UNIT-IV

MULTIPLE DIVISION ACCESS TECHNIQUES

 To accommodate a number of users, many traffic channels need to be made available.

 In principle, there are three basic ways to have many channels within an allocated bandwidth:

◼ Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

◼ Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

◼ Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

In one BS radio service range, may be many MSs are located. MS must distinguish which signal
meant for itself among many signals being transmitted by other users. BS should be able to
recognize the signal sent by a particular user. In cellular system, MS not only can distinguish a
signal from a serving BS but also can discriminate the signal from adjacent BS. – Multiple access
techniques important in mobile cellular system.

 A Radio Signal can be presented as a function of frequency, time and code.

s (f,t,c) = s(f,t)c(t)

Where

s(f,t) – a function of frequency and time

c(t) – a function of code

When c(t) = 1 then s (f,t,c) = s(f,t)

In wireless communications, it is necessary to utilize limited frequency bands at the same time,
allowing multiple users(MSs) to share radio channel simultaneously. To provide simultaneous
two-way communication (duplex communication) : Frequency division duplexing (FDD) and
Time Division Duplexing (TDD). FDMA uses FDD, TDMA & CDMA uses TDD @FDD.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):

Fig.1
This was the initial multiple-access technique for cellular systems in which each
individual user is assigned a pair of frequencies while making or receiving a call as
shown in Fig .1. One frequency is used for downlink and one pair for uplink. This is
called frequency division duplexing (FDD). That allocated frequency pair is not used in
the same cell or adjacent cells during the call so as to reduce the co channel interference.
Even though the user may not be talking, the spectrum cannot be reassigned as long as a
call is in place. Different users can use the same frequency in the same cell except that
they must transmit at different times.

The features of FDMA are as follows:

1. The FDMA channel carries only one phone circuit at a time.

2. If an FDMA channel is not in use, then it sits idle and it cannot be used by other users
to increase share capacity.

3. After the assignment of the voice channel the BS and the MS transmit simultaneously
and continuously.

4. The bandwidths of FDMA systems are generally narrow i.e. FDMA is usually 159
implemented in a narrow band system.

6. The symbol time is large compared to the average delay spread.

7. The complexity of the FDMA mobile systems is lower than that of TDMA mobile
systems.

8. FDMA requires tight filtering to minimize the adjacent channel interference.

FDMA/FDD in AMPS: The first U.S. analog cellular system, AMPS (Advanced Mobile
Phone System) is based on FDMA/FDD. A single user occupies a single channel while
the call is in progress, and the single channel is actually two simplex channels which are
frequency duplexed with a 45 MHz split. When a call is completed or when a handoff
occurs the channel is vacated so that another mobile subscriber may use it. Multiple or
simultaneous users are accommodated in AMPS by giving each user a unique signal.
Voice signals are sent on the forward channel from the base station to the mobile unit,
and on the reverse channel from the mobile unit to the base station. In AMPS, analog
narrowband frequency modulation (NBFM) is used to modulate the carrier.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In digital systems, continuous transmission is not required because users do not use the
allotted bandwidth all the time. In such cases, TDMA is a complimentary access
technique to FDMA. Global Systems for Mobile communications (GSM) uses the TDMA
technique. In TDMA, the entire bandwidth is available to the user but only for a finite
period of time. In most cases the available bandwidth is divided into fewer channels
compared to FDMA and the users are allotted time slots during which they have the
entire channel bandwidth at their disposal, as shown in Figure.2. TDMA requires careful
time synchronization since users share the bandwidth in the frequency domain. The
number of channels are less, inter channel interference is almost negligible. TDMA uses
different time slots for transmission and reception. This type of duplexing is referred to as
Time division duplexing (TDD).

The features of TDMA includes the following:

1. TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each users makes
use of non overlapping time slots.

2. The number of time slots per frame depends on several factors such as modulation
technique, available bandwidth etc.

3. Data transmission in TDMA is not continuous but occurs in bursts. This results in low
battery consumption since the subscriber transmitter can be turned OFF when not in use.

4. Because of a discontinuous transmission in TDMA the handoff process is much

simpler for a subscriber unit, since it is able to listen to other base stations during idle
time slots.

5. TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception thus duplexers are not
required.

6. Adaptive equalisation is usually necessary since he transmission rates are generally

very high.
7. The guard time should be minimized.

Fig.3

TDMA has an advantage that is possible to allocate different numbers of time slots per
frame to different users. Thus bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by
concatenating or reassigning time slot based on priority.

TDMA/FDD in GSM: GSM is widely used in Europe and other parts of the world. GSM
uses a variation of TDMA along with FDD. GSM digitizes and compresses data, then
sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data, each in its 161. It operates at
either the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz frequency band. Since many GSM network operators
have roaming agreements with foreign operators, users can often continue to use their
mobile phones when they travel to other countries.

❑ FDMA compared to TDMA

1. Fewer bits for synchronization.

2. Fewer bits for framing.

3. Higher costs for duplexer used in base station and subscriber units.

4. FDMA requires RF filtering to minimize adjacent channel interference.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):

In CDMA, the same bandwidth is occupied by all the users, however they are all assigned
separate codes, which differentiates them from each other as shown in Figure.4. CDMA
utilize a spread spectrum technique in which a spreading signal (which is uncorrelated to
the signal and has a large bandwidth) is used to spread the narrow band message signal.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DS-SS). This is the most commonly used technology
for CDMA. In DS-SS, the message signal is multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code.
Each user is given his own codeword which is orthogonal to the codes of other users and
in order to detect the user, the receiver must know the codeword used by the transmitter.
There are, however, two problems in such systems which are discussed in the sequel.

Fig.4

CDMA/FDD in IS-95: In this standard, the frequency range is: 869-894 MHz (for Rx)
and 824-849 MHz (for Tx). In such a system, there are a total of 20 channels and 798
users per channel. For each channel, the bit rate is 1.2288 Mbps. For orthogonality, it
usually combines 64 Walsh-Hadamard codes and a m-sequence.

CDMA and Self-interference Problem: In CDMA, self-interference arises from the

presence of delayed replicas of signal due to multipath. The delays cause the spreading
sequences of the different users to lose their orthogonality, as by design they are
orthogonal only at zero phase offset. Hence in despreading a given user’s waveform,
nonzero contributions to that user’s signal arise from the transmissions of the other users
in the network. This is distinct from both TDMA and FDMA, wherein for reasonable
time or frequency guardbands, respectively, orthogonality of the received signals can be
preserved.

CDMA is a system based on spread-spectrum technology. Spread-spectrum –

transmission technique wherein data occupy a larger bandwidth than necessary.

There are two basic types of implementation methodologies:

◼ Direct Sequence (DS)

◼ Frequency Hoping (FH)

Hybrid Spread Spectrum Techniques: The hybrid combinations of FHMA, CDMA and
SSMA result in hybrid spread spectrum techniques that provide certain advantages. These
hybrid techniques are explained below:

Hybrid FDMA/CDMA (FCDMA): An alternative to the CDMA technique in which the

available wideband spectrum is divided into a smaller number of sub spectra with smaller
bandwidths. The smaller sub channels become narrow band CDMA systems with
processing gain lower than the original CDMA system. In this scheme the required
bandwidth need not be contiguous and different user can be allotted different sub
spectrum bandwidths depending on their requirements. The capacity of this hybrid
FCDMA technique is given by the sum of the capacities of a system operating in the sub
spectra.

Hybrid Direct Sequence/Frequency Hopped Multiple Access Techniques

(DS/FHMA): A direct sequence modulated signal whose center frequency is made to hop
periodically in a pseudo random fashion is used in this technique. One of the advantages
using this technique is they avoid near-far effect. However, frequency hopped CDMA
systems are not adaptable to the soft handoff process since it is difficult to synchronize
the frequency hopped base station receiver to the multiple hopped signals.

Time and Code Division Multiple Access (TCDMA): In this TCDMA method different
cells are allocated different spreading codes. In each cell, only one user per cell is allotted
a particular time slot. Thus at any 165 time only one user is transmitting in each cell.
When a handoff takes place the spreading code of that user is changed to the code of the
new cell. TCDMA also avoids near-far effect as the number of users transmitting per cell
is one.

Fig.5

Time Division Frequency Hopping (TDFH): This technique has been adopted for the
GSM standard, where the hopping sequence is predefined and the subscriber is allowed to
hop only on certain frequencies which are assigned to a cell. The subscriber can hop to a
 new frequency at the start of a new TDMA frame, thus avoiding a severe fade or erasure
event on a particular channel. This technique has the advantage in severe multipath or
when severe channel interference occurs.

Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

Utilizes the spatial separation of the users in order to optimize the use of the frequency
spectrum. A primitive form of SDMA is when the same frequency is reused in different
cells in a cellular wireless network. The radiated power of each user is controlled by
Space division multiple access. SDMA serves different users by using spot beam antenna.
These areas may be served by the same frequency or different frequencies. However for
limited co-channel interference it is required that the cells be sufficiently separated. This
limits the number of cells a region can be divided into and hence limits the frequency re-
use factor. A more advanced approach can further increase the capacity of the network.
This technique would enable frequency re-use within the cell. In a practical cellular
environment it is improbable to have just one transmitter fall within the receiver beam
width. Therefore it becomes imperative to use other multiple access techniques in
conjunction with SDMA. When different areas are covered by the antenna beam,
frequency can be re-used, in which case TDMA or CDMA is employed, for different
frequencies FDMA can be used.

PACKET RADIO:
 Many subscribers attempt to access a single channel in an uncoordinated or minimally
coordinated manner. Collisions from simultaneous transmissions are detected at the BS.
ACK and NACK is broadcasted by BS (its like perfect feedback). In case of NACK the
signal is retransmitted. PR is easy to implement. Induces delays.
 Vulnerable period Vp: time interval during which the packets are susceptible to collisions
with transmission from other users. If packet length in time is t, then a packet will suffer
collision if other terminals transmit packets during the period t1 to t1+2t. Subscribers use
contention techniques: ALOHA protocol example of contention techniques

 Advantage: ability to serve many users without any overhead

 Disadvantage of SDMA:

1. Perfect adaptive antenna system: infinitely large antenna needed.

2. Compromise needed.

Capacity of Cellular Systems:

 channel capacity: maximum number of users in a fixed frequency band

 radio capacity : value for spectrum efficiency

 reverse channel interference

 forward channel interference

 How determine the radio capacity?

Co-Channel Reuse Ratio Q:

Q … co-channel reuse ratio

D … distance between two co-channel cells
R … cell radius

Carrier-to-interference ratio C/I

 M closest co-channels cells cause first order interference

− no
Do
C/I = − nk
Dk

Where, n0 … path loss exponent in the desired cell

nk … path loss exponent to the interfering base station
 Assumption:
 just the 6 closest stations interfere
 all these stations have the same distance D
 all have similar path loss exponents to n0
−n
Do
C/I =
6 * D −n
Worst Case Performance:
 maximum interference at D0 = R
 (C/I)min for acceptable signal quality
 following equation must hold:
1/6 * (R/D) > (C/I)min

Co-Channel reuse ratio Q

Q = D/R = (6*(C/I)min)1/n

where

D … distance of the 6 closest interfering base stations

R … cell radius

(C/I)min … minimum carrier-to-interference ratio

n … path loss exponent

Radio Capacity m

Bt
m= radio channels / cell
Bc * N

where

 Bt … total allocated spectrum for the system

 Bc … channel bandwidth
 N … number of cells in a complete frequency reuse cluster

N is related to the co-channel factor Q by:

Q = (3*N)1/2
 Compare different Systems
 each digital wireless standard has different (C/I)min
 to compare them an equivalent (C/I) needed
 keep total spectrum allocation Bt and number of rario channels per cell m constant
to get (C/I)eq :

(C/I)eq = (C/I)min * (Bc / Bc’)2

 Bc … bandwidth of a particular system

 (C/I)min … tolerable value for the same system

 Bc’ … channel bandwidth for a different system

 (C/I)eq … minimum C/I value for the different system

C/I in digital cellular systems

Eb * Rb Ec * Rc
C/I = =
I I

Where,
Rb … channel bit rate
Eb … energy per bit
Rc … rate of the channel code
Ec … energy per code symbol
combine last two equations:

(C/I) / (C/I)eq = [(Ec*Rc)/I] / [(Ec’*Rc’)/I’] = [Bc’ / Bc] 2

The sign ‘ marks compared system parameters.

 Relationship between Rc and Bc is always linear (Rc/Rc’ = Bc/Bc’ )

Compare C/I between FDMA and TDMA

 Assume that multichannel FDMA system occupies same spectrum as a TDMA system

 FDMA : C = Eb * Rb ; I = I0 * Bc

 TDMA : C’ = Eb * Rb’ ; I’ = I0 * Bc’

Where, Eb … Energy per bit
I0 … interference power per Hertz
Rb … channel bit rate
Bc … channel bandwidth
 WIRELESS NETWORKING

1. Introduction to Wireless Networks

A wireless network enables people to communicate and access applications and information
without wires. This provides freedom of movement and the ability to extend applications to
different parts of a building, city, or nearly anywhere in the world. Wireless networks allow
people to interact with e-mail or browse the Internet from a location that they prefer.

Many types of wireless communication systems exist, but a distinguishing attribute of a wireless
network is that communication takes place between computer devices. These devices include
personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptops, personal computers (PCs), servers, and printers.
Computer devices have processors, memory, and a means of interfacing with a particular type of
network. Traditional cell phones don't fall within the definition of a computer device; however,
newer phones and even audio headsets are beginning to incorporate computing power and
network adapters. Eventually, most electronics will offer wireless network connections.

As with networks based on wire, or optical fiber, wireless networks convey information between
computer devices. The information can take the form of e-mail messages, web pages, database
records, streaming video or voice. In most cases, wireless networks transfer data, such as e-mail
messages and files, but advancements in the performance of wireless networks is enabling
support for video and voice communications as well.

2. Wireless Networks Compared to Fixed Networks

• Higher loss-rates due to interference
– other EM signals, objects in path (multi-path, scattering)
• Limited availability of useful spectrum
– frequencies have to be coordinated, useful frequencies are almost all occupied
• Low transmission rates
– local area: 2 – 11 Mbit/s, wide area: 9.6 – 19.2 kbit/s
• Higher delays, higher jitter
– connection setup time for cellular in the second range, several hundred
milliseconds for wireless LAN systems
• Lower security, simpler active attacking
– radio interface accessible for everyone
– base station can be simulated, thus attracting calls from mobile phones
• Always shared medium
– secure access mechanisms important
• Location aware services
– what services, e.g., printer, fax, phone, server etc. exist in the local environment
that can be used by the user (security and authentication)
• Follow-on services
 – automatic call-forwarding, transmission of the actual workspace to the current
location
• Information services
– push: e.g., current special offers in the supermarket
– pull: e.g., where is the Sarah Lee New York Cheese Cake?
• Support services
– caches, intermediate results, state information, etc., follow the mobile device
through the fixed network
• Privacy
– who should gain knowledge about the location of the user/device

3. Traffic Routing In Wireless Networks:

a) Circuit switching:
— There is a dedicated communication path between two stations (end-to-end)
— The path is a connected sequence of links between network nodes. On each
physical link, a logical channel is dedicated to the connection.
• Communication via circuit switching has three phases:
— Circuit establishment (link by link)
• Routing & resource allocation (FDM or TDM)
— Data transfer
— Circuit disconnect
• Deallocate the dedicated resources
• The switches must know how to find the route to the destination and how to allocate
bandwidth (channel) to establish a connection.
• Inefficiency
— Channel capacity is dedicated for the whole duration of a connection
— If no data, capacity is wasted
• Delay
— Long initial delay: circuit establishment takes time
— Low data delay: after the circuit establishment, information is transmitted at a
fixed data rate with no delay other than the propagation delay. The delay at each
node is negligible.
• Developed for voice traffic (public telephone network) but can also applied to data
traffic. For voice connections, the resulting circuit will enjoy a high percentage of
utilization because most of the time one party or the other is talking.
• Problem of circuit switching
— designed for voice service
— Resources dedicated to a particular call
— For data transmission, much of the time the connection is idle (say, web
browsing)
— Data rate is fixed
• Both ends must operate at the same rate during the entire period of
connection
b) Packet switching:
• Packet switching is designed to address these problems.
• Data are transmitted in short packets
— Typically at the order of 1000 bytes
— Longer messages are split into series of packets
— Each packet contains a portion of user data plus some control info
• Control info contains at least
— Routing (addressing) info, so as to be routed to the intended destination
— Recall the content of an IP header!
• store and forward
— On each switching node, packets are received, stored briefly (buffered) and
passed on to the next node.

Packet switching is similar to message switching using short messages. Any message exceeding
a network-defined maximum length is broken up into shorter units, known as packets, for
transmission; the packets, each with an associated header, are then transmitted individually
through the network. If you transmit from sender to receiver, all the network will do its best to
get the packet to the other end as fast as possible, but there are no guarantees on how fast that
packet will arrive.
Packet Formats : A packet contains three major fields: The header, the message, and
redundancy check bits Most popular technique uses cyclic redundancy checks (CRCs) CRC is
nothing more than a set of parity bits that cover overlapping fields of message bits. CRC can
detect small number of errors

Packet switching is the basis for the Internet Protocol (IP). In packet switching, information
flows are broken into variable-size packets (or fixed-size cells as in the case of ATM). These
packets are sent, one by one, to the nearest router, which will look up the destination address,
and then forward them to the corresponding next hop. This process is repeated until the packet
reaches its destination. The routing of the information is thus done locally, hop-by-hop. Routing
decisions are independent of other decisions in the past and in other routers; however, they are
based on network state and topology information that is exchanged among routers. The network
does not need to keep any state to operate, other than the routing tables. The forwarding
mechanism is called store-and-forward because IP packets are completely received stored in the
router while being processed, and then transmitted. Additionally, packets may need to be
buffered locally to resolve contention for resources. 4 If the system runs out of buffers, packets
are dropped. With the most scheduling policies, such as FCFS and WFQ, packet switching

c) X.25 PROTOCOl:

X.25 is an ITU-T standard protocol suite for packet switched wide area network(WAN)
communication. An X.25 WAN consists of packet-switching exchange (PSE) nodes as the
networking hardware, and leased lines, plain old telephone service connections,
or ISDN connections as physical links. X.25 is a family of protocols that was popular during the
1980s with telecommunications companies and in financial transaction systems such
as automated teller machines. X.25 was originally defined by the International Telegraph and
Telephone Consultative Committee (CCITT, now ITU-T) in a series of drafts and finalized in a
publication known as The Orange Book in 1976.[2]
While X.25 has, to a large extent, been replaced by less complex protocols, especially
the Internet protocol (IP), the service is still used (e.g. as of 2012 in credit card payment
industry) and available in niche and legacy applications.

WIRELESS DATA SERVICES:

 AMPS is unsuited for packet data
 Long call setup times
 Modem handshaking required
 Analog providers have AMPS allocation.
 Use AMPS channels to provide data service.
 “Cellular digital packet data”
 Can’t interfere with existing analog service.
 CDPD is cheap: no new spectrum license needed!

 Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) was a wide-area mobile data service which used
unused bandwidth normally used by AMPS mobile phones between 800 and 900 MHz to
transfer data. Speeds up to 19.2 kbit/s were possible. The service was discontinued in
conjunction with the retirement of the parent AMPS service; it has been functionally
replaced by faster services such as 1xRTT, EV-DO, andUMTS/HSPA.
 Developed in the early 1990s, CDPD was large on the horizon as a future technology.
CDPD had very limited consumer products. AT&T Wireless first sold the technology in
 the United States under the PocketNet brand. It was one of the first products of wireless
web service. Digital Ocean, Inc. an OEM licensee of the Apple Newton, sold the
Seahorse product, which integrated the Newton handheld computer, an AMPS/CDPD
handset/modem along with a web browser in 1996, winning the CTIA's hardware product
of the year award as a smartphone, arguably the world's first.
 Wireless later sold CDPD under the Wireless Internet brand (not to be confused with
Wireless Internet Express, their brand for GPRS/EDGE data). PocketNet was generally
considered a failure with competition from 2G services such as Sprint's Wireless Web.
AT&T Wireless sold four PocketNet Phone models to the public: the Samsung Duette
and the Mitsubishi MobileAccess-120 were AMPS/CDPD PocketNet phones introduced
in October 1997; and two IS-136/CDPD Digital PocketNet phones, the Mitsubishi T-250
and the Ericsson R289LX.
 Despite its limited success as a consumer offering, CDPD was adopted in a number of
enterprise and government networks. It was particularly popular as a first-generation
wireless data solution for telemetry devices (machine to machine communications) and
for public safety mobile data terminals.
 In 2004, major carriers in the United States announced plans to shut down CDPD service.
In July 2005, the AT&T Wireless and Cingular Wireless CDPD networks were shut
down. Equipment for this service now has little to no residual value.
Common Channel Signaling (CCS) :
Compared with Channel Associated Signaling, Common Channel Signaling has many
important advantages

 Information can be switched between processors much faster than in channel-associated

signaling.

 With a huge signal capacity, it can hold dozens or even hundreds of different kinds of
signals, thus providing more new services.

 With a great flexibility, it can provide more new services simply by modifying software to
increase signals.

 Line signaling device is not needed any more at any trunk station, which shall greatly reduce
investment costs.
 Since line signaling is no lo
nger needed, trunk devices can be used both in calls from A to B, and in calls from B to A.

 In such bi-directional working modes, even less circuits are required than when trunk circuits are
respectively used in single call directions.

 When a call is being set up, signals related to this call can be sent. In this way, the subscriber can
change the already setup connections. For example, the subscriber can transfer one call to another
place, or request a third party to join the present connections.

 Signals can be switched between processors so as to be used for maintenance or network

management.

 The No.7 line signaling can provide powerful support for ISDN, IN, TMN (telecommunication
management Network)and cellular mobile communication systems, as this signaling is their basis.

Disadvantages of CCS

 The error rate of the common channel signaling system must be very low.

 Its reliability must be much higher than the channel associated signaling system. This is because
once the data link fails, all related calls between the two related switches shall be affected.

 Bi-directional trunk working modes exist conflict of seizure (A Sudden Disorder).

The SS7 systems that every transnational corporation produces are having some problems in
compatibleness.