Lecture Outline

Chapter 1
Foundations

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Slide 1-1
Chapter 0 Foundations of your learning

READ THE TEXTBOOK

There is no easier way. If you don’t, you fail.

If you do, you (might) pass.

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Slide 1-2
Chapter 1 Foundations (of physics study)

Chapter Goals:
(1) Get know of topics in physics and physical systems
of interest
(2) Develop background knowledge and skills to
understand physics.
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Slide 1-3
 Chapter 1 Foundations

Concepts

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Slide 1-4
Section 1.1: The scientific method

Section Goals
You will learn

• Scientific method: an iterative process, going from

(1) observation to (2) a hypothesis to (3) a validated
theory

• Use of the scientific method: How are they logically

sequenced in practice?

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Slide 1-5
Section 1.1: The scientific method

• Physics is about: discovering the

unifying patterns that underlie all
physical phenomena in the universe
(ranging from the scale of subatomic
particles to the DNA molecules and
cells, and to the scale of stars and
galaxies).

• Goal: find the most fundamental laws

that govern the universe and formulate
these laws in the most simple and
precise way possible.
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Slide 1-6
Section 1.1: The scientific method

• The scientific method is an iterative process and has

four steps:

• (1) Observe, (2) hypothesize, (3) predict (to test),

(4) (A) modify the hypothesis (then go back and iterate
the process) if the prediction based on it is inaccurate or
(B) validate if accurate test after test; the hypothesis
elevated to a law or a theory.)
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Slide 1-7
Section 1.1: The scientific method

Exercise 1.1 What is hypothesis? Hypothesis

or not

Which of the following statements are hypotheses?

(a) Heavier objects fall to Earth faster than lighter ones.

(b) The planet Mars is inhabited by invisible beings that
are able to elude any type of observation.
(c) Distant planets harbor forms of life.
(d) Handling toads causes warts.

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Slide 1-8
Section 1.1: The scientific method

Exercise 1.1 Hypothesis or not (cont.)

SOLUTION (a), (c), and (d).

Hypothesis or not = testable or not

(testable = experimentally verifiable in principle)

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Slide 1-9
Section 1.1: The scientific method

Exercise 1.1 Hypothesis or not (cont.)

(a) This statement can be verified by dropping a heavy
object and a lighter one at the same instant and observing
which one hits the ground first.
(b) This statement asserts that the beings on Mars cannot
be observed, which precludes any experimental verification
and means this statement is not a valid hypothesis.
(c) Although we humans currently have no means of
exploring or closely observing distant planets, the
statement is in principle testable.
(d) Even though we know this statement is false, it is
verifiable and therefore is a hypothesis.
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Slide 1-10
Section 1.1: The scientific method

• Formulation of a hypothesis: developing a model

(a simplified conceptual representation of some
phenomenon)
• Iterative process of developing models in physics:

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Slide 1-11
Section 1.1: The scientific method

Exercise 1.2 Dead music player

(1) Observation: A battery-operated portable music
player fails to play when it is turned on.
(2) Hypothesis: Develop a hypothesis explaining why it
fails to play.
(3) Prediction: Make a prediction that permits you to
test your hypothesis. Describe two possible outcomes of
the test and what you conclude from the outcomes.

Hint: (4) modify (then iterate) or validate.

(Think before you peek at the answer below.)
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Slide 1-12
Section 1.1: The scientific method

Exercise 1.2 Dead music player (cont.)

SOLUTION There are many reasons the player might not

turn on. Here is one example:

Hypothesis: The batteries are dead.

Prediction (to test): If the batteries are replaced with new

ones, the player should work.

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Slide 1-13
Section 1.1: The scientific method

Exercise 1.2 Dead music player (cont.)

Possible outcomes:

(1) The player works once the new batteries are installed,
which means the hypothesis is supported.
(weaker than validated)

(2) The player doesn’t work after the new batteries are
installed, which means the hypothesis is not supported and
must be either modified or discarded.
(weaker than invalidated)
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Slide 1-14
Section 1.2: Symmetry

Section Goals
You will learn

• what symmetry is in physics and its features.

• the most basic symmetries in physical systems;

translational, rotational, and reflection (parity)
symmetry for physical objects.

• that symmetry applies not only to physical objects but

also physical laws.
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Slide 1-15
Section 1.2: Symmetry

• Symmetry is a vital requirement of any physical law and

theory.
• Symmetry: Certain operations, such as rotation and
reflection, performed on systems and objects that do not
change its appearance

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Slide 1-16
Section 1.2: Symmetry

• In physics, not only the shape of objects but also

physical phenomena can be unchanged (invariant) under
symmetries.

• If the experimental results are unchanged by an

operation, the phenomena tested by the experiment
possess a certain symmetry.

• It then follows that any physical law that describes the

phenomena must also possess this symmetry.

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Slide 1-17
Section 1.2: Symmetry

Example 1: If moving (or translating) the apparatus to a

new location yields the same experimental results, then
the phenomenon possesses translational symmetry, and
the mathematical expressions (equations) of the laws
describing it should also possess this symmetry.

Example 2: Hook’s law ⊂ Newton’s 2nd law is invariant

under time translation t ! t + a (conserved energy),
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space translation x ! x + b, xeq ! xeq + b and

<latexit sha1_base64="4sOqxdWFGKxGGmaD8ugSnfp5o50=">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</latexit>

reflection (parity) x ! x :
<latexit sha1_base64="JFEF273cZiV1EcBukVjZbdobZE8=">AAACIXicbVBNSwMxEM3Wr7p+VT16CRZBBMtuD+pR1IPHClaF7lJm02kbms2uSVYsS/+KF/+KFw+K9Cb+GdNaoX4MBN6894bJvCgVXBvPe3cKM7Nz8wvFRXdpeWV1rbS+caWTTDGss0Qk6iYCjYJLrBtuBN6kCiGOBF5HvdORfn2HSvNEXpp+imEMHcnbnIGxVLN0FETY4TLHWwlKQX9v4AZnKAzQ+8AkdP+7oW6AsjVla5bKXsUbF/0L/Akok0nVmqVh0EpYFqM0TIDWDd9LTZiDMpwJtGszjSmwHnSwYaGEGHWYjy8c0B3LtGg7UfZJQ8fs9EQOsdb9OLLOGExX/9ZG5H9aIzPtozDnMs0MSva1qJ0Jam8fxUVbXCEzom8BMMXtXynrggJmbKiuDcH/ffJfcFWt+AcV76JaPj6ZxFEkW2Sb7BKfHJJjck5qpE4YeSBP5IW8Oo/Os/PmDL+sBWcys0l+lPPxCeqko1g=</latexit>

d2 x
<latexit sha1_base64="8CgLQPulpHLYgCbxTHp8icUP38c=">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</latexit>

m 2
= k x with x=x xeq
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dt Slide 1-18
Section 1.2: Symmetry

Exercise 1.3 Change is no change

Figure 1.6 shows a snowflake.
(a) Does the snowflake have rotational symmetry? If yes,
describe the ways in which the flake can be rotated
without changing its appearance.
(b) Does it have reflection symmetry? If yes, describe the
ways in which the flake can be split in two so that one half
is the mirror image of the other.

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Slide 1-19
Section 1.2: Symmetry

Exercise 1.3 Change is no change (cont.)

SOLUTION (a) Yes. The snowflake can be rotated by 60°
or a multiple of 60° (120°, 180°, 240°, 300°, and 360°) in
the plane of the photograph without changing its appearance
(Figure 1.7a). It therefore has rotational symmetry.

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Slide 1-20
Section 1.2: Symmetry

Exercise 1.3 Change is no change (cont.)

SOLUTION (b) Yes. The flake can be folded in half along
any of the three blue axes and along any of the three red axes
in Figure 1.7b. The flake therefore has reflection symmetry
about all six of these axes.

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Slide 1-21
Checkpoint 1.4

1.4 You always store your pencils in a cylindrical

case. One day while traveling in the tropics, you
discover that the cap, which you have placed back on
the case day in, day out for years, doesn’t fit over the
case. What do you conclude? Which symmetry is this
question about?

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Slide 1-22
Section 1.3: Matter and the universe

Section Goals
You will learn

• that the universe is made of matter and energy in space-

time (in which all events happen).

• the importance of units of measure (T, L, M etc) in

physics.

• that there exist typical length scales of physical objects

in the universe.
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Slide 1-23
Section 1.3: Matter and the universe

• We want to describe all that happens in the universe.

• How? We introduce physical quantities to describe
natural phenomena (by equations = relations among them).
• Length is the fundamental physical quantity to map the
universe (from microscopic to macroscopic scales):

• The International System of Units (SI) defines the

standard unit of length to be a meter (denoted by m).
• One meter is defined by the distance travelled
by light in vacuum during a time interval
of 1/299,792,458 = 1 [m]/c [m/s] of a second.
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Slide 1-24
Section 1.3: Matter and the universe

• An order of magnitude (power of ten) is an extremely

important concept to get a feel (or rough idea) of the vast
range of size scales in the universe.
• In order-of-magnitude estimates, 1 ≈ 0.3 to 3. Similarly,
10 ≈ 3 to 30, etc. (approximation)
• Example: 3 mins = (3 ´60 = 180) secs = 1.8 ´ 102 s.
So, 3 mins = 1.8 ´ 102 s ≈ 102 s.
• Another example: Earth’s circumference = 40,000,000 m
= 4 ´ 107m ≈ 108 m.

Get ballpark figures first before indulging yourself

into irrelevant details.
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Slide 1-25
Section 1.3: Matter and the universe

• All ordinary matter in the universe is made up of basic

building blocks,

atoms (see figure) ⊃ nucleus (protons & neutrons)

+ a cloud of electrons ⊃ quarks ⊃ strings?

• atom size ≈ 10–10 m ⊃ nucleus size ≈ 10–15 m

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Slide 1-26
Section 1.3: Matter and the universe

• Vast range of scales in the universe

microscopic scales
(sub)atomic physics

ti o n s
ti c al equa
them a
b y m a
All r u le d

macroscopic scales
astrophysics & cosmology
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Slide 1-27
Section 1.3: Matter and the universe

Exercise 1.4 Tiny universe

If all the matter in the observable universe were squeezed
together as tightly as the matter in the nucleus of an atom,
what order of magnitude would the diameter of the
universe be?

Hint: (1) 1080 nucleus in the universe

(2) nucleus diameter ≈ 10–15 m

This is an order-of-magnitude (ballpark figure) question.

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Slide 1-28
Section 1.3: Matter and the universe

Exercise 1.4 Tiny universe (cont.)

SOLUTION Since one nucleus volume ≈ (10–15)3 m3 =
10–45 m3 and there are 1080 nucleus in the universe, the
total volume of all the nucleus in the universe is

Volume ≈ (1080 nucleus)(10–45 m3) = 1035 m3

which corresponds to the diameter

Diameter ≈ (1035 m3)1/3 ≈ 1012 m

and is a bit larger than the diameter of Earth’s orbit around
the Sun.
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Slide 1-29
Section 1.4: Time and change

Section Goals
You will learn

• the arrow of time of the universe and the principle of

causality.

• the second as the standard unit to measure time.

• the existence of various scales of time for physical

objects and events in the universe.

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Slide 1-30
Section 1.4: Time and change

• Time flows in one direction, whereas there is no flow of

direction as such in all three dimensions of space.

• This “arrow of time” points to the future and it means a

causal relationship between events, which leads to the
principle of causality:

Whenever an event A causes event B, all

observers see event A happen first.
(cause & effect; A = cause, B = effect)

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Slide 1-31
Section 1.4: Time and change

• The standard unit of time is the

second (denoted by s).

• The second is defined as the duration

of 9,192,631,770 periods of certain
radiation emitted by cesium atoms.

• The time scales in the universe range

from 10-44 s (Planck time) to 1018 s ≈
14 billion years (the age of the
universe).
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Slide 1-32
Section 1.5: Representations

Section Goals
You will learn

• there are (1) words, (2) figures, and (3) equations

(collectively called representations) to describe
physical phenomena in the universe and their
scientific models.

• words (vague), figures (intuitive and helpful), and

equations (precise and greatest).

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Slide 1-33
Section 1.5: Representations

Words
(pretty useless)

Figures = Visualization
(very helpful)

Equations
(greatest & precise)

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Slide 1-34
Section 1.5: Representations

Exercise 1.5 Stretching a spring

For a physics laboratory assignment, one end of a spring
is attached to a horizontal rod so that the spring hangs
vertically, and a ruler is hung vertically alongside the
spring. The stretching properties of the spring are to be
measured by attaching eight identical beads to the
spring’s free end. With no beads attached, the free end
of the spring is at a ruler reading of 23.4 mm. With one
bead attached, the end of the spring drops to 25.2 mm.

So much words and still continues…

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Slide 1-35
Section 1.5: Representations

Exercise 1.5 Stretching a spring (cont.)

When the second, third, and fourth beads are attached
one at a time, the end drops to ruler readings of 26.5
mm, 29.1 mm, and 30.8 mm, respectively. Adding the
fifth and sixth beads together moves the spring end to
34.3 mm, and adding the last two beads moves the end
to 38.2 mm.

Have you managed to picture what’s going on?

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Slide 1-36
Section 1.5: Representations

Exercise 1.5 Stretching a spring (cont.)

(a) Make a pictorial representation of this setup.
(b) Tabulate the data.
(c) Plot the data on a graph, showing the ruler readings
on the vertical axis and the numbers of beads on the
horizontal axis.
(d) Describe what can be inferred from the data.

Finally, here are the questions…

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Slide 1-37
Section 1.5: Representations

Exercise 1.5 Stretching a spring (cont.)

SOLUTION (a) What are in the question?
(1) The spring, (2) the rod from which the spring hangs,
(3) the ruler, (4) beads (as a minimal representation, just
draw one), and (5) the ruler readings.

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Slide 1-38
Section 1.5: Representations

Exercise 1.5 Stretching a spring (cont.)

SOLUTION (b) Table of data. (c) Plot of data. (d) The linear
relation ( line) between the ruler readings and the no. of
suspended beads. (Each additional bead stretches the spring
by about the same amount.)

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-39
Section 1.5: Representations

• From the table or the plot of data, you can infer an equation
= relation between the ruler reading and the no. of beads
<latexit sha1_base64="1nrSe/yEReOf4j6r10AMBtvr9hw=">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</latexit>

(38 25) [mm]

Reading [mm] ' 23.4 [mm] + ⇥ No.
8 1
= 23.4 [mm] + 1.86 ⇥ No. [mm]
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Slide 1-40
Chapter 1 Foundations

Quantitative Tools

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Slide 1-41
Section 1.6: Physical quantities and units

Section Goals
You will learn
• the seven base units of the SI system of units.

• power of 10 notation such as 103 and metric

prefixes such as milli-, kilo-.

• the concept of the density of matter and its

relationship to the mole and Avogadro’s number.

• unit conversions by use of a ratio of units.

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Slide 1-42
Section 1.6: Physical quantities and units

• The symbols of the frequently used physical quantities.

(Get used to dealing with variables or else you fail!)

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Slide 1-43
Section 1.6: Physical quantities and units

• The system of units in science = SI units (Système

Internationale).
• Seven base units of the SI system. (All other units can be
derived from them).

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Slide 1-44
Section 1.6: Physical quantities and units

• Very often we deal with quantities that are much less or

much greater than the standards of 1 m, 1 s, etc.
• It’s convenient to use prefixes to denote various powers of
10 to talk about such small or large quantities.

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Slide 1-45
Checkpoint Question 1.11

Examples:
1.11

(a) ℓ = 150,000,000 m = 150 × 106 m = 150 mega-m

(b) t = 0.000 000 000 012 s = 12 × 10-12 s = 12 pico-s

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Slide 1-46
Section 1.6: Physical quantities and units

• The mole (denoted by mol) is the SI base unit that

measures the quantity of a given substance.

• 1 mole = Avogadro number NA (No. of atoms in 12 g

of the most common form of carbon, carbon-12)

• The currently accepted experimental value of NA is

NA = 6.0221413 ´ 1023

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Slide 1-47
Section 1.6: Physical quantities and units

• The concept of the density of matter:

density = some substance per unit volume
• Number density (n). If there are N objects in
volume V, then
N
n≡
V
• Mass density r is the amount
of mass m per unit volume:

m
ρ≡
V
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Slide 1-48
Section 1.6: Physical quantities and units

Exercise 1.6 Helium gas density

At room temperature and atmospheric pressure, 1 mol of
helium gas has a volume of 24.5 × 10–3 m3. What are the
number and mass densities? The mass of one helium atom
is m = 6.647 × 10–27 kg.

6.022 × 10 atoms
23
n= −3
= 2.46 × 10 atoms/m .
25 3

24.5 × 10 m 3

3
<latexit sha1_base64="U2qXWv2qSoGy5G2KFBG6XfrK0/k=">AAACJ3icbVDNSgMxGMzW//pX9eglWAQRqbstqJeK6MWjgq2Fbi3Z9GsbmmTXJCssS9/Gi6/iRVARPfompnUPWh0IDDPzJfkmiDjTxnU/nNzU9Mzs3PxCfnFpeWW1sLZe12GsKNRoyEPVCIgGziTUDDMcGpECIgIO18HgbORf34HSLJRXJomgJUhPsi6jxFipXTj2A+gxmcKtJEqRZHeY91U/rAosq27JO6j4e6mvBB709sVNxZogOz/C7ULRLblj4L/Ey0gRZbhoF579TkhjAdJQTrRuem5kWilRhlEO9v5YQ0TogPSgaakkAnQrHe85xNtW6eBuqOyRBo/VnxMpEVonIrBJQUxfT3oj8T+vGZvuUStlMooNSPr9UDfm2IR4VBruMAXU8MQSQhWzf8W0TxShxlabtyV4kyv/JfWyrbPkXpaLJ6dZHfNoE22hHeShQ3SCztEFqiGK7tEjekGvzoPz5Lw579/RnJPNbKBfcD6/AIAWpRg=</latexit>

⇢ = mn = 0.163 kg/m
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Slide 1-49
Section 1.6: Physical quantities and units

• Unit conversions: Convenient to use the conversion factor

as a ratio equal to one. For example
1 in. 25.4 mm
= 1 or =1
25.4 mm 1 in.
• If we want to convert 4.5 inch into millimeters:

⎛ 25.4 mm ⎞ 2
4.5 in = (4.5 in .) ⎜ ⎟ = 4.5 × 25.4 mm = 1.1 × 10 mm
⎝ 1 in . ⎠

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Slide 1-50
Section 1.6: Physical quantities and units

Exercise 1.7 Unit conversions

Convert 32 mi to a quantity expressed either in meters or
in meters raised to some power:
3
<latexit sha1_base64="poHEF6iN/NymTfN8XkLK+ybam0k=">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</latexit>

1.609 ⇥ 10 m
=1
1 mi

<latexit sha1_base64="nTdtWUmrZ7lOu/rpwSGUdg6wIMA=">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</latexit>

✓ 3
◆
1.609 ⇥ 10 m 4
(32 mi) = 5.1 ⇥ 10 m
1 mi
© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Slide 1-51
Section 1.7: Significant digits

Section Goals

You will learn

• significant digits as the number of digits that are

known reliably.

• the rules of significant digits in calculations involving

measured quantities.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-52
Section 1.7: Significant digits

• It’s important in science and engineering that we know

how to precisely state what you know about a situation.

• e.g. Paper width measurement:

• We might guess 21.3 mm,

but we can’t be sure of the
last digit.
• So we record 21 mm to indicate
that the actual value lies between 20.5 mm and 21.5 mm.
The value 21 mm is said to have two significant digits.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Slide 1-53
Section 1.7: Significant digits

• By expressing a value with the proper number of significant

digits, we can convey the precision to which that value is
reliably known.

1. If a number does not contain zeros, all digits are significant:

• 21 has two significant digits, 21.3 has three.
2. Zeros that come between nonzero digits are significant:
• 0.602 has three significant digits. (Mid zero included)
3. Leading zeros are never significant:
• 0.037 has two significant digits. (First zeros not included)

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-54
Section 1.7: Significant digits

4. Trailing zeros to the right of a decimal point are significant:

• 25.10 has four significant digits. (Last zero included)
5. Trailing zeros that do not contain a decimal point are
ambiguous.
• 7900 can have two to four significant digits.
6. To accurately convey the precision for such numbers, we
will use the scientific notation:
• 7.900 ´ 103 has four significant digits.
• 7.9 ´ 103 has two significant digits.
• To simplify the notation we will consider all trailing zeros
to be significant in this textbook.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Slide 1-55
Section 1.7: Significant digits

Exercise 1.8 Significant digits

(a) How many significant digits are there?

403.54 kg (5), 3.010 ´ 1057 m (4), 2.43 ´ 10–3 s (3),

14.00 μm (4), 0.0140 s (3), 5300 kg (4)

(b) Round 12,300 kg and 0.0125 s to two significant

digits. (1.2 × 𝟏𝟎4 kg, 0.013 s = 1.3 × 10-2 s)

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-56
Section 1.7: Significant digits

• The (simplified) rules for working with significant digits:

1. When multiplying or dividing quantities, the number

of significant digits in the result is the same as the
number of significant digits in the input quantity that
has the fewest significant digits.

2. When adding or subtracting quantities, the number

of decimal places in the result is the same as the
number of decimal places in the input quantities
that has the fewest decimal places.
© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Slide 1-57
Section 1.7: Significant digits

Exercise 1.9 Significant digits and calculations

Calculate:
(a) f = a/(bc), where a = 2.34 mm2, b = 54.26 m, c = 0.14 μm;
2.34 × 10−6 m 2
f = = 0.30804 ! 0.31
<latexit sha1_base64="sUwx3scD0g1+DVpaG8yjyX5FBJE=">AAACE3icbVDLSsNAFJ34rPEVdekmWATpoiQV1GXRjcsK9gFtKJPJTTt0MokzEyGE/oMbf8WNC0XcunHn3zhts6itBwYO59zLnXP8hFGpHOfHWFldW9/YLG2Z2zu7e/vWwWFLxqkg0CQxi0XHxxIY5dBUVDHoJAJw5DNo+6Obid9+BCFpzO9VloAX4QGnISVYaalvVXo+DCjP4YFjIXBWGZs9FdtO9dw1e8CDOaNvlZ2qM4W9TNyClFGBRt/67gUxSSPgijAsZdd1EuXlWChKGOhDqYQEkxEeQFdTjiOQXj7NNLZPtRLYYSz048qeqvMbOY6kzCJfT0ZYDeWiNxH/87qpCq+8nPIkVcDJ7FCYMlunnhRkB1QAUSzTBBNB9V9tMsQCE6VrNHUJ7mLkZdKqVd2LqnNXK9evizpK6BidoDPkoktUR7eogZqIoCf0gt7Qu/FsvBofxudsdMUodo7QHxhfv+G/nYU=</latexit>

−6
(54.26 m)(0.14 × 10 m)
(b) the sum of b = 54.26 m and c = 0.0014 m;
b + c = 54.26 m + 0.0014 m = 54.26 m

(Note: b = btw 54.255 m & 54.265 m and c = btw 0.00135 m

& 0.00145 m. So, to be more accurate, b + c = btw 54.25635
m to 54.26645 m. )
© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Slide 1-58
Section 1.8: Solving problems

Section Goals
You will learn

• a systematic four-step procedure to solve problems.

• applications of this procedure to some problems of

interest to physicists.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-59
Section 1.8: Solving problems

Procedure: Solving problems

(an approach in this textbook)

1. Getting started: Visualization

Make a sketch of the situation or putting data in

tabular form. Determine which physics concepts
apply and note any assumptions you are making.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-60
Section 1.8: Solving problems

Procedure: Solving problems (cont.)

2. Devise plan: Equations

Decide what you must do to solve the problem.

Translate your sketch into equations that describe
physics of the problems.

Make sure you have a sufficient number of equations

to solve for all unknowns.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-61
Section 1.8: Solving problems

Procedure: Solving problems (cont.)

3. Execute plan: Solving the equations

Work with variables and plug the numerical numbers in

at the last step.

Checks:
(1) Vectors/scalars used correctly?
(2) Every question answered?
(3) No unknown quantities in answers?
(4) Units correct?
(5) Significant digits justified?
© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Slide 1-62
Section 1.8: Solving problems

Procedure: Solving problems (cont.)

4. Evaluate result: “Physical” interpretations

(1) Check if your answer is reasonable.

(2) Does it conform to what you expect based on
your sketch and the information given?
(3) Does your expression give the correct trend?
(4) Do special (limiting) cases of your answer
reproduce, if any, what you already know?

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-63
Section 1.8: Solving problems

Example 1.10 Length of string

A certain cylinder is 15 in. long and has a circumference

of 4.0 in. When one end of a piece of string is attached
to the left end of the cylinder and the string is then
wound exactly five times around, the string just reaches
to the cylinder’s right end. What is the length of the
string?

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-64
Section 1.8: Solving problems

Example 1.10 Length of string (cont.)

❶ GETTING STARTED: Make a sketch! A string is
wound around a cylinder five times. How long is the
string? This is about a shortest path in geometry.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-65
Section 1.8: Solving problems

Example 1.10 Length of string (cont.)

❷ DEVISE PLAN: What’s the equation to calculate the
shortest path of the string? It’s convenient to cut it open the
cylinder to make it a problem in a flat space. (Pythagorean
theorem)
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

circumference
<latexit sha1_base64="HbCh++KHt1+eNd8TaFsk9B4OiD8=">AAACHnicbVDLSsNAFJ3UV62vqks3g0UQFyUp+FgW3bisYB/QlDKZ3LRDJ5M4MxFC6Je48VfcuFBEcKV/46TtorYeGDiccx9zjxdzprRt/1iFldW19Y3iZmlre2d3r7x/0FJRIik0acQj2fGIAs4ENDXTHDqxBBJ6HNre6Cb3248gFYvEvU5j6IVkIFjAKNFG6pfPXQ8GTGTwIIiUJD0blzJXhpgySZMwAAmCwrjkgvDnavrlil21J8DLxJmRCpqh0S9/uX5kBoLQlBOluo4d615GpGaU5/MTBTGhIzKArqGChKB62eS8MT4xio+DSJonNJ6o8x0ZCZVKQ89UhkQP1aKXi/953UQHV72MiTjR5szpoiDhWEc4zwr7TALVPDWEUMnMXzEdEkmoNomWTAjO4snLpFWrOhdV+65WqV/P4iiiI3SMTpGDLlEd3aIGaiKKntALekPv1rP1an1Yn9PSgjXrOUR/YH3/Asbzo4A=</latexit>
= cylinder length
<latexit sha1_base64="w/UaRkn+NwKrmLCG8ormvhUGLTA=">AAACInicbVDLSgMxFM3UV62vUZdugkUQkTLThY+FUHTjsoJ9QKeUTOa2Dc1kxiQjDEO/xY2/4saFoq4EP8b0saitFwKHc869N/f4MWdKO863lVtaXlldy68XNja3tnfs3b26ihJJoUYjHsmmTxRwJqCmmebQjCWQ0OfQ8Ac3I73xCFKxSNzrNIZ2SHqCdRkl2lAd+9LzocdEBg+CSEnSk2HhKvNkiGlqRgYgvVMOoqf7w4IHIpjxdeyiU3LGhReBOwVFNK1qx/70gogmIQhNOVGq5TqxbmdEakY5mPmJgpjQAelBy0BBQlDtbHziEB8ZJsDdSJonNB6zsx0ZCZVKQ984Q6L7al4bkf9prUR3L9oZE3GiQdDJom7CsY7wKC8cMAlU89QAQiUzf8W0TySh2qRaMCG48ycvgnq55J6VnLtysXI9jSOPDtAhOkYuOkcVdIuqqIYoekIv6A29W8/Wq/VhfU2sOWvas4/+lPXzC5bnpO4=</latexit>

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-66
Section 1.8: Solving problems

Example 1.10 Length of string (cont.)

❸ EXECUTE PLAN: It’s easy and you only need high
school math!

<latexit sha1_base64="kLL2GoWhczx2LGxsWNJiYrBYsh8=">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</latexit>

p
` = 5
|{z} ⇥ (15/5 in)2 + (4.0 in)2
| {z }
winding no. Pythagorean theorem
= 5 ⇥ 5.0 in = 25 in
✔

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-67
Section 1.8: Solving problems

Example 1.10 Length of string (cont.)

Checks:

(1) Vector/scalar: all quantities are scalars

(2) Every question answered: yes
(3) No unknown quantities in answers: no
(4) Units correct: yes, inches
(4) Significant digits: everything given to two significant
digits.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-68
Section 1.8: Solving problems

Example 1.10 Length of string (cont.)

❹ EVALUATE RESULT: The length of the string

must be longer than the cylinder length 15 in, which is
indeed the case. (25 in > 15 in)

The order of magnitude of the string length must be of a

similar order as that of the cylinder length and the
circumference. (Indeed, order O(10 in))

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-69
Section 1.9: Developing a feel

Section Goal

You will learn

• how to make order-of-magnitude estimations

(ballpark figures) of some situations of interest to
physicists.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-70
Section 1.9: Developing a feel

• Order of magnitude estimates to get a feel for a

problem even before you try fully solve it.

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Slide 1-71
Checkpoint 1.16

1.16 Make an order-of-magnitude estimate of the mass

of Earth in kilograms.

(1) Model Earth as a solid sphere

4 3
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V = ⇡RE
3
(2) Assume it’s mostly made of
rocks and a layer of surface water
(ocean) is much lighter and can
be ignored.
3 3
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⇢Rock ' 5⇢water ' 5 ⇥ 10 kg/m

© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Slide 1-72
Checkpoint 1.16

An order-of-magnitude estimate of the Earth mass (cont.)

(3) Superman flies nearly at the speed of light and can go

around Earth 7.5 times per sec.
3 ⇥ 108 m/s ⇥ 1 s
<latexit sha1_base64="myuK9NnlNnHfFm0n2s3r2JJjQaA=">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</latexit>

RE ' ' 6.4 ⇥ 106 m

2⇡ ⇥ 7.5
(4) So the Earth mass is about
⇢Rock V ' 5 ⇥ 103 kg/m3 ⇥ (1.1 ⇥ 1021 m3 )
<latexit sha1_base64="NtgdXhV/CT98+M5/UNeCdzIWQ2U=">AAACoHicbVFbaxNBFJ5db+16i+1jEYYGQxVJd1JrfSwWoQ+KrZi0mEnD7OQkGTKX7cysEJb9Xf4P3/w3TpJFY+uBYT7O9517lkvhfJr+iuI7d+/df7CxmTx89PjJ08azrZ4zheXQ5UYae5kxB1Jo6HrhJVzmFpjKJFxks5MFf/EdrBNGf/XzHAaKTbQYC858cA0bP2gGE6FLuNbMWjZ/VSVqWFKr8Adm/bRqUScUXLcwtVOzIr4YPqt6yYrAh9SH32GSXh3Q10vBbLKvrg6qpGb2SJv8FZUdUtW6heglpjSpi+DWeray86b6kzAkAz1a63LYaKbtdGn4NiA1aKLazoaNn3RkeKFAey6Zc32S5n5QhiEFlxDyFw5yxmdsAv0ANQttDMrlgiv8InhGeGxseNrjpXc9omTKubnKglIxP3U3uYXzf1y/8ON3g1LovPCg+arQuJDYG7y4Fh4JC9zLeQCMWxF6xXzKLOM+3DQJSyA3R74Nep02edtOzzvN4/f1OjbQDtpFe4igI3SMTtEZ6iIePY9Ooo/Rp3g3Po0/x+craRzVMdvoH4u//Qbj7MoJ</latexit>

mEarth '
' 5 ⇥ 1024 kg
(5) Close to the measured value 6 × 1024 kg!
© 2015 Pearson Education, Ltd.
Slide 1-73