [-]
M : K0nc -parameter [-]
Figure 9.4 shows the PLAXIS window for inputting the values of the model parameters.
M is calculated automatically from the coefficient of the lateral earth pressure, K0nc , by
means of Eq. (9.8). Note that, physically, in the current model M differs from the same
parameter in the Modified Cam-Clay model where it is related to the material friction.

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Figure 9.4 Parameters tabsheet for the Soft Soil model

Modified swelling index and modified compression index

These parameters can be obtained from an isotropic compression test including isotropic
unloading. When plotting the logarithm of the mean stress as a function of the volumetric
strain for clay-type materials, the plot can be approximated by two straight lines (see
Figure 9.1). The slope of the primary loading line gives the modified compression index,
and the slope of the unloading (or swelling) line gives the modified swelling index. Note
that there is a difference between the modified indices κ∗ and λ∗ and the original
Cam-Clay parameters κ and λ. The latter parameters are defined in terms of the void
ratio e instead of the volumetric strain εv .
Apart from the isotropic compression test, the parameters κ∗ and λ∗ can be obtained
from a one-dimensional compression test. Here a relationship exists with the
internationally recognised parameters for one-dimensional compression and swelling, Cc
and Cs . These relationships are summarised in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1a Relationship to Cam-Clay parameters

1. λ∗ = λ 2. κ∗ = κ
1+e 1+e
Table 9.1b Relationship to internationally normalised parameters

3. λ∗ = Cc 4. κ∗ ≈ 2Cs
2.3 (1 + e) 2.3 (1 + e)

Remarks on Table 9.1:

• In relations 1 and 2, the void ratio, e, is assumed to be constant. In fact, e will
change during a compression test, but this will give a relatively small difference in
void ratio. For e one can use the average void ratio that occurs during the test or just
the initial value.
• In relation 4 there is no exact relation between κ∗ and the one-dimensional swelling
index Cs , because the ratio of horizontal and vertical stresses changes during
one-dimensional unloading. For this approximation it is assumed that the average
stress state during unloading is an isotropic stress state, i.e. the horizontal and

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vertical stresses are equal.

• In practice, swelling is often assumed to be equivalent to recompression behaviour,
which, may not be right. Hence κ∗ should be based on Cs rather than the
recompression index Cr .
• The factor 2.3 in relation 3 is obtained from the ratio between the logarithm of base
10 and the natural logarithm.
• The ratio λ∗ /κ∗ (=λ/κ) ranges, in general, between 2.5 and 7.

Cohesion
The cohesion has the dimension of stresses. A small effective cohesion may be used,
including a cohesion of zero. Entering a cohesion will result in an elastic region that is
partly located in the 'tension' zone, as illustrated in Figure 9.2. The left hand side of the
ellipse crosses the p'-axis at a value of c cot ϕ. In order to maintain the right hand side of
the ellipse (i.e. the cap) in the 'pressure' zone of the stress space, the isotropic
pre-consolidation stress pp has a minimum value of c cot ϕ. This means that entering a
cohesion larger than zero may result in a state of 'over-consolidation', depending on the
magnitude of the cohesion and the initial stress state. As a result, a stiffer behaviour is
obtained during the onset of loading. It is not possible to specify undrained shear strength
by means of high cohesion and a friction angle of zero. Input of model parameters should
always be based on effective values. The PLAXIS option to model undrained behaviour
using effective parameters may be used (Undrained (A). Please note that the resulting
effective stress path may not be accurate, which may lead to an unrealistic undrained
shear strength. Hence, when using Undrained (A) as drainage type, the resulting stress
state must be checked against a known undrained shear strength profile.

Friction angle
The effective angle of internal friction represents the increase of shear strength with
effective stress level. It is specified in degrees. Zero friction angle is not allowed. On the
other hand, care should be taken with the use of high friction angles. It is often
recommended to use ϕcν , i.e. the critical state friction angle, rather than a higher value
based on small strains. Moreover, using a high friction angle will substantially increase
the computational requirements.

Dilatancy angle
For the type of materials, which can be described by the Soft Soil model, the dilatancy
can generally be neglected. A dilatancy angle of zero degrees is considered in the
standard settings of the Soft Soil model.

Poisson's ratio
In the Soft Soil model, the Poisson's ratio ν is the well known pure elastic constant rather
than the pseudo-elasticity constant as used in the linear elastic perfectly-plastic model.
Its value will usually be in the range between 0.1 and 0.2. If the standard setting for the
Soft Soil model parameters is selected, then νur = 0.15 is automatically used. For loading
of normally consolidated materials, Poisson's ratio plays a minor role, but it becomes
important in unloading problems. For example, for unloading in a one-dimensional

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compression test (oedometer), the relatively small Poisson's ratio will result in a small
decrease of the lateral stress compared with the decrease in vertical stress. As a result,
the ratio of horizontal and vertical stress increases, which is a well-known phenomenon in
overconsolidated materials. Hence, Poisson's ratio should not be based on the normally
consolidated K0nc -value, but on the ratio of the horizontal stress increment to the vertical
stress increment in oedometer unloading and reloading test such that:
νur ∆σxx
= (unloading and reloading) (9.7)
1 − νur ∆σyy

K0nc -parameter
The parameter M is automatically determined based on the coefficient of lateral earth
pressure in normally consolidated condition, K0nc , as entered by the user. The exact
relation between M and K0nc gives (Brinkgreve, 1994):
s
2

1 − K0nc 1 − K0nc (1 − 2νur )(λ∗ /κ∗ − 1)
M=3
+

(9.8)
1 + 2K0nc 2 1 + 2K0nc (1 − 2νur )λ∗ /κ∗ − 1 − K0nc (1 + νur )

The value of M is indicated in the input window. As can be seen from Eq. (9.8), M is also
influenced by the Poisson's ratio νur and by the ratio λ∗ /κ∗ . However, the influence of
K0nc is dominant. Eq. (9.8) can be approximated by:

M ≈ 3.0 − 2.8K0nc (9.9)

9.4 STATE PARAMETERS IN THE SOFT SOIL MODEL

In addition to the output of standard stress and strain, the Soft Soil model provides output
(when being used) on state variables such as the hardening parameter γ p and the
isotropic pre-consolidation stress pp . These parameters can be visualised by selecting
the State parameters option from the stresses menu. An overview of available state
parameters is given below:
peq : Equivalent isotropic stress [kN/m2 ]

q2
peq = p' +
M 2 (p' − c cot ϕ)
pp : Isotropic preconsolidation stress [kN/m2 ]
OCR : Isotropic over-consolidation ratio (OCR = Pp /peq ) [-]
γ p
: Hardening parameter (equivalent mobilised plastic [-]
shear strain)
Eur : Current stress-dependent elastic Young's modulus [-]
c : Current depth-dependent cohesion [-]

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9.5 ON THE USE OF THE SOFT SOIL MODEL IN DYNAMIC CALCULATIONS

When using the Soft Soil model in dynamic calculations, the modified swelling index κ∗
needs to be selected such that the model correctly predicts wave velocities in the soil.
This generally requires a smaller value than just an unloading-reloading index.
When subjected to dynamic or cyclic loading, the Soft Soil model will generate plastic
strains when the preconsolidation stress is increased. However, it should be noted that
stress cycles within the current hardening contour will only generate elastic strains and
no (hysteretic) damping, nor accumulation of strains or pore pressure, nor liquefaction. In
order to account for the soil damping in cyclic loading, Rayleigh damping may be defined.

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