Highway geometric design ME

SOLVED QUESTION PAPERS

UNIT 1

1. Explain the design control and criteria which governs the design and highway.

Factors affecting geometric design are as follows

Design speed:

Design speed is the single most important factor that affects the geometric design. It directly affects
the sight distance, horizontal curve, and the length of vertical curves. Since the speed of vehicles
vary with driver, terrain etc, a design speed is adopted for all the geometric design.
Topography:
It is easier to construct roads with required standards for a plain terrain. However, for a given design
speed, the construction cost increases multi form with the gradient and the terrain.

Traffic factors :
It is of crucial importance in highway design, is the traffic data both current and future estimates.
Traffic volume indicates the level of services (LOS) for which the highway is being planned and
directly affects the geometric features such as width, alignment, grades etc., without traffic data it is
very difficult to design any highway

Design Hourly Volume and Capacity:

The general unit for measuring traffic on highway is the Annual Average Daily Traffic volume,
abbreviated as AADT. The traffic flow (or) volume keeps fluctuating with time, from a low value
during off peak hours to the highest value during the peak hour. It will be uneconomical to design
the roadway facilities for the peak traffic flow.

Environmental and other factors: -

The environmental factors like air pollution, noise pollution, landscaping, aesthetics and
other global conditions should be given due considerations in the geometric design of roads.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 1

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

2. Explain PCU value and factors affecting the PCU values.

Different classes of vehicles such as cars, vans, buses, trucks, auto rickshaw, motor cycles,
pedal cycles etc are found to use the common roadway facilities without segregation. The flow of
traffic with unrestricted mixing of different vehicle classes forms the ‘Mixed Traffic Flow’.In a
mixed traffic condition, the traffic flow characteristics are very much complexwhen compared to
homogeneous traffic consisting of passenger cars only. It is very difficult to estimate the traffic
volume and capacity of roadway facilities under mixed traffic flow. Hence the different vehicle
classes are converted to one common standard vehicle unit.

Factors affecting PCU Values are as follows

Vehicles characteristics such as dimensions, power, speed, acceleration and braking
characteristics.
Transverse and longitudinal gaps (or) clearances between moving vehicles which
depends upon speed, driver characteristics.
Traffic stream characteristics such as composition of different vehicle classes, mean
speed and speed distribution of mixed traffic stream, volume to capacity ratio etc.
Roadway characteristics such as road geometrics includes gradient, curve etc, rural or
urban road, presence of intersections and the types of intersections.
Regulation and control of traffic such as speed limit, one-way traffic, presence of
different traffic control devices etc.
Environmental and climatic conditions

3.Explain the objects of highway geometric design. List the various geometric elements to
be considered in the highway design.

The geometric design of highways deals with the dimensions and layout of
visiblefeatures of the highway. The emphasis of the geometric design is to address the
requirement of the driver and the vehicle such as safety, comfort, efficiency, etc. The features

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 2

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

normally considered are the cross section elements, sight distance consideration, horizontal
curvature, gradients, and intersection. The design of these features is to a great extend influenced
by driver behavior and psychology, vehicle characteristics, track characteristics such as speed
and volume.

The objective of geometric design is to provide maximum efficiency, in traffic operations with
maximum safety at reasonable cost.
The emphasis of the geometric design is to address the requirement of the driver and the vehicle
such as safety, comfort, efficiency, etc.
Geometric design of highways deals with the following elements:
1. Cross-section elements
2. Sight distance considerations
3. Horizontal alignment details
4. Vertical alignment details
5. Intersection elements

4. Explain the important functional aspects of geometric design.

The functional aspects of geometric design is as follows

1. To ensure the design of Cross-section elements - It includes cross slope, various widths of
road
2.To design Sight distance considerations - It the visible land ahead of the driver at horizontal
and vertical curves and at intersections for the safe movements of vehicles.
3. To ensure the design of Horizontal alignment - Horizontal curves are introduced to change the
direction of road. It includes features like super elevation, radius of curve, transition curve.
4.To ensure the design of Vertical alignment - Its components like gradient, vertical curves (i.e.,
summit curve and valley curve) sight distance and design of length of curves.
5. To ensure the design of Intersection elements – Proper design of intersection is very much
essential for the safe and efficient traffic movements. Its features like layout, capacity, etc.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 3

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

UNIT2

1. List the important pavement surface characteristics and explain briefly:

i) Friction and factors affecting friction; ii) Pavement unevenness.

Friction

Friction between the wheel and the pavement surface is a crucial factor in the design of horizontal
curves and thus the safe operating speed. Further, it also affects the acceleration and deceleration
ability of vehicles. Lack of adequate friction can cause skidding or slipping of vehicles.
Skidding happens when the path traveled along the road surface is more than the
circumferential movement of the wheels due to friction
Slip occurs when the wheel revolves more than the corresponding longitudinal movement
along the road
Various factors that affect friction are:
Type of the pavement (like bituminous, concrete, or gravel),
Condition of the pavement (dry or wet, hot or cold, etc),
Condition of the tire (new or old), and

Speed and load of the vehicle

Unevenness

It affects the vehicle operating cost, speed, riding comfort, safety, fuel consumption and
wear and tear of tires. Unevenness index is a measure of unevenness which is the cumulative
measure of vertical undulation of the pavement surface recorded per unit horizontal length of the
road. An unevenness index value less than 1500mm/km is considered as good, a value less than
2500 mm/km is satisfactory up to speed of 100 kmph and values greater than 3200 mm/km is
considered as uncomfortable even for 55 kmph.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 4

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

2. Write note on the following and mention the IRC standards:

i) Carriage way ii) Right of way.

carriage way or the width of the pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane and
number of lanes. Width of a traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the clearance.
Side clearance improves operating speed and safety. The maximum permissible width of a vehicle
is 2.44 and the desirable side clearance or single lane traffic is 0.68 m. This require minimum of
lane width of 3.75 m for a single lane road (Figure 12:2a).However, the side clearance required is
about 0.53 m, on either side and 1.06 m in the center. Therefore, a two lane road require minimum
of 3.5 meter for each lane (Figure 12:2b). The desirable carriage way width recommended by IRC
is given in Table 12:2

Right of way

Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its alignment.
It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may
reasonably provide for future development. To prevent ribbon development along highways,
control lines and building lines may be provided. Control line is a line which represents the

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 5

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

nearest limits of future uncontrolled building activity in relation to a road. Building line represents
a line on either side of the road; between which and the road no building activity is permitted at
all. The right of way width is governed by:
Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and
road margins.
Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography and the
vertical alignment.
Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil type etc.
Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 6

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

3. Draw the typical cross sections of the following roads indicating all the details:
i) NH - in cutting ii) SH - in embankment.

4. What is camber? What are the objectives of providing camber? When straight
and parabolic cambers are preferred?

Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the
transverse direction to drain off rain water from road surface.
The objectives of providing camber are:
Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads
Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety
Too steep slope is undesirable for it will erode the surface. Camber is measured in 1 in n or n%
(Eg. 1 in 50 or2%) and the value depends on the type of pavement surface. The values suggested
by IRC for various categories of pavement is given in Table 12:1 The common types of camber
are parabolic, straight, or combination of them
When a flat camber is required incase of rigid pavement then straight camber is
preferred and when the movement of fast moving vehicles where the speed is more

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 7

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

5. What is right of way? State the factors influencing right of way

Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its alignment.
It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway and may
reasonably provide for future development. To prevent ribbon development along highways,
control lines and building lines may be provided. Control line is a line which represents the
nearest limits of future uncontrolled building activity in relation to a road. Building line represents
a line on either side of the road; between which and the road no building activity is permitted at
all. The right of way width is governed by:
Width of formation: It depends on the category of the highway and width of roadway and
road margins.
Height of embankment or depth of cutting: It is governed by the topography and the
vertical alignment.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 8

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Side slopes of embankment or cutting: It depends on the height of the slope, soil type etc.
Drainage system and their size which depends on rainfall, topography etc.

6. Objectives of providing transition curves

7.Mention the various cross-sectional elements to be designed for a pavement and explain
them briefly.

Geometric design of highways deals with the following elements:

1. Cross-section elements
2. Sight distance considerations
3. Horizontal alignment details
4. Vertical alignment details
5. Intersection elements

1.Cross-section elements - It includes cross slope, various widths of road (i.e., width of
pavement, formation width and road land width), surface characteristics and features in the road
margins.

2.Sight distance considerations - It the visible land ahead of the driver at horizontal and
vertical curves and at intersections for the safe movements of vehicles.

3.Horizontal alignment - Horizontal curves are introduced to change the direction of road. It
includes features like super elevation, radius of curve, transition curve, extra widening and
setback distance.

4.Vertical alignment - Its components like gradient, vertical curves (i.e., summit curve and
valley curve) sight distance and design of length of curves.

5. Intersection elements – Proper design of intersection is very much essential for the safe and
efficient traffic movements. Its features like layout, capacity, etc.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 9

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

8. Design the road hump as per IRC recommendations, with a neat sketch

These are round shaped elevated surface formed across roadways as physical devices to
reduce the speed of the vehicles on minor or secondary or unimportant uncontrolled roads

The road humps mdesign may be carried out based upon the finding of field experiment.
They are observed that the ratio of cross sectional area to width of the road hump is
significant for controlling hump cross speed,this is given the equation.

1/V85 = 0.0212+ 0.4072(A/W)

Where V85 = Desired design 85th percentile of the hump crossing speed
A/W = Area to width ratio.

UNIT 3
1. Draw a neat sketch of overtaking zone with all detail for overtaking and overtaken vehicles
speeds are 80 kmph and 65 kmph. Take average rate of acceleration as 3.6 kmph/sec,
single lane.

OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
d1 =.028 vb*t
= .28*65*2
= 36.4m

s = 0.2vb + 6
= .2*65+6 = 1 9 m
T = sqrt 14.4*S/A
T = 8.7secs
d2 = 0.278*65*8.7 + 2*19

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 10

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

d 2 = 195.20m
d 3 = 0.28*80*8.7 = 194.88m

therefore O S D = d1 + d2 + d3
=426.8 m

2. Calculate the SSD on a highway at a descending gradient of 2% for a design speed of

80kmph.

Soln
D o w n grad e of 2 %

= 22.22*2.5 + 22.22 2 /(2*9.81*0.35-0.01*2)

= 131.8m

3. Explain sight distance and factors causing restriction to sight distance. Give significance of
SSD, ISD and OSD.
Sight distance available from a point is the actual distance along the road surface, over which
a driver from a specified height above the carriage way has visibility of stationary or moving
objects. Three sight distance situations are considered for design:
Stopping sight distance (SSD) or the absolute minimum sight distance
Intermediate sight distance (ISD) is the defined as twice SSD
Overtaking sight distance (OSD) for safe overtaking operation
Head light sight distance is the distance visible to a driver during night driving under the
illumination of head light
Safe sight distance to enter into an intersection

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 11

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Restriction due to overtaking of vehicles

It becomes very difficult for fast moving vehicles to over take slow moving vehicles

Restriction due to intersection

Significance of SSD
At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided for the drivers
approaching the intersection from either sides. They should be able to perceive a hazard and stop
the vehicle if required. Stopping sight distance for each road can be computed from the design
speed. The sight distance should be provided such that the drivers on either side should be
able to see each other

Overtaking sight distance

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 12

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

The overtaking sight distance is the minimum distance open to the vision of the driver of
a vehicle intending to overtake the slow vehicle ahead safely against the traffic in the opposite
direction. The overtaking sight distance or passing sight distance is measured along the center
line of the road over which a driver with his eye level 1.2m above the road surface can see the
top of an object 1.2 m above the road surface

Stopping sight distance

SSD is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot having sufficient length to
enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without collision with any
other obstruction

3.Derive an expression for calculating the overtaking sight distance on the highway,

The following notations is discribed as below

d1 the distance traveled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time t = t1 - t0
d2 the distance traveled by the vehicle during the actual overtaking operation T = t3 - t1
d3 is the distance traveled by on-coming vehicle C during the overtaking operation (T).
It is assumed that the vehicle A is forced to reduce its speed to vb, the speed of the slow
moving vehicle Band travels behind it during the reaction time t of the driver. So d1 is given by:
d1 = vbt

Then the vehicle A starts to accelerate, shifts the lane, overtake and shift back to the original
lane. The vehicle A maintains the spacing s before and after overtaking. The spacing s in m is
given by:
s = 0:7vb + 6
Let T be the duration of actual overtaking. The distance traveled by B during the overtaking
operation is2s+vbT. Also, during this time, vehicle A accelerated from initial velocity vb and
overtaking is completed while reaching final velocity v. Hence the distance traveled is given by:

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 13

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

The distance traveled by the vehicle C moving at design speed v m=sec during overtaking
operation is given
by:

The overtaking sight distance

5. What are the factors on which the SSD depends? Explain the reaction time of the driver.
The factors affecting sight distance is as follows

Speed of the vehicle

The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. Higher the speed, more time
will be required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident that, as the speed increases, sight distance
also increases

Efficiency of brakes

The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle characteristics etc. If the
brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment the brakes are applied. But practically,

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 14

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

it is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency. Therefore it could be understood that sight
distance required will be more when the efficiency of brakes are less. Also for safe
geometric design, we assume that the vehicles have only 50% brake efficiency.

Frictional resistance between the tire and the road

The frictional resistance between the tire and road plays an important role to bring the vehicle
to stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop immediately. Thus sight required
will be less. No separate provision for brake efficiency is provided while computing the sight
distance. This is taken into account along with the factor of longitudinal Friction. IRC has
specified the value of longitudinal friction in between 0.35 to 0.4.

Gradient of the road

Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a gradient, the vehicle can
stop immediately. Therefore sight distance required is less. While descending a gradient, gravity
also comes into action and more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Sight distance required
will be more in that case.

Reaction time of the driver

Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver to
the instant when the brakes are applied. The total reaction time may be split up into four
components based on PIEV theory. In practice, all these times are usually combined into a total
perception- reaction time suitable for design purposes as well as for easy measurement. Many of
the studies show that drivers require about 1.5 to 2 secs under normal conditions. However taking
into consideration the variability of driver characteristics, a higher value is normally used in
design. For example, IRC suggests a reaction time of 2.5 secs.
Reaction time mainly depends upon PIEV theory
Perception
Intellection
Emotion

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 15

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Voilation (final action)

6. Find the safe overtaking sight distance for a design speed of 96 kmph. Assume all
the required data as per IRC

Soln

OSD = d1 + d2 + d3
d1 =.028 vb*t
= .28*44*2
= 44.8m

s = 0.2vb + 6
= .2*80+6 = 2 2 m
T = sqrt 14.4*S/A
T = 11.3secs
d2 = 0.278*44*11.13 + 2*22
d2= 297m
d 3 = 0.28*93*11.13 = 303.7m

therefore O S D = d1 + d2 + d3
=646m

7. Derive the expression for SSD for ascending, descending gradient and level surface

T h e stopping sight distance is the s u m of lag distance and the braking distance.

Level surface

L a g distance is the distance the vehicle traveled during the reaction time t and is

given b y vt,

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 16

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

where v is the

velocity in m=sec2.

B rak i n g distance is the distance traveled b y the vehicle during braking

operation. For a level road this is obtained b y equating the w o r k done in stopping
the vehicle an d the kinetic energy of the vehicle. If F is the m a x i m u m frictional
force developed and the braking distance is l, then w o r k d o n e against friction in
stopping the vehicle is

Fl = f W l

where W is the total weight of the vehicle. T h e kineticenergy at the design speed
is

Therefore, the S S D = lag distance + braking distance and given by:

SSD = vt + v2
2gf

Ascending, descending gradient

W h e n there is a acsending gradient of + n % the com pon ent of gravity adds to the
braking action and hence the braking distance decreased. T h e com pon ent of
gravity acting parallel to the surface whi ch adds to the braking force is equal to
surface whi ch adds to the braking force is equal to W sin α = W tanα = W n = 1 0 0 .
Equating
kinetic energy and w o r k done:

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 17

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Similarly the braking distance can b e derived for a descending gradient.

Therefore the general equation is given b y Equation

UNIT 4
1. Derive necessary conditions for centrifugal ratio to avoid overturning and skidding of
vehicle

O n a curved road, this force tends to cause the vehicle to overrun or to slide
outward from the centre of road curvature. For proper design of the curve, a n
understanding of the forces acting o n a vehicle taking a horizontal curve is
necessary. Various forces acting o n the vehicle is illustrated in the figure. T h e y
are the centrifugal force (P) acting outward, weight of the vehicle ( W ) acting
downward, an d the reaction of the ground o n the wheels ( R A and R B). T h e
centrifugal force and the weight is as s u m ed to b e f rom the centre of gravity whi c h
is at h units above the ground. Let the wheel base be assum ed as b units.

T h e centrifugal force P in k g = m 2 is given b y

P = Wv2
gR

wher e W is the wei ght of the vehicle in kg, v is the speed of the vehicle in m =s ec,
g is the acceleration due to gravity in m = s e c 2 and R is the radius of the curve in
m . T h e centrifugal ratio or the impact factor
P
W

is given by:

P= v2
W gR

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 18

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

T h e centrifugal force has t w o effects: a tendency to overturn the vehicle about the
outer wheels and a tendency for transverse skidding. Taking m o m e n t s of the
forces with respect to the other w h e n the vehicle is just about to override is give
as:

T h e s econd tendency of the vehicle is for transverse skidding. i.e. W h e n the

centrifugal force P is greater than the m a x i m u m possible transverse skid
resistance due to friction bet ween the pavem ent surface an d tire. T h e transverse
skid resistance (F) is given by:

F = FA + F B
= f(RA + RB)
= fW
where FA and F B is the fractional force at tire A and B, R A and R B is the
reaction at tire A and B, f is the lateral coefficient of friction and W is the weight
of the vehicle. This is counteracted b y the centrifugal force (P), and equating:

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 19

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

P = f W or
P=i
At equilibrium, w h e n skidding takes place (from equation14.2)

P=f= v2
W gR

and for safety the following condition m ust satisfy:

f > v2
gR

If this equation is violated, the vehicle will overturn at the horizontal curve and if
equation 14.4 is violated, the vehicle will skid at the horizontal curve

2. Write a note o n m a x i m u m and m i n i m u m super elevations

Superelevation is the rotation of the pavem ent o n the approach to and through a
horizontal curve. Superelevation is intended to assist the driver b y counteracting
the lateral acceleration produced b y tracking the curve. Superelevation is
expressed as a decimal, representing the ratio of the pavem ent slope to width
ranging fro m 0 to 0.12 foot/feet. T h e adopt ed criteria allow for the us e o f
m a x i m u m superelevation rates f rom 0.04 to 0.12. M a x i m u m superelevation rates
for design are established b y policy b y each State. Selection of a m a x i m u m
superelevation rate is based o n several variables, such as climate, terrain, hi ghwa y
location (urban vs. rural), and frequency of very slow-movi ng vehicles. For
example, northern States that experience ice and s n o w conditions m a y establish
lower m a x i m u m s for superelevation than States that d o not experience these
conditions. U s e of lower m a x i m u m superelevation rates b y policy is intended to
address the perceived probl em created b y vehicles sliding transversely w h e n
traveling at very l o w speeds w h e n weather conditions are poor.

If m a x i m u m super levation is provided it b eco m es ver y difficult for slower

m ovi ng vehicles to negociate the curve if superelevation is m o r e then there are

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 20

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

chances that vehicle m a y over top.. hence m i n i m u m super elevation to b e

provided for safety of slower m ovi ng vehicles.

3. What are the objectives of providing extra widening of pavements on horizontal curves?
Derive an expression for the same.

Mech an i cal widening

T h e reasons for the mechanical widening are: W h e n a vehicle negotiates a
horizontalcurve, the rear wheels follow a path of shorter radius than the front
wheels as s h o w n in figure. this phe no m e non is called off tracking, and has the
effect of increasing the effective width of a road space required b y the vehicle.
Therefore, to provide the s a m e clearance between vehicles
travelling in opposite direction o n curved roads as is provided o n straight
sections, there must be extra width of carriageway available. This is an important
factor w h e n high proportions of vehicles are using the road. Trailor trucks also
need extra carriageway, depending o n the t ype of joint. In addition speeds higher
than the design speed causes transverse skidding whi ch requires additional width
for safety purpose. T h e expression for extra width can be derived from the
simple geom etr y of a vehicle at a horizontal curve as s h o w n in figure Let R 1 is
the radius of the outer track line of the rear wheel, R 2 is the radius of the outer
track line of the front wheel l is the distance bet ween the front and rear wheel, n is
the num ber of lanes, then the mechanical widening W m (is derive below:

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 21

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Psychological widening

Wi deni n g of pavem ents has to b e don e for s o m e psychological reasons also.

There is atendenc y for the drivers to drive close to the edges of the p av em ent o n
curves. S o m e extra space is to b e provi ded for m o r e clearance for the crossing
and overtaking operations o n curves. I R C proposed a n empirical relation for the
psychological widening at horizontal curves W p s

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 22

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

the objectives of providing extra widening of pavements on horizontal curves are as follows

To counter the off tracking effect

While two vehicles cross at horizontal curve there is a psychological tendency to maintain
a greater clearance between vehicles than on the straight roads
To provide graeter visibility for drivers, to avoid the movement of drivers along the
centeral path of the lane.

4. Design all the geometric features of a horizontal curve for a state highway passing
through rolling terrain, assuming all the data as per IRC for a ruling minimum radius.
Also, specify the minimum setback distance for a sight distance of 255 m.

Soln:

Ta k e v = 8 0 k m p h

= 230m

S u p er elevation:
e = v2/ 2 2 5 R = 0.12 take e value of 0.07

E xtra widening:

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 23

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

= 0.65m
Transition curve
1 . T h e length of the transition curve Ls 1 in m is

Ls1 = 0.0215v3/ C R = 9 1 . 9 m
C = 80/(75+V) = 0.52

2. Rate of introduction of super-elevation

Ls2 = N e ( W + We )
= 150*.07*7.66
= 80.43m

3 . B y empirical formula

IR C suggest the length of the transition curve is m i n i m u m for a plain and rolling
terrain

Ls3 = 2.7V2/R
= 75.13m
Adopt 91.9 m as transition curve length

5. While aligning a highway in a builtup area, it was necessary to provide a horizontal

curve of radius 325 meter. Design the following geometric features.i) Super elevation
ii) Extra widening of pavement iii) length of transition curve Data available are design
speed = 65 kmph, length of wheel base of largest truck = 6 pavement width = 10.5m.

Soln

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 24

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

V = 95.29m/sec

S u p er elevation:
e = v2/ 2 2 5 R = 0.12 take e value of 0.07

E xtra widening:

= 0.55m
Transition curve
1 . T h e length of the transition curve Ls 1 in m is

Ls1 = 0.0215v3/ C R = 1 2 4 . 4 m
C = 80/(75+V) = 0.46

2. Rate of introduction of super-elevation

Ls2 = N e ( W + We )
= 150*.07*7.55
= 80m

3 . B y empirical formula

IR C suggest the length of the transition curve is m i n i m u m for a plain and rolling
terrain

Ls3 = 2.7V2/R
= 124.4m m
Adopt 1 2 4.4m m as transition curve length

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 25

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

6. There is a horizontal highway curve of radius 400m and length 200m on this highway.
Compute the set back distance required from the centre line on inner side of curve so
as to provide for safe overtaking distance of 300m. The distance between the centerline
of road and inner lane is 1.9 m.

Soln

S = 300m , Lc = 200m , R = 4 0 0 m , d=1.9m

= 14.39

= 14.4+12.4 = 26.8

7. A national highway passing through rolling terrain in heavy rainfall area has a
horizontal curve of radius 500 m. Design the length of transition curve. Assume data
suitably. June 2010, Dec 2012

Soln
V= 80kmph
W= 7.0m
C = 80/(75+V) = 0.52
Take N value as 1 5 0

1. T h e length of the transition curve Ls 1 in m is

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 26

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Ls1 = 0.0215v3/ C R = 42.3m

S u p er elevation:
e = v2/ 2 2 5 R = 0.057 < 0.07

E xtra widening:

= 0.45m

Toatl w i d th B = 7.45m
2. Rate of introduction of super-elevation

Ls2 = N e ( W + We )
= 150*.057*7.45
= 63.7m

3 . B y empirical formula

IR C suggest the length of the transition curve is m i n i m u m for a plain and rolling
terrain

Ls3 = 2.7V2/R
= 34.6 m
Adopt 6 4 .4m m as transition curve length

8 Derrive expression for super elevation.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 27

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

P the centrifugal force acting horizontally out-wards through the center of gravity,
W the weight of the vehicle acting down-wards through the center of gravity, and
F the friction force between the wheels and the pavement, along the surface inward.
At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the pavement we get,
At equilibrium, by resolving the forces parallel to the surface of the pavement we get,
P cosθ = W sin θ + FA + FB
= W sin θ + f (RA + RB)
= W sin θ + f (W cos θ + P sin θ)
where W is the weight of the vehicle, P is the centrifugal force, f is the coefficient of
friction, f is
the transverse slope due to super elevation. Dividing by W cos θ, we get:

This is an exact expression for super elevation. But normally, f = 0:15 and θ < 4 o, 1f tan θ= 1

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 28

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

UNIT 5

1. Explain the following with IRC specification :

i) Ruling gradient ii) Limiting gradient ii) Exceptional gradient iv) Minimum
gradient.

Ruling gradient

T h e ruling gradient or the design gradient is the m a x i m u m gradient with whi ch

the designer attempts to design the vertical profile of the road. This depends o n
the terrain, length of the grade, speed, pulling power of the vehicle and the
presence of the horizontal curve. In atter terrain, it m a y be possible to provide at
gradients, but in hilly terrain it is not economical and sometimes not possible also.
T h e ruling gradient is adopted b y the designer b y considering a particular speed
as the design speed and for a design vehicle with standard dimensions. But our
country has a heterogeneous traffic and hence it is not possible to lay d o w n
precise standards for the country as a whole. H e n c e I R C has recom m e nd e d s o m e
values for ruling gradient for different types of terrain.

M i n i m u m gradient

This is important only at locations wh ere surface drainage is important. C a m b e r

will takecare of the lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage along the side
drains requires s o m e slope for sm oot h flow of water. Therefore m i n i m u m
gradient is provided for drainage purpose and it depends o n the rain fall, type of
soil and other site conditions. A m i n i m u m of 1 in 5 0 0 m a y be sufficient for
concrete drain and 1 in 2 0 0 for open soil drains are found to give satisfactory
Performance
.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 29

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Limiting gradient

This gradient is adopted w h e n the ruling gradient results in en orm ous increase in
cost of construction. O n rolling terrain and hilly terrain it m a y b e frequentl y
necessary to adopt limiting gradient. B ut the length of the limiting gradient
stretches should be limited and m ust be sandwi ched b y either straight roads or
easier grades

Exceptional gradient
Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations.
T h e y should b e limited for short stretches not exceeding about 1 0 0 meters at a
stretch. In m ount ai nous and steep terrain, successive exceptional gradients m us t
b e separated b y a m i n i m u m 1 0 0 metre length gentler gradient. At hairpin bends,
the gradient is restricted to 2.5%.

2 A valley curve is formed by descending grade of 1 in 25 meeting an ascending grade of 1

in 30. Design the length of valley curve to fulfill both comfort condition and head light
sight distance requirements for a design speed of 80 kmph. Assume c = 0.6 m/sec.

Soln
Sight distance
S S D = v*t + v 2 = 22.22*2.5 + 22.22 2 /2*9.81*.35
2gf
= 127m
N = -.058
C o mf o r t condition

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 30

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Ls = NV3 * 2 = 73.1m
C

Case 1: Length of valley curve greater than stopping sight distance (L > S)

L = NS2/ 1.5+ 0.035S)

= 199.5m
As s u mp ti on is correct L en gth of valley curve is 2 0 0 m

3. Define a gradient, explain in detail the different gradients adopted on a highway with
specifications as per IRC
Gradient is the rate of rise or fall along the length of the road with respect to
the horizontal. W hi l e aligning a highway, the gradient is decided designing the
vertical curve. Before finalizing the gradients, the construction cost, vehicular
operation cost and the practical problems in the site also has to be considered.
Usually steep gradients are avoided as far as possible because of the difficulty to
climb and increase in the construction cost. M o r e about gradients are discussed
below.

Ruling gradient

T h e ruling gradient or the design gradient is the m a x i m u m gradient with whi ch

the designer attempts to design the vertical profile of the road. This depends o n
the terrain, length of the grade, speed, pulling power of the vehicle and the
presence of the horizontal curve. In atter terrain, it m a y be possible to provide at
gradients, but in hilly terrain it is not economical and sometimes not possible also.
T h e ruling gradient is adopted b y the designer b y considering a particular speed
as the design speed and for a design vehicle with standard dimensions. But our
country has a heterogeneous traffic and hence it is not possible to lay d o w n
precise standards for the country as a whole. Hence I R C has recom m en d e d s o m e
values for ruling gradient for different types of terrain.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 31

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

M i n i m u m gradient

This is important only at locations wh ere surface drainage is important. C a m b e r

will take care of the lateral drainage. But the longitudinal drainage along the side
drains requires s o m e slope for sm oot h flow of water. Therefore m i n i m u m
gradient is provided for drainage purpose and it depends o n the rain fall, type of
soil and other site conditions. A m i n i m u m of 1 in 5 0 0 m a y be sufficient for
concrete drain and 1 in 2 0 0 for open soil drains are found to give satisfactory
Performance
.
Limiting gradient

This gradient is adopted w h e n the ruling gradient results in en orm ous increase in
cost of construction. O n rolling terrain and hilly terrain it m a y b e frequentl y
necessary to adopt limiting gradient. B ut the length of the limiting gradient
stretches should be limited and m ust be sandwi ched b y either straight roads or
easier grades

Exceptional gradient
Exceptional gradient are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations.
T h e y should be limited for short stretches not exceeding about 1 0 0 meters at a
stretch. In mountainous and steep terrain, successive exceptional gradients m us t
b e separated b y a m i n i m u m 1 0 0 metre length gentler gradient. At hairpin bends,
the gradient is restricted to 2.5%.

4.Explain how the length of valley curve is designed.

The valley curve is made fully transitional by providing two similar transition curves of equal
length The transitional curve is set out by a cubic parabola y = bx3 where b = 2N3/L2 The length
of the valley transition curve is designed based on two criteria:

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 32

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

1. Comfort criteria; that is allowable rate of change of centrifugal acceleration is limited to a

Comfortable level of about 0:6m=sec3.
2. Safety criteria; that is the driver should have adequate headlight sight distance at any part of
the country.
Comfort criteria

The length of the valley curve based on the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration that
will ensure comfort: Let c is the rate of change of acceleration, R the minimum radius of the
curve, v is the design speed and t is the time, then c is given as:

Ls = V3
cR

For a cubic parabola, the value of R for length Ls is given by:

R = Ls

Safety criteria

Length of the valley curve for headlight distance may be determined for two conditions:

length of the valley curve greater than stopping sight distance and
Length of the valley curve less than the stopping sight distance.

Case 1: Length of valley curve greater than stopping sight distance (L > S) The total length of
valley curve L is greater than the stopping sight distance SSD. The sight distance available will be
minimum when the vehicle is in the lowest point in the valley. This is because the beginning of
the curve will have infinite radius and the bottom of the curve will have minimum radius which is
a property of the transition curve.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 33

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Case 2 Length of valley curve less than stopping sight distance (L < S)

The length of the curve L is less than SSD. In this case the minimum sight distance is from the
beginning of the curve. The important points are the beginning of the curve and the bottom most
part of the curve. If the vehicle is at the bottom of the curve, then its headlight beam will reach far
beyond the endpoint of the curve whereas, if the vehicle is at the beginning of the curve, then the
headlight beam will hit just outside the curve. Therefore, the length of the curve is derived by
assuming the vehicle at the beginning of the curve. The case is shown in figure

5. A vertical summit curve is formed at the intersection of two gradients +3.0 and -5.0
percent. Design the length of summit curve to provide a SSD for a design speed of 80
kmph. Assume any other data as per IRC.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 34

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

S S D = v*t + v 2 = 22.22*2.5 + 22.22 2 /2*9.81*.35

2gf
= 127.44m

N = 0.08
L = 2S- 9.6/N = 297.9m > 127.44m

The length of summit curve is 298m

6. Design the length of valley curve to fulfill both comfort condition and head light sight
distance requirements for a design speed of 80 kmph. Assume C = 0.6 m/s". Also,
calculate the location of culvert from flatter grade formed by a descending grade 1 in n

Sight distance
S S D = v*t + v 2 = 22.22*2.5 + 22.22 2 /2*9.81*.35
2gf
= 127.4m
N = -.058
C o mf o r t condition
Ls = NV3 * 2 =65.13m
C

Case 1: Length of valley curve greater than stopping sight distance (L > S)

= 1 57.97m

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 35

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

As s u mp ti on is correct L en gth of valley curve is 157.97m

L ow es t pt of culvert lies at a distance

X 0 = L sqrt (n 1 * 2 N)
X 0 = 6 . 4 7m

7. Explain the different cases of finding the length of summit curve for varying SSD and
OSD

The important design aspect of the summit curve is the determination of the length of the curve
which is parabolic. As noted earlier, the length of the curve is guided by the sight distance
consideration. That is, a driver should be able to stop his vehicle safely if there is an obstruction
on the other side of the road. Equation of the parabola is given by y = ax2, where a = N 2L,
where N is the deviation angle and L is the length of the In deriving the length of the curve, two
situations can arise depending on the uphill and downhill gradients when the length of the curve
is greater than the sight distance and the length of the curve is greater than the sight Distance .Let
L is the length

Case a: Length of summit curve greater than sight distance

The situation when the sight distance is less than the length of the curve

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 36

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Case b: Length of summit curve less than sight distance

When stopping sight distance is considered the height of driver's eye above the road surface (h1)
is taken as 1.2 meters, and height of object above the pavement surface (h2) is taken as 0.15
meters. If overtaking sight distance is considered, then the value of driver's eye height (h1) and

the height of the obstruction (h2) are taken equal as 1.2 meters.

8 An ascending gradient of 1 in 100 and a descending gradient of 1 in 120 meet at a

point. Design a summit curve for a speed of 80 kmph so as to have a OSD of 420 m.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 37

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

S S D = v*t + v 2 = 22.22*2.5 + 22.22 2 /2*9.81*.35

2gf
= 127.44m

N = 0.018
L = 2S- 9.6/N = 422m < OSD

L< OSD
L = 2S- 9.6/N = 2*420 – 9.6/.018
= 306.67m
The length of summit curve is 306.67m

UNIT 6

1. Explain need of grade separated intersection and give advantages and disadvantages of
grade separated and at grade intersection.

Grade separated intersections are of two types. They are at-grade intersections and grade-
separated intersections. In at-grade intersections, all roadways join or cross at the same
vertical level. Grade separated intersections allows the traffic to cross at different vertical
levels. Sometimes the topography itself may be helpful in constructing such intersections.
Otherwise, the initial construction cost required will be very high. Therefore, they are
usually constructed on high speed facilities like expressways, freeways etc. These type of
intersection increases the road capacity because vehicles can flow with high speed and
accident potential is also reduced due to vertical separation of traffic

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 38

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Advantages

Maximum facilities are given to the crossing traffic. As roads are separate which
avoid accidents
There is overall increase in comfort and convenience to the motorist and saving in
travel time
Stage constructions of additional ramps are possible after the grade separation
structures between main roads are constructed.

Disadvantages

It is very costly to provide complete grade separation and interchange facilities.

In flat or plain terrain grade separation may introduce undesirable crests sags in the
vertical alignment

2. What are the advantages and limitation of unchannelized and channelized

intersection?

Advantages of channelized intersection

Vehicles approaching an intersection are directed to definite paths by islands, marking etc.
and this method of control is called channelization.
Channelized intersection provides more safety and efficiency.
It reduces the number of possible conflicts by reducing the area of conflicts available in
the carriageway.
If no channelizing is provided the driver will have less tendency to reduce the speed while
entering the intersection from the carriageway.
The presence of traffic islands, markings etc. forces the driver to reduce the speed and
becomes more cautious while maneuvering the intersection.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 39

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

A channelizing island also serves as a refuge for pedestrians and makes pedestrian
crossing safer.

Disadvantages of channelized intersection

It requires more area for construction

It becomes very uneconomical in places were the traffic volume is low

Advantages of unchannelized intersection

It is efficient where the traffic volume is low

Its design and construction is simple

Disadvantages of unchannelized intersection

Vehicles approaching an intersection have no definite paths hence no of accidents will be

more
Unchannelized intersection provides more unsafe and inefficient when pedestrian traffic is
more
There is more number of possible and areas of conflicts available are more in
carriageway.

3 What are the grade-separated intersections? Explain the situations at which grade
separated intersections are justified.

Grade-separated intersections are provided to separate the traffic in the vertical grade.
But the traffic need not be those pertaining to road only. When a railway line crosses a road, then
also grade separators are used. Different types of grade-separators are covers and interchange.
Flyovers itself are subdivided into overpass and underpass. When two roads cross at a point, if
the road having major traffic is elevated to a higher grade for further movement of traffic, then
such structures are called overpass. Otherwise, if the major road is depressed to a lower level to

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 40

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

cross another by means of an under bridge or tunnel, it is called under-pass. Interchange is a

system where traffic between two or more roadways flows at different levels in the grade
separated junctions. Common types of interchange include trumpet interchange, diamond
interchange, and cloverleaf interchange.

The following are the situations under which grade separation are preferred

On high type facilities such as expressways, freeways and motorways.

At certain locations which have a proven road of bad accidents history at grade junction.
At junctions where the traffic volume is heavy and delays and loss caused justify
economically the provision of grade separation.

4 Explain the principles governing the design of intersections. With neat sketches,
explain the different types of grade intersections. Explain the advantages and
limitations of Rotary intersection

The principles governing the design of intersections are as follows

The no of intersection should be kept at minimum.
The geometric layout should be so selected that hazardous movements of drivers are
eliminated.
The layout should follow the natural vehicles paths.
Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross a traffic stream should be provided
adequate space at the junction.

1. Trumpet interchange: Trumpet interchange is a popular form of three leg interchange.

If one of the legs of the interchange meets a highway at some angle but does not cross it,
then the interchange is called trumpet interchange. A typical layout of trumpet
interchange is shown in figure

2. Diamond interchange: Diamond interchange is a popular form of four-leg interchange

found in the urban locations where major and minor roads crosses. The important feature

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 41

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

of this interchange is that it can be designed even if the major road is relatively narrow. A
typical layout of diamond interchange is shown in figure

3. Clover leaf interchange: It is also a four leg interchange and is used when two highways
of high volume and speed intersect each other with considerable turning movements. The
main advantage of cloverleaf intersection is that it provides complete separation of
traffic. In addition, high speed at intersections can be achieved. However, the
disadvantage is that large area of land is required. Therefore, cloverleaf interchanges are
provided mainly in rural areas. A typical layout of this type of interchange is shown in
figure

Cloverleaf interchange Diamond interchange

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 42

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Trumpet interchange

5. Explain the important steps followed while designing rotary intersection along with
relevant formulae employed

The important steps followed in designing the rotary intersection is as follows

Design speed

All the vehicles are required to reduce their speed at a rotary. Therefore, the design speed
of a rotary will be much lower than the roads leading to it. Although it is possible to design
roundabout without much speed reduction, the geometry may lead to very large size incurring
huge cost of construction. The normal practice is to keep the design speed as 30 and 40 kmph
for urban and rural areas respectively

Entry, exit and island radius

The radius at the entry depends on various factors like design speed, super-elevation, and
coefficient of friction. The entry to the rotary is not straight, but a small curvature is introduced.
This will force the driver to reduce the speed. The entry radius of about 20 and 25 metres is ideal
for an urban and rural design respectively. The exit radius should be higher than the entry radius
and the radius of the rotary island so that the vehicles will discharge from the rotary at a higher
rate. A general practice is to keep the exit radius as 1.5 to 2 times the entry radius. However, if

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 43

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

pedestrian movement is higher at the exit approach, then the exit radius could be set as same as
that of the entry radius. The radius of the central island is governed by the design speed, and the
radius of the entry curve. The radius of the central island, in practice, is given a slightly higher
radius so that the movement of the traffic already in the rotary will have priority. The radius of
the central island which is about 1.3 times that of the entry curve is adequate for all practical
purposes.

Width of the rotary

The entry width and exit width of the rotary is governed by the traffic entering and
leaving the intersection and the width of the approaching road. The width of the carriageway at
entry and exit will be lower than the width of the carriageway at the approaches to enable
reduction of speed. IRC suggests that a two lane road of 7 m width should be kept as 7 m for
urban roads and 6.5 m for rural roads. Further, a three lane road of 10.5 m is to be reduced to 7 m
and 7.5 m respectively for urban and rural roads. The width of the weaving section should be
higher than the width at entry and exit. Normally this will be one lane more than the average
entry and exit width. Thus weaving width is given as,

Capacity

The capacity of rotary is determined by the capacity of each weaving section. Transportation
road research lab (TRL) proposed the following empirical formula to find the capacity of the
weaving section.

where e is the average entry and exit width, i.e, (e1+e2) w is the weaving width, l is the length

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 44

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

of weaving, and p is the proportion of weaving traffic to the non-weaving traffic. Figure shows
four types of movements at a weaving section, a and d are the non-weaving traffic and b and c
are the weaving traffic. Therefore,

This capacity formula is valid only if the following conditions are satisfied.
1. Weaving width at the rotary is in between 6 and 18 metres.
2.The ratio of average width of the carriage way at entry and exit to the weaving width is
in the range of 0.4 to 1.
3. The ratio of weaving width to weaving length of the roundabout is in between 0.12 and 0.4.

UNIT 7

1 Explain the cloverleaf interchange with its merits and demerits

Clover leaf interchange: It is also a four leg interchange and is used when two highways of
high volume and speed intersect each other.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 45

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Advantages

Only one structure is required

Left turning traffic has a direct path
It is very simple to use and does not confuse the drivers

Disadvantages

Relatively large area is required

The carriageway area required is also higher than a rotary interchange
Weaving movements are involved, some them on the roadway of the structure and
some underneath the structure
The U turn are long and operationally difficult

2. List the advantages and disadvantages of a rotary intersection

The key advantages of the rotary intersection are listed below:

1. Traffic flow is regulated to only one direction of movement, thus eliminating severe conflicts
between crossing movements.
2. All the vehicles entering the rotary are gently forced to reduce the speed and continue to move
at slower speed. Thus, more of the vehicles need to be stopped.
3. Because of lower speed of negotiation and elimination of severe conflicts, accidents and their
severity are much less in rotaries.
4. Rotaries are self governing and do not need practically any control by police or traffic signals.
5.They are ideally suited for moderate traffic, especially with irregular geometry, or
Intersections with more than three or four approaches.

Although rotaries offer some distinct advantages, there are few specific limitations for rotaries
Which are listed below.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 46

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

1. All the vehicles are forced to slow down and negotiate the intersection. Therefore the
Cumulative delay will be much higher than channelized intersection.
2. Even when there is relatively low traffic, the vehicles are forced to reduce their speed.
3. Rotaries require large area of relatively at land making them costly at urban areas.
4.Since the vehicles are not stopping, and the vehicles accelerate at rotary exits, they are not
suitable when there are high pedestrian movements.

3. Design the rotary xn for the data given below, with suitable assumptions. The highways
intersect at right angles and have a carriage way width of 15 mts. Also draw the diagram
of the rotary designed.

Approach Left turning Straight ahead Right turning

1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

N 200 50 100 250 100 150 150 50 80

E 180 60 80 220 50 120 200 40 120

W 220 50 120 180 60 100 250 60 100

250 70
S 80 100 150 50 90 160 90

Soln 1210 1408

1262
1262
1260 1260

1331 1544
Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 47
BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

350 643 415

Soln

402
450 450
423
408
493

549 358 424

E1 + E2 / 2 + 3.5

= 13.54m

= 0.72

= 288*13.5*1.74*0.76/12.45
= 4000PCU/hr

This is higher than the traffic flow 2746PCU/hr

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 48

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

4. With neat sketches, explain the advantages of i) Half clover leaf, ii) Clover leaf
intersection.

Clover leaf intersection.

It is also a four leg interchange and is used when two highways of high volume and speed
intersect each other with considerable turning movements. The main advantage of cloverleaf
intersection is that it provides complete separation of traffic. In addition, high speed at
intersections can be achieved. However, the disadvantage is that large area of land is required.
Therefore, cloverleaf interchanges are provided mainly in rural areas. A typical layout of this
type of interchange is shown in figure

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 49

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Half clover leaf

A partial cloverleaf interchange is a modification of a cloverleaf interchange. This interchange

was developed by the Ontario Ministry of Transportation[citation needed] as a replacement for
the cloverleaf on 400-Series Highways, removing the dangerous weaving patterns and allowing
for more acceleration and deceleration space on the freeway.

The design has been well received, and has since become one of the most popular freeway-to-
arterial interchange designs in North America. It has also been used occasionally in some
European countries, such as Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom.

UNIT 8
1. Explain the significance of highway drainage.

An increase in moisture content causes decrease in strength or stability of a soil mass the
variation in soil strength with moisture content also depends on the soil type and the mode of
stress application. Highway drainage is important because of the following reasons:-

Excess moisture in soil subgrade causes considerable lowering of its stability the
pavement is likely to fail due to Subgrade fail.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 50

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Increase in moisture cause reduction in strength of many pavement materials like

stabilized soil and water bound macadam.
In some clayey soils variation in moisture content causes considerable variation in flume
of Subgrade. This sometimes contributes to pavement failure.
One of the most important causes of pavement failure by the formation of waves and
A corrugation in flexible pavements is due to poor drainage.
Sustained contact of water with bituminous pavements causes failures due to stripping of
Bitumen from aggregates like loosening or detachment of some of the bituminous
pavement layers and formation of pot holes.
TIE- prime cause of failures in rigid pavements by mud pumping is due to the presence of
Water in fine Subgrade soil.
Excess water on shoulders and pavement edge causes considerable damage.
Excess moisture causes increase in weight and thus increase in stress and simultaneous
reduction in strength of the soil mass. This is one of the main reasons of failure of earth s
slopes and embankment foundations

2. Explain how the subsurface drainage is provided to lower the water table and
control seepage flow

L ow eri n g of Wa t e r Tab l e

T h e Highest level of water table should b e fairly b el ow the level of Subgrade, in

order that the Subgrade and pavem ent layers are not subjected to excessive
moisture. F r o m practical considerations it is suggested that the water table should
b e kept atleast 1.0 to 1.2 m the Subgrade. In places whe r e water table is high
(almost at ground level at times) the best rem ed y is to take the road formation o n
e m b a nk m en t of height not less than 1.0 to 1.2 meter. W h e n the formation is to b e
at or b el ow the general ground level, it wou l d b e necessary to lower the water
table.

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 51

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Control of capillary rise

A layer of granular material of suitable thickness is provided during the

construction of em b a nk m en t between the Subgrade and the highest level of
subsurface water table. another m e t h o d of providing capillary cutoff is b y
inserting an imperm eab l e bituminous layer in place of granular blanket

Control of seepages flow

T h e Hi ghest level of water table should b e fairly bel ow the level of Subgrade, in
order that the Subgrade and pavem ent layers are not subjected to excessive
moisture. F r o m practical considerations it is suggested that the water table should
b e kept atleast 0.6 to 0.9 m the Subgrade

3. Explain the design procedure of filter material used in subsurface drain.

The procedure to design the filler materials is as follows

On a gain size distribution chart plot the grain size distribution curve for a foundation soil.
Find the value of D15 size of foundation material & plot a point of particle size 5D15 of
foundation to represent the lower limit of D15 size of the filler. This is fulfill the
permeability condition

(D15 of filter)/ D15 of Foundation) > 5

To fulfill the condition to prevent piping

(D15 of filter)/ D85 of Foundation) < 5

4. What are the requirements of a good highway drainage system June/July 2011

The requirements of good highway drainage system is as follows

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 52

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

T h e surface water from the carriageway and shoulder should effectively b e

drained off without allowing it to percolate to Subgrade.
T h e surface water from the adjoining land should be prevented from
entering the roadway.
T h e side drain should have sufficient capacity and longitudinal slope to
carry a w a y all the surface water collected.
Fl ow of surface water across the road and shoulders and along slopes
should not cause formation of cress ruts or erosion.
Seepage and other sources of underground water should be drained off by
the subsurface drainage system.
Highest level of ground water table should be kept well bel ow the level of
Subgrade, preferably b y atleast 1.2 m .
In waterlogged areas special precautions should be taken, specially if
detrimental salts are present or if flooding is likely to occur.

5. The maximum quantity of water expected in one of the open longitudinal drains on
clayey soil is 0.9 m3/sec. Design the cross section and longitudinal slope of a
trapezoidal drain assuming the bottom width of section to be 1.0 m and cross slope
to be IV to 1.5 H. The allowable velocity of flow in the drain is 1.2 m/sec and
Manning's roughness co-efficient is 0.02

Soln:

Cross section
The velocity of flow through the clay soil V = 1.2m/sec

A = Q/V
0.9/1.2 = .75sqm
For trapezoidal c/s 1.5d2 + d – 0.75 = 0

Dept of Civil Engineering, Page 53

BUETK
Highway geometric design ME

Solving by quadratic equation for d

D= 0.45m taking free board as .15m now the total depth is 0.45+.15 = 0.60m

Slope:

The slope is calculated using manning’s formula

V= 1/n * R 2/3 * S ½

Hydraulic radius R = area/ perimeter = 2.62m

By substituting the values slope S = 0.0553½

Therefore s = 0.0031 = 1/322.5

Dept of Civil Engineering, BUETK Page 54