T.

TROY

NOTES FOR SDLSBE101

Areas of Growth
This Unit aims to give students the understanding of dynamics of cognitive development and
to get them to participate in programmes and activities that foster logical, analytical and
sequential thought processes. Development of IQ (Intelligent Quotient) is at the core of the
Unit; cognizant of the fact that intellectual reflection and abstraction form the bedrock of
rationality and lucid thought patterns, thought forms and thought processes.  This unit serves
to expose students to situations, programs and activities which stimulate:

·         development of knowledge (theoretical and practical knowledge),

·         Analytic thinking,

·         Interpretation of situations,

·         Problem solving capacities,

·         Informed decision making,

·         Confidence, and

·         Self-esteem.

Objectives
      By the end of this Unit students should be able to:

·         Demonstrate knowledge of content learnt and experiences encountered beyond their

face value,

·         Explain and interpret situations in ways which show critical analysis and evaluation of
assumptions,

·         Provide intellectually sound solutions to problems/challenges in different social

spheres, and

·          Assist in providing informed and evidence-based decisions.

Learning Outcomes
·         Ability to use theories of cognitive development to facilitate personal growth and
personal effectiveness,

·         Improved comprehension of both academic and social situations,

·         Improved capacity for abstract and practical thinking and problem-solving,

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·         Personal confidence and self-efficacy in different academic and social situations,

·         Improved love for both academic and social learning, and

·         Convergence of diverse views for common good within and beyond the campus
environment.

Theoretical Framework
According to Richardson (2017), ideas of three groups of researchers have predominantly
determined the nature of thinking about student learning in higher education. The first line of
research is based on Perry (1970) Theory of Cognitive Development. According to Perry’s
theory and research, as students go through their university years, they progress along a
predictable path which is made up of four positions of development. The second line is based
on the work of Pask (1975) who postulates there being essentially two types of learners:
“serialists” and “holists”.  The third line of research is based on the theoretical
framework of Marton and Saljor (1976) who, after having examined how students went about
their learning by using a qualitative method, concluded that students use two approaches;
“deep” and “surface” approaches.

However, there is a lack of cross-cultural validation of Perry’s theory. There are a number of
other limitations on Perry’ original work, most notably, a gender bias and difficulties in
measuring cognitive change. Hofer (1997) said Perry’s original research involved conducting
interviews on mostly males. Belenk, et al. (1986) found the process of cognitive development
different for females than the process reported by Perry (1970) for males.

Zhang (1999) also tried to examine the validity of Perry‘s theory among university students
in China using a self-report inventory, i.e. the “Zhang Cognitive Development Inventory”.
Repeated studies indicated that Chinese students ‘cognitive development progressed in a
direction opposite to that indicated by Perry.

Piaget (1936) did a research on cognitive development focusing mainly on early childhood
cognitive development. Piaget‘s theory is concerned with children, rather than all learners
and it focuses on development, rather than learning, so it does not address learning of
information or specific behaviors at levels beyond early childhood learning.

Despite its noted weaknesses when subjected to gender and cultural validity tests, Perry’s
Cognitive Development theory is found applicable in explaining cognitive development at
tertiary level.

Application of Themes to Student Development and Life

Skills
Task 2:  Complete the self-evaluation questionnaire below as honestly as you can. It is meant
to guide you on how you progress as you proceed with the course. Use a 5 point scale: 1
stands for the lowest and 5 being the highest.
 T.TROY

At this stage, the student is required to go through the stages of the construction of
thought processes of university students according to Perry’s theory of Cognitive
Development. To get the most out of this Unit, the student has to go through the tasks
and assignments given in the order set below.
 

ATTRIBUTES 1 2 3 4 5

 
I make deliberate effort to learn new things.          

 
I try to keep abreast with current affairs locally,          
nationally, and internationally
I take part in stimulating mental activities          

 
I consciously try to improve or learn new skills          

 
I try to present  balanced opinions in  controversial          
discussions

 
 I look up things that I don’t know          

 
I am ready to learn from my peers          

 
I am able to discuss my skills, abilities, achievements          
and successes with others
I am a good problem solver; my thinking is not          
clouded by irrational beliefs or fears
I am satisfied with my level of academic achievement          
at school.
I am satisfied with my level of social achievement at          
home.
I am satisfied with the level of my social standing in          
the community.
I am able to balance my time among school, family          
life, social, recreational and spiritual life.
ON AVERAGE MY DEVELOPMENT LEVEL IN          
THE ASPECTS ABOVE STANDS AT 
Adopted From Life Skills Manual for Entry Level University Students UZ 2011
 T.TROY

Perry's Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Dualism/Received Knowledge: 

The stage is characterised as follows: 

 Basic Duality 

o Knowledge is seen as simple facts and authorities have all the knowledge 

o All problems are solvable 

o Therefore, the student's task is to learn the “right solutions” 

 Full Dualism: Recognition of other perspectives 

o Students’ task is to learn the right solutions and ignore other perspectives o
Knowledge is quantitative.

Multiplicity/Subjective Knowledge 

The stage is characterised as follows: 

 Early Multiplicity 

o Students see peers as sources of knowledge and can now think analytically 

o Student's task is to learn how to find the right solutions 

 Late Multiplicity 

o Students are now perceiving, analysing and evaluating their identity and their
decision, All opinions can be valid, 

o Realization that they may not be able to rely on authorities for solutions/answers, 

 Acknowledgment of the need to support positions with data.

2. Relativism/Procedural Knowledge: 

The stage is characterised as follows: 

 Contextual Relativism: 

- Commitments and choices are foreseen as necessary to a responsible life and suggest
an individual needs to make their own decisions,

- Multiple solutions, 
 T.TROY

-Authorities are seen as experienced and knowledgeable, 

-All proposed solutions are supported by reasons, and 

-Student's task is to learn to evaluate solutions.

3. Pre-Commitment: 

First experience of commitment or affirmation which evolves to a more intimate

realization, o Integration of knowledge/learning with own experiences, 

o Students make commitments, and 

o Begin to establish one's identity

4. Commitment/Constructed Knowledge 

The stage is characterized as follows: 

 Commitments to life direction and values begin to be made 

 Commitments and affirmations which evolve to more intimate realization of the nature
of life 

 Integration of knowledge learned from personal experience and reflection. 

 Realisation and exploration of the implications of commitments made

  Commitments consists of developing maturity, accepting change and involves

choices, decisions and affirmations 

 Student explores issues of responsibility 

 Lifestyle consists of one’s beliefs, values and identity 

 Students realizes commitment is an ongoing unfolding evolving activity

PERRY’S STAGES OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 T.TROY

Adopted from William Perry (1970)

        7.    Dualism/Received Knowledge:

The stage is characterised as follows:

·         Basic Duality

o   Knowledge is seen as simple facts and authorities have all the knowledge

o   All problems are solvable

o   Therefore, the student's task is to learn the “right solutions”

·         Full Dualism:

o   Recognition of other perspectives

o   Students’ task is to learn the right solutions and ignore other perspectives

o    Knowledge is quantitative.

Task: 2  Complete the following questionnaire individually and indicate your total scores. It
is comprised of 10 items. You are expected to distribute the 10 points among the statements
(a, b and c)
For Example
I am a person who:                 a) My rights have been violated       
(4)
 T.TROY

                                                b) Protects my own rights                 

(4)

                                                c) Violets the rights of others            

(2)

                                                         Total                                                  

(10)

How to score the questionnaire?

Add the score from each line, i.e. all the (a’s), (b’s), and (c’s)

Now complete the questionnaire.

 I am a person:

 1.  A) Whose rights have been

violated                                                                                  (  )

      B) Who protects own

rights                                                                                              (  )   

      C) Who violates other people’s rights

(  )

 2.   A) Who does not achieve own

goals                                                                                (  )   

       B) Who achieves goals without hurting other

people                                                       (  )

       C) Who achieves own goals at the expense of

others                                                       (  )                                                                     

3.    A) Who feels frustrated and

unhappy                                                                               (  )

 B) Who feels good about myself                                                                                      ( 

)                   C) Who is defensive                                                                                      
(  )

 
 T.TROY

 4.    A) Who is inhibited and

withdrawn                                                                                (  )

        B) Who is socially and emotionally

expressive                                                               ( 
)                                                              

                 C) Who is explosive, hostile, and angry             

(  )

 5.   A) Who feels hurt and

anxious                                                                                         (  )

       B) Who is quietly self-

confident                                                                                       (  )

       C) Who is brashly

confident                                                                                             (  )

  

6.  A) Who fails to achieve my

goals.                                                                                      (  )

     B) Who tries to find ways so that I and others can achieve our
goals                                 (  )

     C) Is not concerned about others and their

goals                                                                (  )

 7.  A) Who is gullible, easily taken in               

(  )

      B)  Who is open minded and

questioning                                                                         (  )

      C) Who is suspicious and

cynical                                                                                      (  )            

 8.   A) Who feels bad about own weaknesses                                                           

(  )

       B) Who is aware of own

weaknesses                                                                               (  )                   
 T.TROY

9.  A) Who allows others to choose for

me                                                                             (  )

     B) Chooses for oneself

(  )

     C)  Intrudes on other people’s

choices                                                                                (  )

 10.  A) Who is always taken advantage

of                                                                             (  )                             

       B) Who protects own

rights                                                                                             (  )   

        C) Who takes advantage of others                                  

(  )  Adopted from ‘Life Skills Manual for Entry Level University Students,’ UZ (2011)

INTERPRETATION:

·         Your score for all the (‘A’s) out of a 100 represents how passive you are that is
your inability to act to influence or change a situation.

·         Your score for all the (‘B’s) out of 100 gives a rough estimate of your degree of
assertiveness, which refers to your tendency to claim your rights.

·         Finally, your score for all the (‘C’s) out of 100 gives an indication of your degree of
aggressiveness, which refers to your tendency to want to win or succeed in social
situations.

8.      Multiplicity/Subjective Knowledge

The stage is characterised as follows:

·         Early Multiplicity

o   Students see peers as sources of knowledge and can now  think analytically

o   Student's task is to learn how to find the right solutions

·         Late Multiplicity

o   Students are now perceiving, analysing and evaluating their identity and their
decision, 
 T.TROY

o   All opinions can be valid,

o   Realization that they may not be able to rely on authorities for  solutions/answers,

o   Acknowledgment of the need to support positions with data.

TASK 3:  Problem Solving

Critical thinking in problem-solving means knowing exactly what it is you are trying to solve
and that means clearly defining the problem. Begin this exercise with pinpointing a
problem and then asking and answering  crucial questions in pairs.

 What are the details of the challenges we face?

 What do we want to overcome specifically?
 What do we know about this problem?
 Why is it important to address the problem?
 Is this a time-sensitive problem?
 How does it affect me, the community, or the world?
 If the worst happens, will we still be all right?
 After we face the situation and move past it, what are our next steps?
 How will we apply what we’ve learned?

Adapted from Wabisabi Learning Community

9.      Relativism/Procedural Knowledge:

The stage is characterised as follows:

·         Contextual Relativism:

o   Commitments and choices are foreseen as necessary to a responsible life and

suggest an  individual needs to make their own decisions 

o    Multiple solutions,

o   Authorities are seen as experienced and knowledgeable,

o   All proposed solutions are supported by reasons, and

o   Student's task is to learn to evaluate solutions.

·         Pre-Commitment:

o   First experience of commitment or affirmation which evolves to a more intimate

realization,
 T.TROY

o   Integration of knowledge/learning with own experiences,

o   Students make commitments, and

o  

Task 4: Community Engagement

In groups of 20, plan and make a visit to a place of need of your choice. It could be an
orphanage, old people’s home, rehabilitation centre, prison or home of a family in the
community which needs assistance.

 
Begin to establish one's identity.  
 

Complete the preparatory check-list by ticking the appropriate box.

Task Performed Response

Yes No
1.      Established purpose of the trip     
2.       Outlined the objectives of the visit    
3.      Sent a  pre-visit team    
4.      Set a date of visit    
5.       Verified Date and Time with destination authority.    
6.      Prepared a budget    
7.      Made transport arrangements    
8.      Sought authority to visit and got clearance    
9.      Acquired a First Aid Kit    
10.  Completed requisite indemnity forms    
 

NB Proposal and Planning Guide for the trip should be submitted by your leader at least
three weeks before the proposed date of the planned. After the trip a report should
submitted at least 2 weeks before end of semester.

Post Evaluation of the Community Engagement

Compile a comprehensive report of what took place during the visit.

·         Activities carried out during the visit,

 T.TROY

·         Details of the intervention,

·          Lessons learnt from the visit,

·         Areas for improvement in preparations

·         Future plans for the next visit.

11. Commitment/Constructed Knowledge   

The stage is characterized as follows: 

·         Commitments to life direction and values begin to be made

·         Commitments and affirmations which evolve to more intimate realization of the

nature of life

·         Integration of knowledge learned from personal experience and reflection.

·         Realisation and exploration of the implications of commitments made

·         Commitments consists of developing maturity, accepting change and involves

choices, decisions and affirmations

·         Student explores issues of responsibility

·         Lifestyle consists of one’s beliefs, values and identity

·        

Task 5:   Complete the self-evaluation questionnaire below as honestly as you can.  It is

meant to guide you on how you have progressed after going through the course. 
Students realizes commitment is an ongoing unfolding evolving activity
 

Use a 5 point scale: 1 stands for the lowest and 5 the highest.

ATTRIBUTES 1 2 3 4 5

 
I make deliberate effort to learn new things.          

 
I try to keep abreast with current affairs locally,          
nationally, and internationally
I take part in stimulating mental activities          

 
I consciously try to improve or learn new skills          
 T.TROY

 
I try to present  balanced opinions in  controversial          
discussions

 
 I look up things that I don’t know          

 
I am ready to learn from my peers          

 
I am able to discuss my skills, abilities, achievements          
and successes with others
I am a good problem solver; my thinking is not          
clouded by irrational beliefs or fears
I am satisfied with my level of academic achievement          
at school.
I am satisfied with my level of social achievement at          
home.
I am satisfied with the level of my social standing in          
the community.
I am able to balance my time among school, family          
life, social, recreational and spiritual life.
ON AVERAGE MY DEVELOPMENT LEVEL IN          
THE ASPECTS ABOVE STANDS AT 
Adopted From Life Skills Manual for Entry Level University Students, UZ (2011)

After completing the self- assessment questionnaire once again, please identify
the following

·         Your strengths,

·         Your weaknesses, and

·         State your strategies for improvements 

Individual Assignment

In not more than 500 words, discuss the stages of William Perry‘s theory of cognitive
development giving examples of life skills developed at each stage. Explain how the
tasks you performed in this Unit impacted on your own cognitive development.
(This assignment is not for submission to the SDO).

elenk, M. R., Clinch, B. M., Goldberger, N. R. & Tarule, J. M., 1986. Women's Ways of
Knowing: The Development of Self - Voice and Mind. New York: Basic Books.

Hofer, B. K., 2000. Dimentionality and Disciplinary Differences in Personal

Epistemology. Contemporary Educational Psychology, Volume 25, pp. 278-405.
 T.TROY

Pask, G., 1975. Conversation, Cognition and Learning. Amsterdam: Elsevier.

Perry, W. G., 1970. Forms of Intellectual and Ethical Development in the College Years:
A Scheme. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Piaget, J., 1932. The Moral Judgement of the Child. London: Routledge and Kegan.

Richardson, J., 2017. Student Learning in Higher Education. London: Emerald

Publishing.

Zhang, L. F., 2000. Relationship Between Thinking Styles Inventory and Study

Process. Hong Kong:

Adopted from William Perry (1970)

        7.    Dualism/Received Knowledge:

The stage is characterised as follows:

·         Basic Duality

o   Knowledge is seen as simple facts and authorities have all the knowledge

o   All problems are solvable

o   Therefore, the student's task is to learn the “right solutions”

·         Full Dualism:

o   Recognition of other perspectives

o   Students’ task is to learn the right solutions and ignore other perspectives

o    Knowledge is quantitative.

Task: 2 Complete the following questionnaire individually and indicate your total scores.
It is comprised of 10 items. You are expected to distribute the 10 points among the
statements (a, b and c)
For Example
I am a person who:                 a) My rights have been violated       
(4)

                                                b) Protects my own rights                 

(4)

                                                c) Violets the rights of others            

(2)
 T.TROY

                                                         Total                                                  

(10)

How to score the questionnaire?

Add the score from each line, i.e. all the (a’s), (b’s), and (c’s)

Now complete the questionnaire.

 I am a person:

 1.  A) Whose rights have been

violated                                                                                  (  )

      B) Who protects own

rights                                                                                              (  )   

      C) Who violates other people’s rights

(  )

 2.   A) Who does not achieve own

goals                                                                                (  )   

       B) Who achieves goals without hurting other

people                                                       (  )

       C) Who achieves own goals at the expense of

others                                                       (  )                                                                     

3.    A) Who feels frustrated and

unhappy                                                                               (  )

 B) Who feels good about myself                                                                                      ( 

)                   C) Who is defensive                                                                                      
(  )

 4.    A) Who is inhibited and

withdrawn                                                                                (  )
 T.TROY

        B) Who is socially and emotionally

expressive                                                               ( 
)                                                              

                 C) Who is explosive, hostile, and angry             

(  )

 5.   A) Who feels hurt and

anxious                                                                                         (  )

       B) Who is quietly self-

confident                                                                                       (  )

       C) Who is brashly

confident                                                                                             (  )

  

6.  A) Who fails to achieve my

goals.                                                                                      (  )

     B) Who tries to find ways so that I and others can achieve our
goals                                 (  )

     C) Is not concerned about others and their

goals                                                                (  )

 7.  A) Who is gullible, easily taken in               

(  )

      B)  Who is open minded and

questioning                                                                         (  )

      C) Who is suspicious and

cynical                                                                                      (  )            

 8.   A) Who feels bad about own weaknesses                                                           

(  )

       B) Who is aware of own

weaknesses                                                                               (  )                   

9.  A) Who allows others to choose for

me                                                                             (  )
 T.TROY

     B) Chooses for oneself

(  )

     C)  Intrudes on other people’s

choices                                                                                (  )

 10.  A) Who is always taken advantage

of                                                                             (  )                             

       B) Who protects own

rights                                                                                             (  )   

        C) Who takes advantage of others                                  

(  )  Adopted from ‘Life Skills Manual for Entry Level University Students,’ UZ (2011)

INTERPRETATION:

·         Your score for all the (‘A’s) out of a 100 represents how passive you are that is
your inability to act to influence or change a situation.

·         Your score for all the (‘B’s) out of 100 gives a rough estimate of your degree of
assertiveness, which refers to your tendency to claim your rights.

·         Finally, your score for all the (‘C’s) out of 100 gives an indication of your degree of
aggressiveness, which refers to your tendency to want to win or succeed in social
situations.

8.      Multiplicity/Subjective Knowledge

The stage is characterised as follows:

·         Early Multiplicity

o   Students see peers as sources of knowledge and can now  think analytically

o   Student's task is to learn how to find the right solutions

·         Late Multiplicity

o   Students are now perceiving, analysing and evaluating their identity and their
decision, 

o   All opinions can be valid,

o   Realization that they may not be able to rely on authorities for  solutions/answers,
 T.TROY

o   Acknowledgment of the need to support positions with data.

TASK 3:  Problem Solving

Critical thinking in problem-solving means knowing exactly what it is you are trying to solve
and that means clearly defining the problem. Begin this exercise with pinpointing a
problem and then asking and answering  crucial questions in pairs.

 What are the details of the challenges we face?

 What do we want to overcome specifically?
 What do we know about this problem?
 Why is it important to address the problem?
 Is this a time-sensitive problem?
 How does it affect me, the community, or the world?
 If the worst happens, will we still be all right?
 After we face the situation and move past it, what are our next steps?
 How will we apply what we’ve learned?

Adapted from Wabisabi Learning Community

9.      Relativism/Procedural Knowledge:

The stage is characterised as follows:

·         Contextual Relativism:

o   Commitments and choices are foreseen as necessary to a responsible life and

suggest an  individual needs to make their own decisions 

o    Multiple solutions,

o   Authorities are seen as experienced and knowledgeable,

o   All proposed solutions are supported by reasons, and

o   Student's task is to learn to evaluate solutions.

·         Pre-Commitment:

o   First experience of commitment or affirmation which evolves to a more intimate

realization,

o   Integration of knowledge/learning with own experiences,

o   Students make commitments, and

 T.TROY

o  

Task 4: Community Engagement

In groups of 20, plan and make a visit to a place of need of your choice. It could be an
orphanage, old people’s home, rehabilitation centre, prison or home of a family in the
community which needs assistance.

 
Begin to establish one's identity.  
 

Complete the preparatory check-list by ticking the appropriate box.

Task Performed Response

Yes No
1.      Established purpose of the trip     
2.       Outlined the objectives of the visit    
3.      Sent a  pre-visit team    
4.      Set a date of visit    
5.       Verified Date and Time with destination authority.    
6.      Prepared a budget    
7.      Made transport arrangements    
8.      Sought authority to visit and got clearance    
9.      Acquired a First Aid Kit    
10.  Completed requisite indemnity forms    
 

NB Proposal and Planning Guide for the trip should be submitted by your leader at least
three weeks before the proposed date of the planned. After the trip a report should
submitted at least 2 weeks before end of semester.

Post Evaluation of the Community Engagement

Compile a comprehensive report of what took place during the visit.

·         Activities carried out during the visit,

·         Details of the intervention,

·          Lessons learnt from the visit,

 T.TROY

·         Areas for improvement in preparations

·         Future plans for the next visit.

11. Commitment/Constructed Knowledge   

The stage is characterized as follows: 

·         Commitments to life direction and values begin to be made

·         Commitments and affirmations which evolve to more intimate realization of the

nature of life

·         Integration of knowledge learned from personal experience and reflection.

·         Realisation and exploration of the implications of commitments made

·         Commitments consists of developing maturity, accepting change and involves

choices, decisions and affirmations

·         Student explores issues of responsibility

·         Lifestyle consists of one’s beliefs, values and identity

·        

Task 5:  Complete the self-evaluation questionnaire below as honestly as you can.  It

is meant to guide you on how you have progressed after going through the course. 
Students realizes commitment is an ongoing unfolding evolving activity
 

Use a 5 point scale: 1 stands for the lowest and 5 the highest.

ATTRIBUTES 1 2 3 4 5

 
I make deliberate effort to learn new things.          

 
I try to keep abreast with current affairs locally,          
nationally, and internationally
I take part in stimulating mental activities          

 
I consciously try to improve or learn new skills          

 
I try to present  balanced opinions in  controversial          
discussions
 T.TROY

 
 I look up things that I don’t know          

 
I am ready to learn from my peers          

 
I am able to discuss my skills, abilities,          
achievements and successes with others
I am a good problem solver; my thinking is not          
clouded by irrational beliefs or fears
I am satisfied with my level of academic          
achievement at school.
I am satisfied with my level of social achievement          
at home.
I am satisfied with the level of my social standing in          
the community.
I am able to balance my time among school, family          
life, social, recreational and spiritual life.
ON AVERAGE MY DEVELOPMENT LEVEL IN          
THE ASPECTS ABOVE STANDS AT 
Adopted From Life Skills Manual for Entry Level University Students, UZ (2011)

After completing the self- assessment questionnaire once again, please identify
the following

·         Your strengths,

·         Your weaknesses, and

·         State your strategies for improvements 

Individual Assignment

In not more than 500 words, discuss the stages of William Perry‘s theory of cognitive
development giving examples of life skills developed at each stage. Explain how the
tasks you performed in this Unit impacted on your own cognitive development.
(This assignment is not for submission to the SDO).

Self Evaluation Questionnaire

Complete the self-evaluation questionnaire below as honestly as you can. It is meant to
guide you on how you progress with the course. Use a 5 point scale: 1 stands for the
lowest and 5 the highest. 

ATTRIBUTES 1 2 3 4 5
I make deliberate effort to learn new things.          
I try to keep abreast with current affairs          
locally,nationally, and internationally
 T.TROY

I take part in stimulating mental activities          

I consciously try to improve or learn new skills          
I try to present balanced opinions in controversial          
discussions
I look up things that I don’t know          
I am ready to learn from my peers          
I am able to discuss my skills, abilities,          

achievements and successes with others

I am a good problem solver; my thinking is          

not clouded by irrational beliefs or fears
I am satisfied with my level of academic          

achievement at school.
I am satisfied with my level of social          
achievement at home.
I am satisfied with the level of my social standing in          
the community.
I am able to balance my time among school, family          
life, social, recreational and spiritual life.
ON AVERAGE MY DEVELOPMENT LEVEL          
IN THE ASPECTS ABOVE STANDS AT
Adopted From Life Skills Manual for Entry Level University Students UZ 2011

Personality Inventory
After reading through the Application section up to  "Dualism/ Received Knowledge",
complete the inventory below and indicate your total score. It comprises 10 items. For
each item. You are expected to distribute 10 points among the statements (a, b, c.) For
example: 

 I am a person: A: whose rights have been violated    (4)                           

                             B: who protects other people's rights (4)                           
                             C: violates other people's rights           (2) 
  Total                                                                                       (10)                         
I am a person:                   

1. A) Whose rights have been violated ()

B) Who protects own rights ()
C) Who violates other people’s rights ()
 2. A) Who does not achieve own goals                           ( )
  B) Who achieves goals without hurting other people ()
 C) Who achieves own goals at the expense of others ()
 3.    A) Who feels frustrated and unhappy                           ( )
 T.TROY

        B) Who feels good about myself ()

        C) Who is defensive ()
 4.    A) Who is inhibited and withdrawn                           ( )
         B) Who is socially and emotionally expressive ()
         C) Who is explosive, hostile, and angry ()

 
    5. A) Who feels hurt and anxious ()
        B) Who is quietly self-confident ()
        C) Who is brashly confident ()
 6.    A) Who fails to achieve my goals.                 ( )
         B) Who tries to find ways so that I and others can achieve                  ()
our goals
         C) Is not concerned about others and their goals ()
 7.     A) Who is gullible, easily taken in                 ( )
         B) Who is open minded and questioning ()
        C) Who is suspicious and cynical ()
 8.    A) Who feels bad about own weaknesses                 ( )
        B) Who is aware of own weaknesses ()

       C)Who is unaware of own weaknesses

 9.    A) Who allows others to choose for me                 ( )
         B) Chooses for oneself ()
        C) Intrudes on other people’s choices ()
 10.    A) Who is always taken advantage of                ( )
         B) Who protects own rights ()
        C) Who takes advantage of others ()
Adopted from ‘Life Skills Manual for Entry Level University Students,’ U.Z. (2011)

 Interpretation:

 Your score for all the A's out of 100 represents how passive you are; that is, your
inability to act to influence or change a situation.
 Your score for all the B's out of 100 represents gives a rough estimate of your
degree of assertiveness, which reflects your tendency to claim your rights.
 Finally your score for all the C's out of 100 represents how out of 100 gives an
indication of your degree of aggressiveness, which refers to your tendency to
want to win or succeed in social situations  

MORAL DEVELOPMENT AND LIFE SKILLS

Areas of Growth
This Unit discusses the concept of moral development as an important aspect of holistic
student development. Development of the character of integrity, honesty, transparency,
truth and altruism is at the core of the Unit. Students are first taken through dynamics of
moral development, before they embark on activities that foster inculcation of moral
principles and values in students. Exercises in this Unit will be done cognizant of the fact
that there is a clear-cut distinction between piety and erudition, i.e., having knowledge of
 T.TROY

what is good does not necessarily lead to doing the good. We shall therefore need to put
emphasis on how to do well, even under difficult circumstances.

This unit aims to develop the following values and skills in students:

·         Integrity,

·         Honesty,

·         Courage,

·         Respect for others,

·         Friendship,

·         Transparency, dependability  and accountability,

·         Politeness,

·         Spirit of Ubuntu,

Objectives
1.      By the end of this Unit, students should be able to:

·         Use Kohlberg’s theory as a tool of improving their moral reasoning and conduct,

·         Use Kohlberg’s model to introspect  on their self-awareness skills,

·         Evaluate Kohlberg’s theory in comparison with Ubuntu and make sense of

contemporary discourse on Afrocentrism and              Eurocentrism, and     

·         Identify what they regard as major moral problems in their lives and apply moral
theories in resolving them.

Learning Outcomes
“Education without application is just entertainment.”

(Tim Sanders: 2019)

·         Students with the ability to critically identify, analyse and resolve moral dilemmas,

·         Increase in cases that demonstrate virtues of integrity, honesty and rectitude,

·         Marked decrease in cases of theft, fraud, violence, misrepresentation, etc., and

·         Positive feedback from industry regarding the character and behaviour of our
students.
 T.TROY

Theoretical Frameworks
Moral development theories can be classified as follows:

·         Psychoanalytic theories, e.g. Sigmund Freud,

·         Neuro-cognitive development theories, e.g. Jean Piaget,

·         Gender-based theories, e.g. Gilligan,

·         Cognitive Learning theory-behavioral and Social, e.g. Albert Bandura, and

·         Social and Interactive theories.

4.1 Psychoanalytic Theories

Propounded by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalytic moral development theory posits that

man has an internal moral compass which rises with age, arising after age five. This
moral campus suppresses urges and drives him to ideal moral behaviour. The campus,
also known as the superego, consists of two main parts: the ego ideal and the
conscience. The ego ideal includes rules for good behaviour that are learned from
authority figures. The conscience includes rules of what not to do that are learned from
authority figures. Classic psychoanalytic theory suggests that guilt and self-punishment,
stirred by the superego, occur when a child behaves in a way that is contradictory to
internalized parental values. More modern psychoanalytic theory stresses conscience
development as the growth of a superego, arising out of a positive identification with
parental values rather than because of guilt.

4.2  Neuro-Cognitive Development

Piaget (1962)’s game theory was born out his study of children playing games and their
development of justice and fairness in the context of games. His theory, though much of
an accepted part of research in psychology and economics, has problems of validity
across chronological age boundaries.

4.3  Gender based Theory

Gilligan (1993) believes there is a difference in the ways that men and women develop
that is not fully explored in the traditional theories of development such as Chickering's.
Gilligan argues that men's development has a justice or separation orientation. Men look
for one answer, one truth that will end future debate about the subject. Women, on the
other hand, have a caring orientation. Women are more likely to view a problem in a
particular context and try to determine a solution which will cause the least harm to the
most number of people. Neither way of viewing the world is more right than the other;
they are just different ways of looking at the world.

4.4  Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

This theory was propounded by a Psychologist called Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987)

who studied moral reasoning and development, with much of his work based on the
works of Jean Piaget and John Dewey. He argued that morality is close knitted into the
 T.TROY

concept of self-awareness. He taught morals through exposing students to moral

dilemmas. Kohlberg believed that good morals are fundamental elements of being a
good citizen and argued that morality develops in a progressive way from infancy to
adulthood. He posited that there are three levels (in a total of six stages) through which
morality develops in human beings. These are, Pre-conventional, Conventional and
Post-Conventional. Below is a detailed description of the stages in Kohlberg’s Theory of
Moral Development.

U N IT 2 : H UMAN METAPH YSIC S AN D L IFE SKIL L S D EVEL OPMEN T

Areas of Growth
Carson (1989) describes human metaphysics as constitutive of physical, mental and
spiritual dimensions; and posits that a complete education will include a balance among
each of these three characteristics. This Unit attempts to integrate the spiritual
dimension of man by including faith development as an integral aspect of student
development targeting growth in the following life skills:

·         Empathy and Compassion,

·         Humility,

·         Tolerance of diversity and

·         Service to humanity and stewardship of the natural habitat.

Objectives
By the end of this Unit students should be able to:

·         Demonstrate the virtues of empathy and compassion, especially to the

disadvantaged/vulnerable and the natural environment,

·         Show elements of humility in the way they exercise authority and power,

·         Engage voluntarily in activities which are of service to humanity and

·         Behave in a manner which shows tolerance to cultural, racial, tribal, gender and
religious diversity in their communities.

Learning Outcomes
·         Social harmony and integration across cultural and ethnic bounds,

·         Tolerance of social and spiritual diversity,

 T.TROY

·         Peaceful co-existence among students irrespective of social and political

backgrounds, and

·         Discipline and self-restraint and less use of coercive enforcement of rules and
regulations.

Task 1: Complete the self-evaluation questionnaire below as honestly as you can. It is meant
to guide you on how you progress further with the course.

 
Ev Evaluate yourself in the attributes using the 5 point scale: 1 stands for lowest score
and 5 highest.

ATTRIBUTES 1 2 3 4 5

 
I have my own personal values and beliefs about          
life
 
I take part in stimulating spiritual activities          
(fellowship)
 
I make conscious choices about my actions based          
on my personal values
Life is meaningful for me, and I feel a purpose in          
life.
 
I respect others' beliefs and values, especially those          
that differ from mine.
I appreciate that super natural forces exist and have          
control on my life.
I feel gratitude for the good things in my life.          

 
I find the new learning environment compatible          
with my belief system.   
The University set-up accommodates my belief          
system.
 
I am still in touch with members of my          
fellowship/religious circles.
There are areas of conflict between my studies and          
my belief systems.
The University system is flexible enough for me to          
exercise my faith.
 T.TROY

Task 2:  Discuss your responses with colleagues in your group and write a short essay
describing new perspectives you learnt from the discussion, highlighting life-changing
lessons.
 

Theoretical Framework
Faith and moral development theories have been studied at depth by a number of authorities.
According to Fowler (1981:24), “Faith allows human beings to conceptualize what they call
the ‘ultimate environment’, the version of the world that individuals create in their minds that
shape the ways in which they understand and live in the real world.”  In this unit, faith is
interrogated in the context of Parks’ Faith Development Theory. The theory focuses on
transition of adolescents to mature adults during the process of making-meaning of their
lives. Parks (2000) states that the faith experience in young adults (17-30 years) involves
making new discoveries that differ from previously held assumptions about the world and
subsequently altering their structures of faith and meaning. The theory is recommended by
other authorities for providing useful contribution to the literature on student development in
tertiary institutions. 

Young adulthood is a critical point of life where faith develops. Adolescents probe
commitment, develop self-knowledge, self-discovery and choose their own path in the world.
Students may commit tentatively to multiple ways of knowing or making sense of their
experiences through the lenses of different belief systems. They cultivate ability to question
and develop their own truths. Individuals mingle with the world, participate in dialogues and
develop a new order in life. Parks (2000) argues that a flexible mentoring community, non-
judgmental in its shared value, is very crucial when students make new choices. It needs to
foster students’ faith development.  Students’ belief systems are fragile and vulnerable during
their stage of probing commitment but are healthy and full of promise when supported by
forms of community.

Faith development emerges in sequential stages, moving from a dualistic perspective where
students accept the belief system of their communities without question to an integrated
belief system that acknowledges multiple explanations. Young adults cope with diversity
during the self-discovery process such as economic changes, social vulnerability, among
others.  They experience shipwrecks in their lives which also has influence on their belief
systems. Individuals begin taking responsibilities for themselves including their faith and
choices made as the young adults mature. It is the spiritual capacity of human life by which
individuals recognize the essence of life itself. Students develop self-discipline or self-
management skills when focusing on the connection between the structure, content of faith,
the role of distress and imagination. Watts (2003) comments that in as much as Parks’ theory
is widely used, it puts too much emphasis on cognition hence it could not be effective when
working with other races as it ignores the role of ethnicity.

The theory identifies three forms of development in young adults as:

 T.TROY

Cognitive (Knowing), Dependence and Community. As students develop, they have new
ways of understanding these forms of knowing which occur within four periods      associated
with development of young adults as shown below:

Periods Associated with the Development of Young Adults

Adopted from Parks (2000)

Fowler (1990), in consensus with Parks, claims that these stages form an invariant of
hierarchical sequence, always experienced in the same order collated with advanced life
stages.

Application of Themes to Student Development and Life

SkillsApplication of Themes to Student Development
and Life Skills
Students are supposed to understand and appreciate the four stages that adolescents
undergo during development thus:

a)         Adolescent/Conventional

b)         Young Adult

c)         Tested Adult and

d)         Mature Adult.

5.1 Adolescent/ Conventional

Cognition: (Form of knowledge): Adolescents are said to be authority bound. The

adolescents place much trust in authorities. In most cases they place trust in authorities
they know, for example, parents, church authorities and teachers, to mention a few.
They also place trust on impersonal authorities; for example, the social media, since
they will be in transition to self-discovery and self-assertiveness. Students see lives in
rigid terms and have little tolerance on ambiguity (Parks 2000). As individuals progress
through this stage they distinguish between right and wrong.  Note that reality has no
form, thus suffers from unqualified relativism. All these happen due to experiences in life.
Some of these experiences can be challenging.

Dependency:  Adolescents rely on authorities to determine how they should feel about
events in their worlds. This reliance is changed when the truth they have been taught is
discovered to be fallible or young adults examine changes in dependency on others,
thus when they provide a way to evaluate value of disturbance in faith development
(Parks, 2000). Being dependent or non-dependent, the adolescents remain authority-
based until the system is found faulty to encourage exploration.
 T.TROY

Community: Adolescents seek for familiarization and dependable networks of people,

places, and communities to explore themselves and their values. Communities are best
needed to challenge, support and influence the spiritual development of college
students.  The mentoring community involves a peer group in which members challenge
and support each other in the process of making-meaning in the adolescents. Parks
(2000) indicates that each community environment brings different mentorship which
enriches a young adult’s life.

Task 2:  Identify spiritual practices/activities in your religion in which you take part and/or
to which you subscribe as a matter of faith but you are yet to fully comprehend.
 

Task 3:  Has your coming to University affected your belief system (either negatively or
positively) and how do you wish to deal with or capitalize on the situation?
 
5.2 Young Adult.

Parks (2000) indicates that individuals start taking responsibility at this stage. This rarely
occurs until at least the age of 17 and many people never reach it. 

Pause and Think:

Do you agree with the author’s observation?  What could be the reasons for the
disruptions?    

Parks (2000), notes that adolescents develop self-trust, self-drive attitudes and begin to
ask questions regarding purpose, vocation and belonging as they mature.  They
question their ability to make the world a better place. A sense of feeling “unsure” is said
to infuse this period in life. 

Young Adults engage in short-term commitments to faith communities or beliefs whilst

balancing their own views with others. Mentors become very crucial as individuals
develop the “fragile inner dependence” to guide and reinforce their identities. They
“diffuse into the community," and build new relationships to form new ideas. Individuals
develop a highest power of naming one’s experiences in transit into a new self (Parks
2000).

 
 T.TROY

Task 4:  Identify or establish a faith group on campus with which you can work in either
strengthening or finding spiritual support in line with your belief system and try to adjust and
fit its activities in your social/spiritual life. 

AND/OR

Identify a club whose activities involve service to communities around and actively
participate in the planning, execution and evaluation of a project to carry out for the
semester. Include your club activities in your diary. Feel free to also start a new club with
your colleagues and give periodic reports on how your interactions are promoting your
personal growth.
Task 5: Complete the self-evaluation questionnaire below as honestly as you can. Use
a 5 point scale: 1 stands for lowest score and 5 the highest.
 

NB: You are advised to complete this at the end of the semester in order to
assess your progress.

ATTRIBUTES 1 2 3 4 5

 
I have my own personal values and beliefs about          
life.
 
I take part in stimulating spiritual activities          
(fellowship)
 
I make conscious choices about my actions based          
on my personal values
Life is meaningful for me, and I feel a purpose in          
life.
 
I respect others' beliefs and values, especially those          
that differ from mine.
I appreciate that super natural forces exist and have          
control on my life.
I feel gratitude for the good things in my life.          
 T.TROY

 
I find the new learning environment compatible          
with my belief system   
The university set-up accommodates my belief          
system
 
I am still in touch with members of my          
fellowship/religious circles.
There are areas of conflict between my studies and          
my belief systems.
The University system is flexible enough to          
exercise my faith.
 

Task 6: Working with members of your group, comment on the progress you think you have
made comparing with the ratings you gave yourself at the beginning of the unit. Identify
areas you need to work on to improve your ratings and suggest how you intend to progress in
the next semester.
Written Assignment

In not more than 1000 words discuss Parks Faith Development theory describing 
periods that young adults undergo by giving examples of life skills lessons acquired on
each stage and how it impacts on your personal life (The assignment is not for
submission to the SDO).

References
Carson, V. B., & Koenig, H. G. 1989, Spiritual Dimensions of Nursing Practice.
Philadelphia, 

PA: Saunders. Evans, N. J., Forney, D. S., Guido, F. & Patton, L. D. R. K. A., 2010.
Student Development in College: Theory Research and Practice. 2nd ed. San Francisco:
Jossey-Bass. 

Fowler, W. J., 1981. Stages of Faith, the Psychology of Human Development and the
Quest for Meaning. New York: Harper Collins. 

Mozhgan, A., Parvash, J., Nadegholi, G. & Bahram, J., 2010. College Students
Competencies Development: A Model. International Journal for Cross-Disciplinary
Subjects in Education (IJCDSE) , 1(3). 

Parks, S. T., 2000. Big Questions Worthy Dreams: Monitoring Young Adults in their
Search for Meaning, Purpose and Faith. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass. 
 T.TROY

Watt, S. K., 2003. Come to the River: Using Spirituality to Cope, Resist and Develop
Identity, s.l.: s.n.

Application of Themes to Student Development and Life

SkillsApplication of Themes to Student Development
and Life Skills
Students are supposed to understand and appreciate the four stages that adolescents
undergo during development thus:

a)         Adolescent/Conventional

b)         Young Adult

c)         Tested Adult and

d)         Mature Adult.

5.1 Adolescent/ Conventional

Cognition: (Form of knowledge): Adolescents are said to be authority bound. The

adolescents place much trust in authorities. In most cases they place trust in authorities
they know, for example, parents, church authorities and teachers, to mention a few.
They also place trust on impersonal authorities; for example, the social media, since
they will be in transition to self-discovery and self-assertiveness. Students see lives in
rigid terms and have little tolerance on ambiguity (Parks 2000). As individuals progress
through this stage they distinguish between right and wrong.  Note that reality has no
form, thus suffers from unqualified relativism. All these happen due to experiences in life.
Some of these experiences can be challenging.

Dependency:  Adolescents rely on authorities to determine how they should feel about
events in their worlds. This reliance is changed when the truth they have been taught is
discovered to be fallible or young adults examine changes in dependency on others,
thus when they provide a way to evaluate value of disturbance in faith development
(Parks, 2000). Being dependent or non-dependent, the adolescents remain authority-
based until the system is found faulty to encourage exploration.

Community: Adolescents seek for familiarization and dependable networks of people,

places, and communities to explore themselves and their values. Communities are best
needed to challenge, support and influence the spiritual development of college
students.  The mentoring community involves a peer group in which members challenge
and support each other in the process of making-meaning in the adolescents. Parks
(2000) indicates that each community environment brings different mentorship which
enriches a young adult’s life.

Task 2:  Identify spiritual practices/activities in your religion in which you take part and/or
to which you subscribe as a matter of faith but you are yet to fully comprehend.
 

 
 T.TROY

Task 3:  Has your coming to University affected your belief system (either negatively or
positively) and how do you wish to deal with or capitalize on the situation?
 
5.2 Young Adult.

Parks (2000) indicates that individuals start taking responsibility at this stage. This rarely
occurs until at least the age of 17 and many people never reach it. 

Pause and Think:

Do you agree

U N IT 3 : MOR AL D EVEL OPMEN T TH EOR IES AND L IFE SKIL L S

Areas of Growth
This Unit discusses the concept of moral development as an important aspect of holistic
student development. Development of the character of integrity, honesty, transparency, truth
and altruism is at the core of the Unit. Students are first taken through dynamics of moral
development, before they embark on activities that foster inculcation of moral principles and
values in students. Exercises in this Unit will be done cognizant of the fact that there is a
clear-cut distinction between piety and erudition, i.e., having knowledge of what is good does
not necessarily lead to doing the good. We shall therefore need to put emphasis on how to do
well, even under difficult circumstances.

This unit aims to develop the following values and skills in students:

·         Integrity,

·         Honesty,

·         Courage,

·         Respect for others,

·         Friendship,

·         Transparency, dependability  and accountability,

·         Politeness,

·         Spirit of Ubuntu,

Objectives
1.      By the end of this Unit, students should be able to:
 T.TROY

·         Use Kohlberg’s theory as a tool of improving their moral reasoning and conduct,

·         Use Kohlberg’s model to introspect  on their self-awareness skills,

·         Evaluate Kohlberg’s theory in comparison with Ubuntu and make sense of

contemporary discourse on Afrocentrism and              Eurocentrism, and     

·         Identify what they regard as major moral problems in their lives and apply moral
theories in resolving them.

Theoretical Frameworks
Moral development theories can be classified as follows:

·         Psychoanalytic theories, e.g. Sigmund Freud,

·         Neuro-cognitive development theories, e.g. Jean Piaget,

·         Gender-based theories, e.g. Gilligan,

·         Cognitive Learning theory-behavioral and Social, e.g. Albert Bandura, and

·         Social and Interactive theories.

4.1 Psychoanalytic Theories

Propounded by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalytic moral development theory posits that man
has an internal moral compass which rises with age, arising after age five. This moral campus
suppresses urges and drives him to ideal moral behaviour. The campus, also known as the
superego, consists of two main parts: the ego ideal and the conscience. The ego ideal includes
rules for good behaviour that are learned from authority figures. The conscience includes
rules of what not to do that are learned from authority figures. Classic psychoanalytic theory
suggests that guilt and self-punishment, stirred by the superego, occur when a child behaves
in a way that is contradictory to internalized parental values. More modern psychoanalytic
theory stresses conscience development as the growth of a superego, arising out of a positive
identification with parental values rather than because of guilt.

4.2  Neuro-Cognitive Development

Piaget (1962)’s game theory was born out his study of children playing games and their
development of justice and fairness in the context of games. His theory, though much of an
accepted part of research in psychology and economics, has problems of validity across
chronological age boundaries.

4.3  Gender based Theory

 T.TROY

Gilligan (1993) believes there is a difference in the ways that men and women develop that is
not fully explored in the traditional theories of development such as Chickering's. Gilligan
argues that men's development has a justice or separation orientation. Men look for one
answer, one truth that will end future debate about the subject. Women, on the other hand,
have a caring orientation. Women are more likely to view a problem in a particular context
and try to determine a solution which will cause the least harm to the most number of people.
Neither way of viewing the world is more right than the other; they are just different ways of
looking at the world.

4.4  Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

This theory was propounded by a Psychologist called Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) who
studied moral reasoning and development, with much of his work based on the works of Jean
Piaget and John Dewey. He argued that morality is close knitted into the concept of self-
awareness. He taught morals through exposing students to moral dilemmas. Kohlberg
believed that good morals are fundamental elements of being a good citizen and argued that
morality develops in a progressive way from infancy to adulthood. He posited that there are
three levels (in a total of six stages) through which morality develops in human beings. These
are, Pre-conventional, Conventional and Post-Conventional. Below is a detailed description
of the stages in Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development.

I. Pre-conventional Level

At this level, the child is responsive to cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right or
wrong, but he interprets the labels in terms of either the physical or consequences of action
(punishment, reward, and exchange of favors) or the physical power of those who enunciate
the rules and labels. The level is divided into the following three stages:

Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation. The physical consequences of action

determine its goodness or badness regardless of the human meaning or value of these
consequences. Avoidance of punishment and unquestioning deference to power are values in
their own right, not in terms of respect for an underlying moral order supported by
punishment and authority.

Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation. Right action consists of what instrumentally

satisfies one's own needs and occasionally the needs of others. Human relations are viewed in
terms such as those of the market place. Elements of fairness, reciprocity, and equal sharing
are present, but they are always interpreted in a physical, pragmatic way. Reciprocity is a
matter of "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours", not loyalty, gratitude, or justice.

II. Conventional Level

At this level, the individual perceives the maintenance of the expectations of his family,
group, or nation as valuable in its own right, regardless of immediate and obvious
 T.TROY

consequences. The attitude is not only one of conformity to personal expectations and social
order, but of loyalty to it, of actively maintaining, supporting, and justifying the order and
identifying with the persons or group involved in it. The level consists of the following two
stages:

Stage 1: The Interpersonal Concordance or "Good Boy-Nice Girl" Orientation. Good

behavior is what pleases or helps others and is approved by them. There is much conformity
to stereotypical images of what is majority or natural behavior. Behavior is frequently judged
by intention. One earns approval by being nice.

Stage 2: The "Law and Order" orientation. The individual is oriented toward authority,
fixed rules, and the maintenance of the social order. Right behavior consists in doing one's
duty, showing respect for authority, and maintaining the given social order for its own sake.

III. Post-Conventional, Autonomous, or Principled Level.

The individual makes a clear effort to define moral values and principles that have validity
and application apart from the authority of the groups of persons holding them and apart from
the individual's own identification with the group. The level has the two following stages:

Stage 1:  The social-contract legalistic orientation: Right action tends to be defined in

terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and
agreed upon by the whole society.  There is a clear awareness of the relativism of personal
values and opinions and a corresponding emphasis upon procedural rules for reaching
consensus. Aside from what is constitutionally and democratically agreed upon, right action
is a matter of personal values and opinions. The result is an emphasis upon the "legal point of
view", but with an additional emphasis upon the possibility of changing the law in terms of
rational considerations of social utility.

Stage 2: The Universal Ethical-Principle Orientation:  Right is defined by the decision of

conscience in accord with self-chosen ethical principles that appeal to logical
comprehensiveness, universality, and consistency. These principles are abstract and ethical.
They are not concrete moral rules. At heart, these are universal principles of justice, of the
reciprocity, and equality of the human rights, and of respect for the dignity of human beings
as individual person.

Psychoanalytic Theories
Propounded by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalytic moral development theory posits that
man has an internal moral compass which rises with age, arising after age five. This
moral campus suppresses urges and drives him to ideal moral behaviour. The campus,
also known as the superego, consists of two main parts: the ego ideal and the
conscience. 

The ego ideal includes rules for good behaviour that are learned from authority figures. 

The conscience includes rules of what not to do that are learned from authority figures. 
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Classic psychoanalytic theory suggests that guilt and self-punishment, stirred by the
superego, occur when a child behaves in a way that is contradictory to internalized
parental values. 

More modern psychoanalytic theory stresses conscience development as the growth of

a superego, arising out of a positive identification with parental values rather than
because of guilt.

Neuro-Cognitive Development
Piaget (1962)’s game theory was born out of his study of children playing games and
their development of justice and fairness in the context of games. His theory, though
much of an accepted part of research in psychology and economics, has problems of
validity across chronological age boundaries.

Gender based Theory

Gilligan (1993) believes there is a difference in the ways that men and women develop
that is not fully explored in the traditional theories of development such as Chickering's.
Gilligan argues that men's development has a justice or separation orientation. Men look
for one answer, one truth that will end future debate about the subject. Women, on the
other hand, have a caring orientation. Women are more likely to view a problem in a
particular context and try to determine a solution which will cause the least harm to the
most number of people. Neither way of viewing the world is more right than the other;
they are just different ways of looking at the world.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: Source:

Slideshare.net
This theory was propounded by a Psychologist called Lawrence Kohlberg (1927- 1987)
who studied moral reasoning and development, with much of his work based on the
works of Jean Piaget and John Dewey. He argued that morality is close knitted into the
concept of self-awareness. He taught morals through exposing students to moral
dilemmas. Kohlberg believed that good morals are fundamental elements of being a
good citizen and argued that morality develops in a progressive way from infancy to
adulthood. He posited that there are three levels (in a total of six stages) through which
morality develops in human beings. These are, Preconventional, Conventional and Post-
Conventional. Below is a detailed description of the stages in Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral
Development.

I. Pre-conventional Level

At this level, the child is responsive to cultural rules and labels of good and bad, right or
wrong, but he interprets the labels in terms of either the physical or consequences of
action (punishment, reward, and exchange of favors) or the physical power of those who
enunciate the rules and labels. The level is divided into the following three stages:

- Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation. The physical consequences of action

determine its goodness or badness regardless of the human meaning or value of these
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consequences. Avoidance of punishment and unquestioning deference to power are

values in their own right, not in terms of respect for an underlying moral order supported
by punishment and authority.

-Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation. Right action consists of what instrumentally

satisfies one's own needs and occasionally the needs of others. Human relations are
viewed in terms such as those of the market place. Elements of fairness, reciprocity, and
equal sharing are present, but they are always interpreted in a physical, pragmatic way.
Reciprocity is a matter of "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours", not loyalty,
gratitude, or justice.

2.  Conventional Level

At this level, the individual perceives the maintenance of the expectations of his family,
group, or nation as valuable in its own right, regardless of immediate and obvious
consequences. The attitude is not only one of conformity to personal expectations and
social order, but of loyalty to it, of actively maintaining, supporting, and justifying the
order and identifying with the persons or group involved in it. The level consists of the
following two stages: 

-Stage 1: The Interpersonal Concordance or "Good Boy-Nice Girl" Orientation. Good

behavior is what pleases or helps others and is approved by them. There is much
conformity to stereotypical images of what is majority or natural behavior. Behavior is
frequently judged by intention. One earns approval by being nice. 

-Stage 2: The "Law and Order" orientation. The individual is oriented toward authority,
fixed rules, and the maintenance of the social order. Right behavior consists in doing
one's duty, showing respect for authority, and maintaining the given social order for its
own sake.

3. Post-Conventional, Autonomous, or Principled Level. 

The individual makes a clear effort to define moral values and principles that have
validity and application apart from the authority of the groups of persons holding them
and apart from the individual