UNIT-I

Introduction to DBMS:

Overview, File system vs DBMS, advantages of DBMS, storage data, queries, transaction management,
DBMS structure.

Data Models:

Data modelling and data models, the importance of data models, data model basic building blocks, the
evolution of data models, degree of data abstraction.

Introduction to DBMS:

Data and Information

Data are simply facts or figures, bits of information. When data are processed, interpreted, organized,
structured or presented so as to make them meaningful or useful, they are called
information. Information provides context for data.

Data usually refers to raw data, or unprocessed data. It is the basic form of data, data that hasn’t been
analysed or processed in any manner. Once the data is analysed, it is considered as information.
Information is "knowledge communicated or received concerning a particular fact or circumstance."
Information is a sequence of symbols that can be interpreted as a message. It provides knowledge or
insight about a certain matter.

Some differences between data and information:

 Data is used as input for the computer system. Information is the output of data.

 Data is unprocessed facts figures. Information is processed data.

 Data doesn’t depend on Information. Information depends on data.

 Data is not specific. Information is specific.

 Data is a single unit. A group of data which carries news and meaning is called Information.

 Data doesn’t carry a meaning. Information must carry a logical meaning.

 Data is the raw material. Information is the product.

Database and Database Management System:

Database:

The database is a collection of inter-related data which is used to retrieve, insert and delete the data
efficiently. It is also used to organize the data in the form of a table, schema, views, and reports, etc.

For example: The college Database organizes the data about the admin, staff, students and faculty etc.
Using the database, you can easily retrieve, insert, and delete the information.

Database Management System:

A DBMS is a collection of inter related data and a set of programs to manipulate those data.
Database management system is software which is used to manage the database.

DBMS = Database + set of programs

A database management system (DBMS) is a computerized system that enables users to create and
maintain a database. The DBMS is a general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of
defining, constructing, manipulating, and sharing databases among various users and applications.
Defining a database involves specifying the data types, structures, and constraints of the data to be stored
in the database. The database definition or descriptive information is also stored by the DBMS in the form
of a database catalog or dictionary; it is called meta-data. Constructing the database is the process of
storing the data on some storage medium that is controlled by the DBMS. Manipulating a database
includes functions such as querying the database to retrieve specific data, updating the database to reflect
changes in the miniworld and generating reports from the data. Sharing a database allows multiple users
and programs to access the database simultaneously.
An application program accesses the database by sending queries or requests for data to the DBMS.
A query typically causes some data to be retrieved; a transaction may cause some data to be read and some
data to be written into the database. Other important functions provided by the DBMS include protecting
the database and maintaining it over a long period of time. Protection includes system protection against
hardware or software malfunction (or crashes) and security protection against unauthorized or malicious
access. A typical large database may have a life cycle of many years, so the DBMS must be able to
maintain the database system by allowing the system to evolve as requirements change over time.
There are many different types of database management systems, ranging from small systems that run on
personal computers to huge systems that run on mainframes.
 DBMS applications:
There are different fields where a database management system is utilized. Following are a few
applications which utilize the information base administration framework – 

 Railway Reservation System

 Library Management System
 Banking
 Education Sector
 Credit card exchanges
 Social Media Sites
 Broadcast communications
 Account
 Online Shopping
 Human Resource Management
 Manufacturing

Disadvantage of DBMS:
1. DBMS software and hardware (networking installation) cost is high
2. The processing overhead by the dbms for implementation of security, integrity and sharing of the
data.
3. centralized database control
4. Setup of the database system requires more knowledge, money, skills, and time.
5. The complexity of the database may result in poor performance.
Examples of DBMS:
 IBM DB2.
 Microsoft Access.
 Mango DB
 Microsoft SQL Server.
 MySQL.
 Oracle RDBMS.

Function of DBMS:
1. Defining database schema: it must give facility for defining the database structure also specifies
access rights to authorized users.
2. Manipulation of the database: The dbms must have functions like insertion of record into database
updation of data, deletion of data, retrieval of data
3. Sharing of database: The DBMS must share data items for multiple users by maintaining consistency
of data.
4. Protection of database: It must protect the database against unauthorized users.
5. Database recovery: If for any reason the system fails DBMS must facilitate data base recovery
File oriented approach:

The traditional file oriented approach to information processing has for each application a separate master
file and its own set of personal file. In file oriented approach the program dependent on the files and files
become dependent on the files and files become dependents upon the programs

Disadvantages of file oriented approach:

Data redundancy and inconsistency: The same information may be written in several files. This
redundancy leads to higher storage and access cost. It may lead data inconsistency that is the various
copies of the same data may longer agree for example a changed customer address may be reflected in
single file but not elsewhere in the system.
Difficulty in accessing data: The conventional file processing system does not allow data to
retrieve in a convenient and efficient manner according to user choice.
Data isolation: Because data are scattered in various file and files may be in different formats with new
application programs to retrieve the appropriate data is difficult.
Integrity Problems: Developers enforce data validation in the system by adding appropriate code in
the various application program. However when new constraints are added, it is difficult to change the
programs to enforce them.
Atomicity: It is difficult to ensure atomicity in a file processing system when transaction failure occurs
due to power failure, networking problems etc.
(Atomicity: either all operations of the transaction are reflected properly in the database or non are)
Concurrent access: In the file processing system it is not possible to access a same file for
transaction at same time
Security problems: There is no security provided in file processing system to secure the data from
unauthorized user access.
 Difference between File System and DBMS:
 

Basis File System DBMS

1. Structure File system is a software that DBMS is a software for

manages and organizes the files in managing the database.
a storage medium within a
computer.

2. Data Redundant data can be present in In DBMS there is no

Redundancy a file system. redundant data.

3.Backup and It doesn’t provide backup and It provides backup and

Recovery recovery of data if it is lost. recovery of data even if it is
lost.

4. Query There is no efficient query Efficient query processing is

 Basis File System DBMS

processing processing in file system. there in DBMS.

5.Consistency There is less data consistency in There is more data

file system. consistency because of the
process of normalization.

6. Complexity It is less complex as compared to It has more complexity in

DBMS. handling as compared to file
system.

7.Security File systems provide less security DBMS has more security
Constraints in comparison to DBMS. mechanisms as compared to
file system.

8.Cost It is less expensive than DBMS. It has a comparatively

higher cost than a file
system.
 Advantages of DBMS:
 Data independence
 Efficient data access
 Data integrity and data security
 Data administration
 Concurrent access and crash recovery
 Reduced application development time

Data Independence
Data independence refers to characteristic of being able to modify the schema at one
level of the database system without altering the schema at the next higher level.

Reducing Data Redundancy

The file based data management systems contained multiple files that were stored in
many different locations in a system or even across multiple systems. Because of this,
there were sometimes multiple copies of the same file which lead to data redundancy. 
This is prevented in a database as there is a single database and any change in it is
reflected immediately. Because of this, there is no chance of encountering duplicate
data.

Sharing of Data

In a database, the users of the database can share the data among themselves. There are
various levels of authorisation to access the data, and consequently the data can only be
shared based on the correct authorisation protocols being followed. 
Many remote users can also access the database simultaneously and share the data
between themselves.

Data Integrity

Data integrity means that the data is accurate and consistent in the database. Data
Integrity is very important as there are multiple databases in a DBMS. All of these
databases contain data that is visible to multiple users. So it is necessary to ensure that
the data is correct and consistent in all the databases and for all the users. 
Data Security

Data Security is vital concept in a database. Only authorised users should be allowed to
access the database and their identity should be authenticated using a username and
password. Unauthorised users should not be allowed to access the database under any
circumstances as it violates the integrity constraints.

Privacy

The privacy rule in a database means only the authorized users can access a database
according to its privacy constraints. There are levels of database access and a user can
only view the data he is allowed to. For example - In social networking sites, access
constraints are different for different accounts a user may want to access.

Backup and Recovery

Database Management System automatically takes care of backup and recovery. The
users don't need to backup data periodically because this is taken care of by the DBMS.
Moreover, it also restores the database after a crash or system failure to its previous
condition. 

Data Consistency

Data consistency is ensured in a database because there is no data redundancy. All data
appears consistently across the database and the data is same for all the users viewing
the database. Moreover, any changes made to the database are immediately reflected to
all the users and there is no data inconsistency.

QUERIES IN DBMS:

A query is a statement requesting the retrieval of information. The portion of a DML

that involves information retrieval is called a query language.
A DBMS provides a specialized language, called the query language, in which
queries can be posed. A very attractive feature of the relational model is that it
supports powerful query languages.
 Different types of queries in DBMS are:

 Data definition language queries (DDL)

 Data manipulation language queries (DML)
 Data control language queries (DCL)
 Transaction language queries (TCL)

Transaction Management:
A transaction is a set of logically related operations. For example, you are transferring
money from your bank account to your friend’s account, the set of operations would be:

Simple Transaction Example

1. Read your account balance

2. Deduct the amount from your balance
3. Write the remaining balance to your account
4. Read your friend’s account balance
5. Add the amount to his account balance
6. Write the new updated balance to his account
 This whole set of operations can be called a transaction.The main problem that can
happen during a transaction is that the transaction can fail before finishing the all the
operations in the set. This can happen due to power failure, system crash etc. This is a
serious problem that can leave database in an inconsistent state. Assume that
transaction fail after third operation (see the example above) then the amount would be
deducted from your account but your friend will not receive it.

To solve this problem, we have the following two operations

1. Commit: If all the operations in a transaction are completed successfully then

commit those changes to the database permanently.

2. Rollback: If any of the operation fails then rollback all the changes done by previous
operations.

Even though these operations can help us avoiding several issues that may arise during
transaction but they are not sufficient when two transactions are running concurrently.
To handle those problems the database system maintains the ACID properties.

1. Atomicity: This property states that a transaction must be treated as an atomic unit, that
is, either all of its operations are executed or none. There must be no state in a database
where a transaction is left partially completed.
2. Consistency: A transaction enforces consistency in the system state by ensuring that at
the end of any transaction the system is in a valid state.
3. Isolation: For every pair of transactions, one transaction should start execution only
when the other finished execution. I have already discussed the example of Isolation in
the Consistency property above.
4. Durability: Once a transaction completes successfully, the changes it has made into the
database should be permanent even if there is a system failure. The recovery-
management component of database systems ensures the durability of transaction

Transaction state diagram:

1. Active: In this state, the transaction is being executed. This is the initial state of every
transaction.
2. Partially Committed: When a transaction executes its final operation, it is said to be in
a partially committed state.
3. Failed: A transaction is said to be in a failed state if any of the checks made by the
database recovery system fails. A failed transaction can no longer proceed further.
4. Aborted: If any of the checks fails and the transaction has reached a failed state, then
the recovery manager rolls back all its write operations on the database to bring the
database back to its original state where it was prior to the execution of the transaction.
Transactions in this state are called aborted. The database recovery module can select
one of the two operations after a transaction aborts −
a. Re-start the transaction
b. Kill the transaction
5. Committed: If a transaction executes all its operations successfully, it is said to be
committed. All its effects are now permanently established on the database system.
DBMS Structure:
 A database system is partitioned into modules that deal with each of the responsibilities
of the overall system.
 The functional components of a database system can be broadly divided into the
storage manager and the query processor components.
 The storage manager is important because databases typically require a large amount of
storage space.
 The query processor is important because it helps the database system to simplify and
facilitate access to data.
 It is the job of the database system to translate updates and queries written in a
nonprocedural language, at the logical level, into an efficient sequence of operations at
the physical level.
Query Processor

 The query processor components include

 DDL interpreter, which interprets DDL statements and records the definitions in the
data dictionary.
 DML compiler, which translates DML statements in a query language into an
evaluation plan consisting of low-level instructions that the query evaluation engine
understands.
 A query can usually be translated into any of a number of alternative evaluation
plans that all give the same result. The DML compiler also performs query
optimization, that is, it picks the lowest cost evaluation plan from among the
alternatives.
 Query evaluation engine, which executes low- level instructions generated by the
DML compiler

Storage Manager

A storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between the low-
level data stored in the database and the application programs and queries submitted to
the system. The storage manager is responsible for the interaction with the file
manager. The raw data are stored on the disk using the file system, which is usually
provided by a conventional operating system. The storage manager translates the
 various DML statements into low- level file-system commands. Thus, the storage
manager is responsible for storing, retrieving, and updating data in the database.
The storage manager components include:
Authorization and integrity manager: which tests for the satisfaction of integrity
constraints and checks the authority of users to access data?
Transaction manager: which ensures that the database remains in a consistent
(correct) state despite system failures, and that concurrent transaction executions
proceed without conflicting.
File manager, which manages the allocation of space on disk storage and the data
structures used to represent information stored on disk.
Buffer manager, which is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main
memory, and deciding what data to cache i main memory. The buffer manager is a
critical part of the database system, since it enables the database to handle data sizes
that are much larger than the size of main memory
Transaction Manager, A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a
single logical function in a database application. Each transaction is a unit of both
atomicity and consistency. Thus, we require that transactions do not violate any
database-consistency constraints. That is, if the database was consistent when a
transaction started, the database must be consistent when the transaction successfully
terminates. Transaction manager ensures that the database remains in a consistent
(correct) state despite system failures (e.g., power failures and operating system
crashes) and transaction failures.

Types of Database Users

1. Database Administrator (DBA):

DBA is responsible for:
 Deciding the instances for the database.
 Defining the Schema
 Liaising with Users
 Define Security
 Back-up and Recovery
  Monitoring the performance
2. Database Designers:
Database designers design the appropriate structure for the database, where we share
data.
3. System Analyst:
System analyst analyses the requirements of end users, especially naïve and parametric
end users.
4. Application Programmers:
Application programmers are computer professionals, who write application programs.
5. Naïve Users / Parametric Users:
Naïve Users are Un-sophisticated users, which has no knowledge of the database.
These users are like a layman, which has a little bit of knowledge of the database.
Naive Users are just to work on developed applications and get the desired result.
Example: Railway’s ticket booking users are naive users. Or Clerical staff in any bank
is a naïve user because they don’t have any DBMS knowledge but they still use the
database and perform their given task.
6. Sophisticated Users:
Sophisticated users can be engineers, scientists, business analyst, who are familiar with
the database. These users interact with the database but they do not write programs
7. Casual Users / Temporary Users:
These types of users communicate with the database for a little period of time.
 Storing Data in DBMS/Data Models:
A DBMS allows a user to define the data to be stored in terms of a data model.
A data model is a collection of high-level data description constructs that hide many low-level storage
details. A data model is a collection of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of a database

We can categorize data models according to the types of concepts they use to describe the database
structure.
 High-level or conceptual data models provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive data,
whereas
 Low-level or physical data models provide concepts that describe the details of how data is stored on the
computer storage media, typically magnetic disks. Concepts provided by physical data models are
generally meant for computer specialists, not for end users.
Between these two extremes is a class of Representational or implementation data models, which provide
concepts that may be easily understood by end users.

ER Model:
Conceptual data models or semantic data model is a more abstract, high-level data model that makes it
easier for a user to come up with a good initial description of the data in an enterprise. A database design
in terms of a semantic model serves as a useful starting point and is subsequently translated into a database
design in terms of the data model the DBMS actually supports. A widely used semantic data model called
the entity-relationship (ER) model allows us to pictorially denote entities and the relationships among
them. It use concepts such as entities, attributes, and relationships.
An entity represents a real-world object or concept, such as an employee or a project from the miniworld
that is described in the database. An attribute represents some property of interest that further describes an
entity, such as the employee’s name or salary. A relationship among two or more entities represents an
association among the entities, for example,
 Entity Relationship Model Advantages:
 Visual modelling yields conceptual simplicity
 Visual representation makes it an effective communication tool
 Is integrated with the dominant relational model
Disadvantages:

 Limited constraint representation

 Limited relationship representation
 No data manipulation language
 Loss of information content occurs when attributes are removed from entities to avoid crowded displays
Relational model:
In relational database models, three key terms are used extensively: relations, attributes, and domains. A
relation is a table with columns and rows. The named columns of the relation are called attributes, and the
domain is the set of values the attributes are allowed to take.

Relational Model Advantages

 Structural independence is promoted using independent tables

 Tabular view improves conceptual simplicity
 Ad hoc query capability is based on SQL
 Isolates the end user from physical-level details
 Improves implementation and management simplicity
Disadvantages:

 Requires substantial hardware and system software overhead

 Conceptual simplicity gives untrained people the tools to use a good system poorly
 May promote information problems
Hierarchical model:
In a hierarchical model, data is organized into a tree-like structure, implying a single parent for each
record. Hierarchical structures were widely used in the early mainframe database management systems,
This structure allows one one-to-many relationship between two types of data. This structure is very
efficient to describe many relationships in the real world.  The main drawback of this model is that, it can
have only one to many relationships between nodes.

Hierarchical Model Advantages

 Promotes data sharing

 Parent/child relationship promotes conceptual simplicity and data integrity
 Database security is provided and enforced by DBMS
 Efficient with 1:M relationships
Disadvantages

 Requires knowledge of physical data storage characteristics

 Navigational system requires knowledge of hierarchical path
 Changes in structure require changes in all application programs
 Implementation limitations
 No data definition
 Lack of standards
 Network model:

The network model expands upon the hierarchical structure, allowing many-to-many relationships in a

tree-like structure that allows multiple parents. A record may be an owner in any number of sets, and a
member in any number of sets. It was most popular before being replaced by the relational model. The
network model is able to represent redundancy in data more efficiently than in the hierarchical model, and
there can be more than one path from an ancestor node to a descendant.

Network Model Advantages:

 Conceptual simplicity
 Handles more relationship types
 Data access is flexible
 Data owner/member relationship promotes data integrity
 Conformance to standards
 Includes data definition language (DDL) and data manipulation language (DML)
Disadvantages:

 Navigational system yields complex implementation, application development, and management

 Structural changes require changes in all application programs
Object oriented data model:
Object oriented data models are also frequently utilized as high-level conceptual models, particularly in the

software engineering domain. Uses the E-R modelling as a basis but extended to
include encapsulation, inheritance
 Objects have both state and behaviour. State is defined by attributes. Behaviour is defined by methods
(functions or procedures)
 Designer defines classes with attributes, methods, and relationships
 Class constructor method creates object instances
 Each object has a unique object ID
 Classes related by class hierarchies

Object-Oriented Model

Advantages

 Semantic content is added

 Visual representation includes semantic content
 Inheritance promotes data Integrity
Disadvantages

 Slow development of standards caused vendors to supply their own enhancements

 Compromised widely accepted standard
 Complex navigational system
 Learning curve is steep
 High system overhead slows transaction
Physical data model:
Physical data models describe how data is stored as files in the computer by representing information such
as record formats, record orderings, and access paths. Physical data model represent the model where it
describes how data are stored in computer memory, how they are scattered and ordered in the memory, and
how they would be retrieved from memory. Basically physical data model represents the data at data layer
or internal layer. It represents each table, their columns and specifications, constraints like primary key,
foreign key etc. It basically represents how each tables are built and related to each other in DB.
Above diagram shows how physical data model is designed. It is represented as UML diagram along with
table and its columns. Primary key is represented at the top. The relationship between the tables is
represented by interconnected arrows from table to table. Above STUDENT table is related to CLASS and
SUBJECT is related to CLASS. The above diagram depicts CLASS as the parent table and it has 2 child
tables – STUDENT and SUBJECT.
Importance of Data Models:
1. Are a communication tool. Data models can facilitate interaction among the designer, the applications
programmer, and the end user.
2. Give an overall view of the database
3. Organize data for various users
4. Are an abstraction for the creation of good data base.

Evolution of Data Models:

 Data abstraction:

It is a process of hiding unwanted or irrelevant details from the end user. It provides a different view and
helps in achieving data independence which is used to enhance the security of data.

Mainly there are three levels of abstraction for DBMS, which are as follows:

 Physical or Internal Level

 Logical or Conceptual Level

 View or External Level

Physical or Internal Level

It is the lowest level of abstraction for DBMS which defines how the data is actually
stored, it defines data-structures to store data and access methods used by the
database. Actually, it is decided by developers or database application programmers
how to store the data in the database.

So, overall, the entire database is described in this level that is physical or internal
level. It is a very complex level to understand. For example, customer's information
is stored in tables and data is stored in the form of blocks of storage such as bytes,
gigabytes etc.

Logical or Conceptual Level

Logical level is the intermediate level or next higher level. It describes what data is
stored in the database and what relationship exists among those data. It tries to
describe the entire or whole data because it describes what tables to be created and
what are the links among those tables that are created.

It is less complex than the physical level. Logical level is used by developers or
database administrators (DBA). So, overall, the logical level contains tables (fields
and attributes) and relationships among table attributes.

View or External Level

It is the highest level. In view level, there are different levels of views and every
view only defines a part of the entire data. It also simplifies interaction with the user
and it provides many views or multiple views of the same database.

View level can be used by all users (all levels' users). This level is the least complex
and easy to understand.

For example, a user can interact with a system using GUI that is view level and can
enter details at GUI or screen and the user does not know how data is stored and
what data is stored, this detail is hidden from the user.

Internal level or Physical level of abstraction is the lowest level of abstraction and
External or View level of abstraction is the highest level of abstraction. Based on
these levels of abstraction, we have two types of data independence.
1. Physical Data Independence
2. Logical Data Independence

Physical Data Independence

Physical Data Independence means changing the physical level without affecting
the logical level or conceptual level. Using this property, we can change the storage
device of the database without affecting the logical schema.

The changes in the physical level may include changes using the following −

 A new storage device like magnetic tape, hard disk, etc.

 A new data structure for storage.
 A different data access method or using an alternative files organization technique.
 Changing the location of the database.

Logical Data Independence

Logical view of data is the user view of the data. It presents data in the form that
can be accessed by the end users. Logical Data Independence says that users should
be able to manipulate the Logical View of data without any information of its
physical storage. Software or the computer program is used to manipulate the
logical view of the data.

Database administrator is the one who decides what information is to be kept in the
database and how to use the logical level of abstraction. It provides the global view
of Data. It also describes what data is to be stored in the database along with the
relationship. The data independence provides the database in simple structure. It is
based on application domain entities to provide the functional requirement. It
provides abstraction of system functional requirements. Static structure for the
logical view is defined in the class object diagrams. Users cannot manipulate the
logical structure of the database. The changes in the logical level may include

 Change the data definition. Adding, deleting, or updating any new attribute, entity
or relationship in the database.