Settlement of MSW Landfill

Waste Management 149 (2022) 79–95
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Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman
A review on settlement models of municipal solid waste landfills

Yinbang Ren a, b, Zhenying Zhang a, *, Man Huang b
a
School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou 310018, China
b
School of Civil Engineering, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing 312000, China
A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T
Keywords: Currently, landfill is the most common, economical, and convenient method for municipal solid waste (MSW)
Municipal solid waste disposal in countries around the world. MSW has a complex composition and special engineering characteristics,
Landfill which lead to a very complex settlement mechanism in MSW landfills. This article reviews the description of this
Settlement
settlement mechanism in the existing literature and classifies it into stress-related mechanisms, biodegradation
Settlement mechanism
Influencing factors
processes of organic substances, water-related mechanisms and physical and chemical processes of inorganic
Settlement models components. Based on the settlement mechanism, the influencing factors of landfill settlement were analysed,
including the composition of MSW, physical parameters, environmental factors, and the operation mode of the
landfill. Some practical engineering suggestions are obtained by analysing the influencing factors of MSW landfill
settlement. Four common methods for studying the settlement of MSW landfills are presented, including labo
ratory experiments, in-situ settlement monitoring, theoretical analysis, and numerical simulation. We classified
the existing settlement models into six categories: a soil mechanics, rheological, empirical, biodegradation,
constitutive, and multiphase coupling models. Advantages and disadvantages of the different models and their
applicability are compared and analysed. Moreover, limitations in the modelling process of MSW landfill set
tlement and future research directions are discussed.
1. Introduction et al., 2017b; Feng et al., 2019; Kumar and Reddy, 2019).
The settlement of MSW landfills is one of the key problems in landfill
During the 21st century, the world’s population and economy have design, construction, operation, maintenance, expansion, and recon
increased significantly, the process of urbanization has been consider struction (Hossain and Gabr, 2005; Elagroudy et al., 2008; Chen et al.,
ably accelerating, and the global production of municipal solid waste 2010a; Karimpour-Fard and Machado, 2012; Mokhtari et al., 2019).
(MSW) has witnessed a sharp increased. The rapid growth of MSW poses MSW is a porous, heterogeneous, and anisotropic material (Ling et al.,
a serious challenge to global sustainable development. If this waste is 1998; Gourc et al., 2010; Reddy et al., 2017a). When placed in a landfill,
not treated properly, it will cause pollution in rivers, lakes, oceans, and it will settle over time, and its final settlement may reach 25% to 50% of
air, occupy large areas including agricultural land, destroy the urban the initial height of the landfill (Stearns, 1987; Wall and Zeiss, 1995;
landscape, spread diseases through vectors, and pose a threat to human Krase et al., 2011; Reddy et al., 2017a). Settlement can increase landfill
health and survival (Srivastava et al., 2015). World Bank statistics show capacity and prolong service life, but excessive settlement can also affect
that the world generated about 2.01 billion tons of MSW in 2016, and it the design and construction of gas and leachate collection systems in the
is expected to reach 3.4 billion tons per year by 2050, with MSW gen landfill (Ling et al., 1998; Park et al., 2007; Powrie et al., 2019). Set
eration significantly outpacing population growth by more than twice as tlement after closure may lead to failure of the covering system, damage
much (Kaza et al., 2018). As shown in Fig. 1, China generated 235.11 to the gas and leachate collection system, and leachate recirculation
million tons of MSW in 2020, of which about 77.71 million tons were system, which not only harms the environment but also is not conducive
disposed of through landfills, accounting for approximately one-third of to the expansion and reconstruction of the landfill (Ivanova et al., 2008;
the MSW generation (NBSC, 2021). At present, landfill is still the most Chen et al., 2010a; Yu et al., 2010; Berquist and Van Geel, 2020; Tah
common and cost-effective treatment method for MSW worldwide moorian and Khabbaz, 2020). Therefore, when estimating the capacity
(Machado et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2012b; Wong et al., 2013; Reddy of the landfill, designing the coverage system, leachate and gas
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Z. Zhang).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2022.06.019
Received 18 February 2022; Received in revised form 17 May 2022; Accepted 14 June 2022
Available online 18 June 2022
0956-053X/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Ren et al. Waste Management 149 (2022) 79–95
in various regions, the composition of MSW is diverse, heterogeneous,

and changeable. Fig. 2 shows the various compositions of MSW
depending on the difference in income levels. Developed countries such
as the United States and the United Kingdom produce relatively less food
and garden waste and a larger share of recyclable dry waste such as
paper products, plastics, rubber, glass, and metals. Whereas developing
countries such as China and India produce relatively more food and
garden waste, accounting for more than 50% of the total, and less
recyclable waste.
MSW has many similarities to general soil. For example, they are
both porous materials (Zhang and Yuan, 2019), both composed of
various solid particles, and both have a three-phase state of solid, liquid,
and gas (Chen et al., 2020). However, MSW has a more complex and
variable composition and structure and is subject to various physical,
chemical, and biological reactions. The shape and size of MSW particles
vary widely, from solid to hollow, from small to bulky, from square to
round, from flakes to long strips. The composition and properties of
Fig. 1. Quantity of MSW generated and landfilled in China (Note:Data from these particles vary, and their distribution is not uniform, which results
National Bureau of Statistics of China). in the heterogeneity and anisotropy of MSW (Zhang et al., 2010b). In soil
mechanics, soil particles are usually assumed to be incompressible,
collection system, and the expansion or reconstruction plan of the whereas this is not always applicable to MSW it is not appropriate to
landfill, it is necessary to accurately predict the settlement of the MSW assume that some particles (for example, cans, glass bottles, plastic
landfill during and after disposal (Durmusoglu et al., 2005; Hunte et al., bottles, etc. cannot be considered as incompressible). When these
2007; Elagroudy et al., 2009; Sivakumar Babu et al., 2011). Although components are crushed or broken, the trapped gas or liquid may be
researchers have established a range of settlement models in the past few released, resulting in the compressed deformation of the particles. In
decades, none have been widely accepted (Lu and Feng, 2020). addition, compared to general soil, MSW will undergo some physical,
This article reviews the research progress on MSW landfill settlement chemical, and biodegradation reactions, accompanied by the generation
models. Firstly, the composition characteristics of MSW are analysed, of leachate and gas, release of heat, and volume deformation. As shown
and the settlement mechanism of MSW landfill is summarized system in Fig. 3, MSW undergoes a phase change during biodegradation, with
atically. On this basis, the influencing factors of the settlement of MSW the degradable components transformed from solid to gas and liquid
landfills are researched in detail. Then the stage division and general phases, which induces an increase in pore volume, weakening of the
research methods of settlement of MSW landfills are introduced. Finally, solid skeleton, and a settlement deformation of the landfill under
a review of the existing MSW landfill settlement models in the literature overlying loads. Changes in pore volume due to biodegradation and
is presented; their limitations and research prospects are discussed. compression can affect the liquid–gas percolation and solute transport of
MSW. Moreover, it can change the distribution of pore water, gas
2. Composition characteristics of MSW pressure and solute concentration in the landfill. Changes in pore water
and gas pressure, in turn, induce modification in the effective stress on
MSW is generally composed of many components with different the solid skeleton and thus affect the settlement deformation of the
properties, including food, garden waste, metal, paper products, rubber, landfill. Nonetheless, changes in the degradation environment such as
leather, textiles, glass, plastic, wood, etc (Dixon and Jones, 2005; Chen water content and solute concentration can affect the rate of biochem
et al., 2008; Yang et al., 2018; Chen et al., 2020). Coupled with varia ical degradation reactions. The internal interactions between the soil
tions in the natural environment, climatic conditions, urban develop skeleton, leachate, and landfill gas are quite complex. If these MSW
ment scale, residents’ dietary system, energy structure, and income level interactions are ignored, the deformation of MSW will be greatly
Fig. 2. Comparison of the composition of MSW in various countries. Note: a Basha et al. (2016), b
Assamoi and Lawryshyn (2012), c
Tunesi (2011), d
Vilar and
Carvalhod (2004), e Speier et al. (2018), f Zhang et al. (2010a), g Hadinata et al. (2018).
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Fig. 3. Process of mass change and transport in MSW [modified from (Chen, 2014)].
underestimated. organic matter into methane, carbon dioxide, water, and other by-
products. It is accompanied by an increase in porosity and subsequent
3. Mechanisms of settlement in MSW landfills settlement (Sowers, 1973; Edil et al., 1990; Wall and Zeiss, 1995; El-
Fadel et al., 1999; Hossain and Gabr, 2005; Yu et al., 2010; Lu et al.,
The special composition and characteristics of MSW lead to complex 2019). Through a series of triaxial tests, creep tests and anaerobic
settlement mechanisms in landfills. These mechanisms do not usually reactor tests, Sivakumar Babu and Lakshmikanthan (2015) found that
occur separately but are interconnected and are influenced by each the settlement caused by biodegradation could reach more than 40% of
other. The descriptions of the settlement mechanisms of MSW landfills the total.
in the existing literature are summarized into the following four
categories. 3.3. Water-related mechanisms
3.1. Stress-related mechanisms (1) Dissolution, softening and lubrication of inter-particles water.
Soluble solids in municipal solid waste dissolve in water, and as
(1) MSW particles are broken, distorted, bent, and redirected under they transfer to the liquid phase, the volume of the solid phase
self-weight and external load (Sowers, 1973; Edil et al., 1990; decreases. Solid dissolution causes the pore space to expand.
Hudson et al., 2004; Sharma and Reddy, 2004; Dixon and Jones, When the solid skeleton can no longer support the current stress
2005; Sivakumar Babu and Lakshmikanthan, 2015; Datta et al., state, it collapses and cause corresponding settlement (McDougall
2016; Powrie et al., 2019). and Pyrah, 2004; Sharma and Reddy, 2004). In addition, the
(2) Compression of particles. MSW contains absorbent materials (e. addition of water softens and lubricates the contact points of the
g., textiles or paper products) and objects with internal spaces (e. flexible porous material in the MSW, resulting in a denser
g., cans or bottles), which change when compressed and cause a arrangement, increased compressibility and reduced rebound
certain degree of settlement with the release of liquids and gases (Benson et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2010a; Hanson et al., 2010;
from the space (Hudson et al., 2004). Bareither et al., 2012b; Abichou et al., 2013).
(3) Creep, i.e., long-term compression under stress. Creep includes (2) The release of intra-particle water. The liquid may be present in
the compression of inter- and intra-particle space, the movement the internal pores of MSW particles and will be released when
of fine particles into large pores, and continuous plastic defor subjected to loading or biodegradation, causing a reduction in
mation (Leonard et al., 2000). Edil et al. (1990) referred to this particle size and skeletal compression, ultimately leading to
mechanism as ravelling. Ivanova et al. (2008) found that me landfill settlement (Fei and Zekkos, 2013; Xu et al., 2019b). Xu
chanical creep-induced settlement was roughly equivalent to et al. (2019b) found through an experimental study that high-
biodegradation-induced settlement, accounting for approxi food-waste-content MSW releases significant amounts of intra-
mately 50% to 74.2% of the secondary settlement. particle water, and that most of the intra-particle water (about
(4) Compression of pore fluid (Hudson et al., 2004; Powrie et al., 98.6%) is released within two months of landfilling. In addition,
2019). In traditional saturated soil mechanics, it is usually the release of intra-particle water contributes to biodegradation
assumed that the pore fluid is not compressible. However, in landfills.
municipal solid waste is a porous material, and its pores contain (3) Dissipation of pore water. The dissipation of pore water can lead
gas or a mixture of gas and liquid, so it cannot be simply regarded to changes in pore water pressure thus altering the effective stress
as incompressible. in the MSW, which may lead to additional deformation, also
known as MSW consolidation (El-Fadel and Khoury, 2000; Xu
3.2. Biodegradation of organic matter et al., 2019a; Chen et al., 2020).
Organic matter in MSW undergoes biodegradation under suitable 3.4. Physical and chemical process of inorganic components
conditions, including fermentation, decay, and aerobic and anaerobic
decomposition. The biodegradation process involves the conversion of Physical and chemical processes such as corrosion, oxidation, and
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combustion of inorganic components in MSW lead to components shown in Fig. 4, the greater the dry density the smaller the compression
collapse and compression (Sowers, 1973; Edil et al., 1990; Sharma and of the sample under the same load. With the increase in dry density, the
Reddy, 2004; Hossain and Gabr, 2005; Tahmoorian and Khabbaz, 2020). magnitude and rate of compressive strain decrease significantly. Chen
et al. (2009) found experimentally that the compressible component of
4. Influencing factors of settlement MSW decreased as the age of MSW landfills increased. In addition, the
compression index CC decreased from 1.0 to 0.3 with increasing depth of
4.1. Composition of MSW landfill, indicating that the compressibility of MSW decreased with
increasing depth of landfill. Through numerical simulations, Feng et al.
The composition of MSW varies greatly with changes in location, (2018) found that volume proportion of fissure, saturated permeability
time, and level of economic development (Dixon and Jones, 2005; Chen in fissure and saturated permeability in matrix of MSW have an
et al., 2009; Hoornweg and Bhada-Tata, 2012). Different compositions important impact on the settlement of landfills. The increase in these
of MSW have different settlement conditions after disposal. Fig. 2 shows three parameters will reduce the water retention capacity of MSW and
that the organic matter (food waste and garden waste) contained in lead to a decrease in its biodegradation rate, thus reducing the settle
MSW in developing countries is often more than that in developed ment of landfills. Sivakumar Babu et al. (2011) found that the predicted
countries. Xu et al. (2019a) analysed the settlement behaviour of high- settlement increased from 6.1 m to 11.5 m (i.e., 88.5% increase) when
food-waste-content MSW in developing countries and low-food-waste- the compression index was increased from 0.3 to 0.6 through parametric
content MSW in developed countries according to the data in the liter analysis of the proposed constitutive model. The influence of the earth
ature. They found that, high-food-waste-content MSW has a higher Cʹc pressure coefficient on the settlement was also investigated. The calcu
(Primary compression ratio) compared to other types of MSW. More lated settlement decreased from 17.38 m to 7.5 m when the earth
over, the higher Cʹc is, the greater is the settlement. Fei and Zekkos pressure coefficient was increased from 0.1 to 0.9, keeping all other
(2013) reviewed and analysed 98 experiments in the laboratory and parameters constant. Chen et al. (2012a) studied the influence of the
found that when the content of particles greater than 20 mm in the MSW MSW gas permeability coefficient on the settlement and found that it
increases, the degree of settlement of the sample can be observed to be was mainly controlled by the void ratio of MSW. In addition, the short-
larger and faster. In addition, Zekkos et al. (2017) conducted 23 one- term settlement of landfills increased with the increase in the gas
dimensional compression tests on reconstructed MSW and found that permeability coefficient, while the influence of the gas permeability
Cʹc and Cʹα (Second compression ratio) are also affected by particle sizes coefficient on the long-term settlement of landfill was small.
greater than 20 mm in MSW. When the weight percentage of materials
with particle sizes greater than 20 mm increases, Cʹc and Cʹα increase, 4.3. Environmental factors
that is, hardness decreases, and long-term settlement increases.
Environmental factors can affect landfill settlement, such as pH and
temperature, by influencing the biodegradation of MSW, which affects
4.2. Physical parameters of MSW
the settlement of MSW landfills. The pH value is closely related to the
reproduction of microorganisms and directly affects hydrolysis, acidi
Some physical parameters in soil mechanics are often used to study
fication, and methanogenic reactions of MSW. Chakma and Mathur
the settlement of MSW landfills. Cox et al. (2015) conducted a meso-scale
(2013) summarized that the most suitable pH range for MSW biodeg
and full-scale field test, in which the water content of MSW was changed
radation is 5.6 to 8, based on studies reported in the literature. Bareither
by adding water. It was found that the settlement increased by 34%
et al. (2012b) conducted indoor compression tests on MSW under three
under the optimum moisture content compared to the settlement with
different conditions. It was found that Cʹα increased with increasing
no water added. Zekkos et al. (2017) found through experimental
temperature in the temperature range (16 ◦ C to 30 ◦ C) without affecting
research that as Cʹc and Cʹα decrease, the unit weight of MSW increases.
microbial activity. This indicates that a temperature rise will accelerate
MSW has a high void ratio, and the variation in void ratio has a signif
biodegradation of MSW, generation of gas, and landfill settlement. Zhao
icant effect on the settlement of MSW landfill. With an increase in void
et al. (2016) used a large-scale laboratory biodegradation device to
ratio, the settlement will also increase (Chen et al., 2009; Reddy et al.,
investigate the influence of temperature on MSW biodegradation and
2017b; Feng et al., 2019). Chen et al. (2010a) used a specially designed
landfill settlement. After 360 days of testing, it was concluded that 22 ◦ C
test device to test MSW samples with different dry density conditions. As
to 45 ◦ C is the most favourable temperature range for MSW
Fig. 4. Comparison curve for different dry density conditions [modified from
(Chen et al., 2010a)] (Chakma and Mathur, 2013). Fig. 5. Summary of optimum temperature for biodegradation of MSW.
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biodegradation. Fig. 5 summarizes research results on the optimal conventional landfills and leachate recirculation landfills. They found
temperature range for the degradation of MSW as reported in the liter that the average rate of settlement under leachate recirculation condi
ature. It can be seen that the most favourable temperature range for the tions was approximately 4.5% greater and the amount of settlement was
degradation of MSW falls within 22 ◦ C− 45 ◦ C. In addition, seismic ef approximately 17–20% greater. The liquid–gas drainage systems and
fects can have an impact on landfill settlement. Peng and Hou (2016) liner systems in MSW landfills can also have a significant impact on
investigated the seismic response of landfills under horizontal seismic landfill settlement, mainly by affecting the pressure of the gas and liquid
action as well as under coupled horizontal and vertical seismic actions in the landfill. Increases in gas and liquid pressures cause a reduction in
through two dynamic centrifuge model test simulations. It was found effective stress, resulting in settlement rates and landfill capacity
that the seismic action causes substantial additional vertical settlement reduction, while the dissipation of gas and liquid pressures can
and that the settlement is greatest when vibration occurs both hori contribute to landfill settlement (Durmusoglu et al., 2005; Hettiarachchi
zontally and vertically. et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2012b). Xie et al. (2005) developed a degra
dation compression tester and analysed the effect of gas pressure
4.4. Landfill operation mode changes on landfill settlement by controlling the opening and closing of
the gas valve. It was found that after a while with the gas valve closed,
The operation mode of MSW landfills is an important factor in the the air pressure in the apparatus increased with the production of gas.
settlement prediction of MSW landfills. The pre-treatment of MSW When the gas pressure reached 400 kPa, the valve was opened to collect
before landfill will have considerable influence on physical, chemical, the gas and it was observed that the settlement of the specimen
and biological characteristics (Esposito et al., 2012). Pre-treatment increased rapidly as the air pressure decreased. Jiang et al. (2008)
measures include mechanical sorting, recycling, and biological treat reformed the gas drainage system of a landfill in Beijing, China, and
ment. Gunawardana et al. (2009) studied the compression characteris established a layered leachate drainage system to solve the problem of
tics of untreated and biologically treated MSW using an on-site scale leachate collection. After the establishment of the system, it effectively
lysimeter. It was found that the MSW treated using a biological treat shortened the primary compression settlement period of the landfill,
ment had higher density and stability, so its settlement was relatively made the landfill tend to be stable faster and increased its effective
small. Siddiqui et al. (2013) presented the results of a study on the storage capacity. Yu et al. (2010) investigated the variation of air
degradation and compression characteristics of MSW treated with a pressure within a landfill under four different liner systems. They found
mechanical biological treatment (MBT) technology in the UK and Ger that landfill with a top cover and impermeable bottom exhibits the
many and compared it with untreated MSW. It was found that the me maximum air pressure, whereas landfill with gas collected from the top
chanical creep and biodegradable compression of the treated MSW are and bottom has the minimum pressure. Additionally, they found that
smaller than those of the untreated MSW due to the increase in density different liner systems can have an effect on the pressure of liquids and
and the removal of compressible and degradable particles in the pro gases within a landfill and therefore on its settlement rate. Chen et al.
cessing process. The initial compaction during landfill can increase the (2012a) simulated the influence of two different conditions on the set
unit weight of MSW and then reduce the settlement amount after tlement, with or without a top liner system, through a numerical model.
landfilling. Li et al. (2013) used a hypothetical case to study the influ The simulation showed that the landfill without the top liner system had
ence of different initial compaction degrees on the compression a faster settlement rate than that with the top liner system.
displacement of municipal solid waste. The study found that under the
premise of a given design height, increasing the initial compaction could 4.5. Engineering suggestion
significantly reduce the compression displacement after landfill and
could increase the storage capacity by 27.1%. Zekkos et al. (2013) Through the analysis of the above factors, some practical engineering
analysed the data of 56 dynamic compaction tests and found that MSW suggestions can be obtained:
landfills can be improved by dynamic compaction. Dynamic compaction
can make the MSW matrix denser and increase hardness by a factor of (1) Pre-treatment of MSW before landfill can reduce the content of
2.8 to 24, thus reducing the settlement and settlement rate of the MSW organic matter, increase the density of MSW, reduce the content
landfill. Kundu and Viswanadham (2020) analysed the influence of of water in the particles, and help recycling components. Exam
dynamic compaction on landfill settlement based on finite element nu ples include composting before landfill, shredding bulky waste,
merical simulations. It is found that dynamic compaction can increase and using MBT (mechanical biological treatment) technology for
the capacity of existing MSW landfills, prolong their service life and MSW treatment.
reduce settlement after closure. Ering and Sivakumar Babu (2016a) took (2) Leachate recharge, addition of organic sludge, aeration or control
a simple landfill unit as the research object and used three different of appropriate landfill temperature, pH and moisture content can
landfill layer thicknesses of 0.5 m, 1 m, and 2.5 m to simulate the be carried out during landfill operation to ensure microbial ac
landfill. On the one hand, it was found that the thicker each layer of the tivity in MSW landfills and improve the biodegradation rate. This
landfill is, the greater is the deformation. On the other hand, the thinner would accelerate the stabilisation process of MSW landfills, in
the thickness of each layer of the landfill is, the smaller is the settlement. crease the yield and total production of landfill gas, increase
Aeration, water addition, leachate addition, and leachate recycling after landfill capacity, reduce the cost of monitoring and maintenance
landfill will also affect settlement. Top et al. (2019) constructed four of landfills after closure, and also facilitate the later development
landfill test units at the Komurcuoda sanitary landfill in Istanbul to study and utilisation of landfills.
the effect of aeration on MSW landfill settlement. It was found that, (3) Appropriate liquid–gas drainage and liner systems should be
compared to the anaerobic test unit, aeration accelerates the biodegra selected during landfill design. The liquid–gas drainage system
dation rate of MSW, which significantly affects the settlement of MSW should be regularly de-clogged to prevent blockages.
landfills. Liu et al. (2013) conducted two sets of comparative MSW (4) A corresponding compaction operation should be carried out
compression tests using a self-designed large MSW compression unit. during the MSW landfill process to improve its initial compaction.
One group added water to the sample during the test, and the other In addition, the appropriate thickness of the landfill waste layer
group did not. By comparison, it was found that the addition of water in should be controlled.
the test adjusted the pH value of the environment in the sample, pro
moted biodegradation and gas generation, and the total compression 5. Stage division of settlement
was 40.49% higher than that without water. Benson et al. (2007) ana
lysed the settlement by monitoring data of settlement plates placed in As shown in Fig. 6, the settlement of MSW landfills can generally be
83
Fig. 6. Compression progress of MSW [modified from (Bareither and Kwak, 2015)]. Note: tP and tB represent the temporal transitions from the immediate
compression to the primary compression and from the primary compression to the secondary compression, respectively.
Table 1
Previous laboratory test of municipal solid waste compression.
Researchers Country Instrument Sample size (mm) Tested MSW
Wall and Zeiss (1995) Canada Oedometer H = 1710, D = 575 Shredded MSW
Grisolia and Napoleoni (1998) Italy Oedometer H = 500, D = 280 Reconstituted MSW
Hossain et al. (2003) America Oedometer D = 63.5 Collected, shredded MSW
Vilar and Carvalhod (2004) Brazil Oedometer H = 385, D = 365 Borehole MSW
Thusyanthan et al. (2006) United Centrifuge / Synthetic waste
Kingdom
Olivier and Gourc (2007a) France Compression reactor L = 1000, W = 980 Synthetic waste
Chen et al. (2008) China Specially designed odometer H = 250, D = 84 and 98 Borehole MSW
Ivanova et al. (2008) England Consolidating anaerobic reactors H = 900, D = 480 Collected fresh MSW
Swati and Joseph (2008) India Lysimeter H = 3000, D = 1300 Excavated MSW
Reddy et al. (2009a), Reddy et al. (2009b) America Floating ring oedometer H = 27, D = 63 Shredded MSW
Elagroudy et al. (2009) Egypt Bioreactor H = 920, D = 550 Shredded MSW
Hossain et al. (2009) America Oedometer D = 63.5, 100, 200 and 300 Shredded MSW
Chen et al. (2010b) China Bioreactor H = 600, D = 190 Synthetic waste
Sivakumar Babu et al. (2010a) America Oedometer H = 27, D = 63 Shredded borehole MSW
Siddiqui et al. (2012) England Consolidating anaerobic reactors H = 900, D = 480 MBT MSW
Bareither et al. (2012a) America Compression cell D = 64, 100 and 305 Shredded MSW
Karimpour-Fard and Machado (2012) Brazil Oedometer H = 497, D = 548 Excavated MSW
Staub et al. (2013) France Oedometer H = 1200, D = 1000 Shredded MSW
Liu et al. (2013) China Large-scale settlement observation H = 500, 700 and 800, D = Synthetic waste
apparatus 500
Sivakumar Babu and Lakshmikanthan India Oedometer H = 27, D = 63 Compost MSW
(2015)
Xu et al. (2015) China Compression apparatus H = 600, D = 200 Synthetic waste
Shi et al. (2016) China Column compression test apparatus. D = 500 Synthetic waste
Basha et al. (2016) America Floating ring oedometer H = 25, D = 63 Shredded MSW
Bae and Kwon (2017) Korea Consolidometer H = 100, D = 100 Borehole MSW
Lakshmikanthan et al. (2017) India Bioreactor H = 100, D = 190 MBT MSW
Zhan et al. (2017) China Bioreactor H = 7500, L = 5000, W = 5000 Collected fresh MSW
Chen et al. (2017) China Centrifuge / Synthetic waste
Kavazanjian and Gutierrez (2017) America Centrifuge / Synthetic waste
Lakshmikanthan and Sivakumar Babu India Large-scale anaerobic cell H = 900, L = 600, W = 420 MBT MSW
(2017) Small-scale anaerobic reactor H = 300, D = 100
Hadinata et al. (2018) Indonesia Lysimeter D = 820 Collected fresh MSW
Li et al. (2018) China Centrifuge / Synthetic waste
Zeng et al. (2019) China Compression instrument H = 300, D = 250 Synthetic waste
Mokhtari et al. (2019) Iran Oedometer H = 490, D = 490 Excavated MSW
Xu et al. (2020) China Compression cell H = 1020, D = 300 Synthetic waste
Zhang et al. (2020) China Compression cell H = 800, D = 200 MBT MSW
He et al. (2021) China Compression apparatus H = 250, D = 200 Borehole MSW
Firat and Yeliz (2022) Turkey compression system H = 80, D = 260 Synthetic waste, Natural
samples
Note: MBT- Mechanical biological treatment; H- Height; D- Diameter; L- Length; W- Width.
84
divided into three stages, including initial compression settlement, pri may not be representative, which will lead to limitations in the test
mary compression settlement, and secondary compression settlement results.
(Wall and Zeiss, 1995; El-Fadel and Khoury, 2000; Durmusoglu et al.,
2005; Ivanova et al., 2008; Swati and Joseph, 2008; Gourc et al., 2010; 6.2. In-situ settlement monitoring
Bente et al., 2017; Powrie et al., 2019). Initial compression settlement
usually occurs under the action of the self-weight load and the additional The study of settlement characteristics of MSW landfills is closely
load imposed on MSW during the landfilling process. Because initial related to the actual operation of the landfill. The collection and analysis
compression settlement occurs quickly, it is sometimes called immediate of monitoring data is an important tool to study the settlement charac
compression settlement. The primary compression settlement is caused teristics. Reliable on-site data not only provide the rate and size of MSW
by the rearrangement of MSW particles, including the compression, landfill settlement but can also truly reflect the compression and
sliding, fragmentation, and reorientation of particles, as well as the deformation characteristics of the landfill body and the settlement law,
compression and dissipation of pore fluids (Ivanova et al., 2008; Bare which is conducive to the establishment of a reasonable settlement
ither et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2019a). The primary compression settlement prediction model. There are a variety of technologies that can be applied
usually occurs within 30 days after the MSW is landfilled (Sowers, 1973; to the on-site settlement monitoring of landfills, including setting
Edil et al., 1990). Secondary compression settlement is mainly caused by measuring points for surface measurement (El-Fadel et al., 1999; Zhao
mechanical creep and biodegradation of MSW. The settlement at this et al., 2001; Liu et al., 2004), inclinometer (Olivier and Gourc, 2007b),
stage accounts for a large proportion of the total settlement of MSW settlement plates (Marques et al., 2003; Bareither et al., 2012c; Jang,
landfills and lasts for many years. 2013; Simões and Catapreta, 2013; Jo and Jang, 2021), settlement
profiler (Bachus et al., 2006; Foye et al., 2007), soil settlement meter
6. Research methods for settlement of MSW landfills (Hunte et al., 2007; Hunte et al., 2012; Van Geel and Murray, 2015), GPS
station (Olivier and Gourc, 2007b), time-domain reflectometer (Pierce
In the past few decades, researchers have conducted numerous et al., 2005), three-dimensional laser scanner (Olivier et al., 2005), and
studies on the settlement processes in MSW landfills using different UAV aerial photography (Baiocchi et al., 2019). Compared to laboratory
methods, including laboratory tests, in-situ settlement monitoring, tests, on-site settlement monitoring can obtain more realistic settlement
theoretical research, and numerical simulations. data of MSW landfills, which is not affected by the size of test in
struments. However, on-site settlement monitoring is time-consuming,
6.1. Laboratory test expensive, and the data has wide variability.
Laboratory testing has several advantages such as controlled test 6.3. Theoretical research
conditions, easy observation, and convenient operation. It is one of the
important and indispensable methods to study the deformation char Researchers have also used theoretical studies to calculate and pre
acteristics of general soil. Similarly, for an MSW landfill, an in-depth dict the settlement of MSW landfills. According to the one-dimensional
understanding of its settlement characteristics should also be consolidation principle in soil mechanics, Sowers (1973) classified the
completed by means of relevant laboratory tests. As shown in Table 1, settlement of MSW landfill into primary compression settlement and
researchers conducted laboratory compression tests on MSW with secondary compression settlement. Bjarngard and Edgers (1990)
different scale test devices, including oedometer (Wall and Zeiss, 1995; improved Sowers’ model and proposed to divide the secondary
Grisolia and Napoleoni, 1998; Hossain et al., 2003; Vilar and Carvalhod, compression settlement into two stages to consider the different settle
2004; Chen et al., 2008; Hossain et al., 2009; Reddy et al., 2009a; Reddy ment mechanisms in different stages. Edil et al. (1990) applied the
et al., 2009b; Sivakumar Babu et al., 2010a; Karimpour-Fard and rheological model proposed by Gibson and Lo (1961) for the assessment
Machado, 2012; Staub et al., 2013; Sivakumar Babu and Lakshmikan of soft soil compression to the settlement studies of MSW landfills. Some
than, 2015; Basha et al., 2016; Bae and Kwon, 2017; Mokhtari et al., researchers have established empirical models by analysing the settle
2019), lysimeter (Swati and Joseph, 2008; Hadinata et al., 2018), ment monitoring data of the landfill, such as the logarithmic model (Yen
bioreactor (Elagroudy et al., 2009; Chen et al., 2010b; Lakshmikanthan and Scanlon, 1975), power creep model (Edil et al., 1990), and hyper
et al., 2017; Zhan et al., 2017), anaerobic reactor (Ivanova et al., 2008; bolic model (Ling et al., 1998). Park and Lee (1997) developed a
Siddiqui et al., 2012; Lakshmikanthan and Sivakumar Babu, 2017), biodegradation model by analysing a large amount of experimental
centrifuge (Thusyanthan et al., 2006; Chen et al., 2017; Kavazanjian and data, which divided long-term settlement into settlement due to me
Gutierrez, 2017; Li et al., 2018), and some other self-made compression chanical compression and settlement due to biodegradation. The set
devices (Olivier and Gourc, 2007a; Bareither et al., 2012a; Liu et al., tlement due to biodegradation was estimated by the first-order kinetic
2013; Xu et al., 2015; Shi et al., 2016; Zeng et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2020; equation for organic matter. Marques et al. (2003), Elagroudy et al.
Zhang et al., 2020; He et al., 2021; Firat and Yeliz, 2022). The centrifuge (2008), Hettiarachchi et al. (2009), Chen et al. (2010b), Gourc et al.
model test can reproduce the settlement deformation and even (2010), Gao et al. (2017), and Berquist and Van Geel (2020) have also
destruction process of the actual landfill under supergravity conditions. developed biodegradation models. Various coupling models have been
The test can study the settlement of the landfill under static and dynamic also developed in the literature (Durmusoglu et al., 2005; McDougall,
loads and is an effective method to study the landfill deformation. It 2007; Hettiarachchi et al., 2009; Yu et al., 2010; Chen et al., 2012b; Qiu
should be noted that centrifugal model test cannot simulate the et al., 2013; Hubert et al., 2016; Reddy et al., 2017a; Lu et al., 2019;
biodegradation settlement of landfill over time (Chen et al., 2017; Li Chen et al., 2020) and constitutive models (Machado et al., 2009;
et al., 2018). Samples for the laboratory tests were obtained by in situ Sivakumar Babu et al., 2010b; Krase et al., 2011; Chouksey et al., 2012;
sampling at the landfill or by synthesis to a certain ratio. In situ sampling Chouksey and Babu, 2015; Feng et al., 2016) to predict the settlement of
methods include direct collection of fresh samples, boreholing to obtain MSW landfills.
samples at different depths, and excavation collection. Although some
valuable research results have been achieved through laboratory tests, 6.4. Numerical simulation
there are still some drawbacks. Firstly, samples collected on-site are
usually screened, shredded, and homogenized to adapt to the experi Numerical simulation is a supplement to theoretical and experi
mental device, which often ignores the heterogeneity and anisotropy of mental research. It can consider the complex multi-field coupling envi
MSW in the landfill (Reddy et al., 2017a). For the samples synthesized ronment of a landfill, and is faster and less costly. Hossain et al. (2008)
according to a certain ratio, the selected ratio and specific test materials used the finite element program PLAXIS to simulate the settlement of the
85
Calgary bioreactor landfill site in Canada, compared it with the Hossain and Gabr (2005) further improved Sowers’ model by ana
measured data taken during the landfill process and found that the total lysing the long-term settlement data of the landfill in time logarithmic
settlement predicted by PLAXIS analysis was similar to the results coordinates and concluded that there are two processes of accelerating
observed in the field. Kumar and Reddy (2018) established a coupled and decelerating the long-term settlement of the landfill. They divided
hydro-bio-mechanical framework in the FLAC program and studied the the secondary compression part into three stages with different
impact of the unsaturated hydraulic characteristics of MSW on the water compression coefficients, and the model is shown in Eq. (3).
distribution and settlement of bioreactor landfills. Hubert et al. (2016)
σ 0 + Δσ t2 t3 t
developed a thermo-hydro-biochemo-mechanical model and simulated (3)
′
S = H0 Cc log + Hp CαM log + Hp CαB log + Hp CαF log
σ0 t1 t2 t3
the long-term settlement of landfills under different leachate conditions
through the finite element program LAGAMINE. Simulation results show where CαM is the mechanical creep compression index; CαB is the
that the model can reproduce the impact of biodegradation on the long- biodegradation compression index; CαF is the final mechanical creep
term settlement and heat production of landfills. Ering and Sivakumar compression index; t2 is the completion time of mechanical creep
Babu (2016b) developed a constitutive model considering mechanical compression; t3 is the completion time of biodegradation compression.
compression, mechanical creep, and biodegradable compression with Shi et al. (2016) combined the primary compression settlement part
the numerical simulation software FLAC and analysed a 5 m high MSW of the model developed by Sowers (1973) with the secondary
landfill unit. They found that the settlement increased with an increase compression model developed by Yin and Graham (1989) to create a
in thickness of the waste layer. Feng et al. (2019) proposed a coupled one-dimensional compression settlement model, which is shown in Eq.
hydro-mechanical-biodegradation model to analyse the interaction be (4).
tween leachate, landfill gas, and landfill deformation during leachate [ ]
recirculation, which considered the initial density distribution and its S = H0 1 − (1 − λt )
1 + e0 − Cc (log(σ 0 + Δσ ) − logσ 0 ) − Cα log(1 + t/t0 )
variation with biodegradation. The control equations were discretized 1 + e0
using the finite volume method and solved based on the open-source (4)
platform OpenFOAM. Results show that the compression index or
compression coefficient of waste increases with the increase of leachate where λt is the degradation ratio; e0 is the void ratio; Cc is the primary
saturation. compression index; Cα is the secondary compression index; t0 is the
modified parameter, not the end time of the main compression, which
7. Settlement models can be calculated using the compression curve and least-squares
method.
In order to accurately predict the settlement of MSW landfills, re
searchers have proposed various settlement models based on the above 7.2. Rheological models
research methods. These models mainly fall into one of the following
categories: soil mechanics, rheological, empirical, biodegradation, Edil et al. (1990) applied the rheological model for predicting soft
constitutive, and multiphase coupling models. soil settlement proposed by Gibson and Lo (1961) to the study of urban
MSW settlement. The computing unit of the model is assumed to consist
of a spring and a Kelvin body in series. Fig. 7 shows the schematic di
7.1. Soil mechanics models agram of the model, and the calculation formula is shown in Eq. (5).
{ [ (( ) ) ] }
Sowers (1973) analysed 15 months of settlement monitoring data at S = H0 Δσ a + b 1 − exp
− λ
t (5)
a landfill and proposed a soil mechanics-based settlement prediction b
model using Terzaghi’s consolidation theory. They divided the settle
ment into two stages: primary and secondary compression settlement, as where a is the coefficient of primary compression rate; b is the coeffi
shown in Eq. (1). cient of secondary compression rate; λ/b is the rate of secondary
compression.
σ 0 + Δσ t
(1)
′ ′
S = H0 Cc log + Hp Cα log
σ0 t1 7.3. Empirical models
where S is the settlement of the landfill; H0 is the initial height of the

Mathematical functions are also used in practical applications to
MSW landfill; Hp is the height of the MSW landfill at the end of primary
predict landfill settlement, as other types of models are more complex to
compression; Cʹc is the modified primary compression index; Cʹα is the
apply. Mathematical functions commonly used in empirical models are
modified secondary compression index; σ0 is the initial vertical stress; Δσ
logarithmic, power, and hyperbolic functions. However, the parameters
is the incremental vertical stress; t1 is the time when primary compres
sion is completed; t is the duration of MSW since its first disposal in the
landfill.
Bjarngard and Edgers (1990) summarised and analysed the field
monitoring data of 24 MSW landfills and found that the settlement rate
accelerated in the later stage over the time logarithmic coordinate, so
they improved Sowers’ model using this data. The primary compression
stage of the improved model is still calculated according to Sowers’
model, but the secondary compression stage is divided into two stages
with different compression coefficients, and the model is shown in Eq.
(2).
σ 0 + Δσ ts t
(2)
′ ′ ′
S = H0 Cc log + Hp Cα1 log + Hp Cα2 log
σ0 t1 ts
where Cʹα1 is the intermediate modified secondary compression index;

Cʹα2 is the long-term modified secondary compression index; ts is the Fig. 7. Schematic representation of the Gibson-Lo rheological model [redraw
starting time of the accelerated development of secondary compression. from (Edil et al., 1990)].
86
of empirical models are usually determined for specific landfills and ( )

′ ′
∑4
rarely have physical significance (El-Fadel and Khoury, 2000). ′
ε = Cc log
σ 0 + Δσ
+ (1 − ni ) fsj
Gsi ( )( (
1 + wj (t)Gsj 1 − exp − kbj t
))
Yen and Scanlon (1975) proposed a logarithmic model to predict the σ ′0 j=1
Gsj
settlement over time by analysing the settlement data of three 30 m high (11)
landfills for nine years. The model assumes that the settlement rate of
the landfill is logarithmically linear with the landfill age. The settlement where ε is the total strain of the landfill; σ0ʹ is the initial effective stress;
model is shown in Eq. (6). Δσ ʹ is the increment of effective stress; ni is the initial landfill porosity; fsj
( { ]} is the initial solids fraction for each waste group, j = 1,2,3,4; Gsi is the
tc ) β [ ( tc )
S = H0 t − α+ ln t − − 1 (6) initial overall specific gravity of MSW; Gsj is the specific gravity of the jth
2 ln(10) 2
group of MSW, j = 1,2,3,4; wj is the gravimetric water content, j =
1,2,3,4; kbj is the first order kinetic constant for the jth group, j = 1,2,3,4.
where α and β are the fitting parameters; tc is the duration of waste
Elagroudy et al. (2008) selected the biodegradation part of the model
placement.
developed by Hettiarachchi et al. (2005) and simplified it to create a
Edil et al. (1990) used the power creep law, which is widely used to
biodegradation settlement model containing two parameters (A and B).
characterize the transient creep behaviour of engineering materials, to
They used this model to study biodegradation-induced settlement in
predict the settlement of landfills. According to this law, a power creep
MSW landfills under aerobic, anaerobic, and aerobic-anaerobic condi
model was established, as shown in Eq. (7).
tions. The model is shown in Eq. (12).
( )N
t
S = H0 Δσ m (7) εb = A(1 − exp( − Bt) ) (12)
tr
where A is the total settlement fitting parameter; B is the initial settle
where m is the reference compressibility; tr is the reference time intro ment rate fitting parameter.
duced in the equation to make the time dimensionless; N is the rate of Chen et al. (2010b) developed a stress-degradation compression
compression. model, which takes into account the settlement caused by mechanical
Ling et al. (1998) proposed a modified hyperbolic function to compression, mechanical creep, and biodegradation. Because it is
simulate the long-term settlement of a simulated landfill based on the difficult to distinguish between the settlements caused by mechanical
settlement monitoring data of three landfills, and the calculation for creep and biodegradation, the two parts were combined into a single
mula is shown in Eq. (8). formula based on first-order kinetics when building the model. The
t calculation formula of the model is shown in Eq. (13).
S= (8)
1/ks + t/Sult
σ 0 + Δσ
(13)
′
ε = Cc log + εcb (1 − exp( − kcb t) )
where ks is the initial rate of settlement; Sult is the ultimate settlement.
σ0
where εcb is the ultimate strain due to mechanical creep compression

7.4. Biodegradation models
and biodegradation compression; kcb is the first-order rate constant for
coupled mechanical creep and bio-induced compression.
Park and Lee (1997) divided the long-term settlement of the landfill
Gourc et al. (2010) analysed the experimental data in the literature
into two parts: the settlement caused by mechanical compression and
and divided the secondary settlement into mechanical settlement caused
the settlement caused by organic biodegradation. The settlement caused
by creep and biochemical settlement caused by organic degradation.
by organic biodegradation is expressed by the first-order kinetic for
The latter is calculated by analysing the production of landfill gas. Two
mula, and the settlement model is shown in Eq. (9).
different landfill gas production models were used to develop a one-
t1 + Δt dimensional biomechanical model for predicting secondary settlement,
(9)
′
S = H0 Cα log + H0 εb (1 − exp( − kb tb ) )
t1 as shown in Eqs. (14) and (15), respectively.
( )
where Δt is the duration of mechanical compression; εb is the compres t ρ0
εs = CαεM log + c 0d (1 − exp( − kb tb ) ) (14)
sive strain produced by biodegradation; kb is the first-order rate constant t1 ρdso
for biodegradation; tb is the duration after the start of biodegradation. ( ) [ ( )
Marques et al. (2003) improved the model of Park and Lee (1997) by t ρ0 kb kb + f
εs = CαεM log + c 0d 1 + exp( − (kb + f)tb ) − exp(
proposing a composite settlement model, which consisted of three parts: t1 ρdso f f
]
settlement due to loading, settlement due to mechanical creep, and − kb tb )
settlement due to biodegradation. The model is shown in Eq. (10).
[ ] (15)
′ σ 0 + Δσ ′
S = H0 Cc log + bc Δσ(1 − exp( − kc t ) ) + εb (1 − exp( − kb tb ) )
σ0 where εs is the total secondary strain generated by the landfill; CαεM is
(10) the mechanical secondary compression ratio; c is the initial solid organic
content; ρ0d is the total initial dry density; ρ0dso is the dry density of the
where bc is the mechanical creep coefficient; kc is the mechanical creep
organic solids; f is the shape parameter.
rate constant; tʹ is the duration after the stress increase Δσ is applied; εb
Gao et al. (2017) found that the primary compression process affects
the strain due to biodegradation.
the mechanical creep and biochemical degradation processes by ana
Hettiarachchi et al. (2005) developed a conceptual model to separate
lysing long-term compression tests of MSW under different biodegra
mechanical and biodegradable settlements of landfill. They introduced a
dation conditions. Based on the MSW compression characteristics and
phase diagram in the modelling process to classify the solid phase of
the time-linear model of clay, the quantitative relationship between the
MSW into non-degradable, slowly degradable, moderately degradable,
viscoplastic strain rate and the equivalent time was derived. A one-
and rapidly degradable waste. The model is shown in Eq. (11).
dimensional time-linear compression model of MSW applicable to
different biodegradation environments was established, which has two
expressions as shown in Eqs. (16) and (17). Eq. (16) is suitable for MSW
under enhanced biodegradation conditions, and Eq. (17) is suitable for
87
MSW under normal biodegradation conditions. MSW settlement was explained by introducing a biodegradation-
[ ] induced void change parameter. The model is shown in Eq. (22).
′ σ 1 ( ) σ
ε = εp + Cc0 log + 2 Φ σ p − χ log [1 − (1 + kcb te )exp( − kcb te ) ] ′ ( ′ )
σ p kcb σp κ dp λc − κ dp 2ηdη (1 + Λ)mi
dεv = ′ + ′ + − dC (22)
(16) 1 + e0 p 1 + e0 p M 2 + η2 Vi ρC i
[ ]
σ 1 ( ) σ where Λ is the biodegradation-induced void change parameter; mi is the
(17)
′
ε = εp + Cc0 log + 2 Φ σ p − χ log (1 − exp( − kcb te ) )
σ p kcb σp mass of biodegradable MSW at initial time; Vi is the total volume at
initial time; ρ is the average density of MSW; Ci is the initial relative
where εp is the strain corresponding to the reference state point; Cʹc0 is cellulose content; C is the relative cellulose content.
the slope of reference equivalent timeline; σ p is the load corresponding
to the reference state point; Φ(σp) is the viscosity coefficient at the 7.6. Multiphase coupling models
reference stress σp; χ is the coefficient reflecting the change of the vis
cosity coefficient with stress and the change of the compression index Durmusoglu et al. (2005) developed a one-dimensional gas–liquid-
with the equivalent time; te is the equivalent time. solid coupled model, which can estimate the immediate and ultimate
Berquist and Van Geel (2020) developed a temperature-dependent settlement of landfills due to MSW biodegradation and landfill gas
biodegradation model that simulates the relationship between heat generation. It can also analyse the porosity, fluid pressure, fluid satu
production and temperature in landfills and tracks the energy consumed ration, and stress distribution during settlement. The mass conservation
in the biodegradation of MSW. The model is shown in Eq. (18). equation of the solid phase is shown in Eq. (23).
[
σ 0 + Δσ ∂ρb ∂(ρb Vs )
(23)
′ ′
S = H0 Cc log + bc Δσ(1 − exp( − kc t ) ) − = + αT Yg
σ0 ∂t ∂z
( )]
Expended Energy
+ εb (18) where ρb is the bulk density of MSW; Vs is the solid phase velocity; Yg is
Total Expended Energy
the gas yield coefficient; αT is the total gas production rate. The mass
conservation equation for the liquid phase is shown in Eq. (24).
7.5. Constitutive models
∂(ρw θw ) ∂(ρw θw Vw )
− = (24)
Machado et al. (2009) improved the MSW constitutive model ∂t ∂z
developed by Machado et al. (2002) and applied it to predict the set
tlement of MSW landfills. The model mainly calculates the secondary where ρw is the liquid phase density; θw is the volumetric liquid content
compression settlement caused by mechanical creep and biodegrada expressed as θw = nSw; Sw is the liquid phase saturation; Vw is the liquid
tion, as shown in Eq. (19). phase velocity. The mass conservation equation for the gas phase is
shown in Eq. (25).
dεv = dεvc + dεvd ( ) ( )
[ ( )( ) ] ∂ ρg θg ∂ ρg θg Vg
cα ρ 1 Δms ∂ms 1 − = − αT (25)
= − so 1 − α* dt (19) ∂t ∂z
(1 + e0 )ln(10)t ρsp 1 + e0 mso ∂t mso
where ρg is the gas phase density; θg is the volumetric liquid content
where dεv is the volume strain change; dεvc is the volume strain incre expressed as θg = nSg; Sg is the liquid phase saturation; Vg is the liquid
ment due to mechanical creep; dεvd is the volume strain increment due to phase velocity. The viscoelastic approach is used to consider the defor
biodegradation; ρso the initial density of MSW solid material; ρsp is the mation of the solid substrate over time, and the strain rate is defined as
initial density of MSW paste; α* is the biodegradation rate parameter; shown in Eq. (26).
mso is the mass of the initial organic solid; Δms is the mass of degraded ′
organic solids.
∂ε ∂σ 1 ′
= mv + σ (26)
Sivakumar Babu et al. (2010a) developed a constitutive model for ∂t ∂t ζ
predicting the settlement of municipal solid waste landfills based on the
where mv is the coefficient of volume change; σ ʹ is the effective stress; ζ is
critical state soil mechanics framework. The model considers not only
the bulk viscosity of MSW.
elastic strain and plastic strain, but also mechanical creep and biodeg
McDougall (2007) developed a coupled hydro-bio-mechanical model
radation strain, and is shown in Eq. (20).
(HBM model) to predict landfill settlement, which overcomes the limi
( )[ ′
κ dp
′
λc − κ dp tation of treating biodegradation-related settlement as a simple time-
d εv = ′ + dependent process. The HBM model is composed of a combination of
1+e p 1+e p′
2ηdη
] a hydrodynamic, biodegradation, and mechanical models. The hydrau
(20)
′
+ 2
M + η2
+ kc bc Δp exp( − kc t)dt + kb εb exp( − kb t)dt lic model uses the two-dimensional Richards equation (Richards, 1931)
as shown in Eq. (27).
where e is the void ratio after load increment; λc is the compression ∂ ∂ψ ∂ ∂ψ ∂kz (θ) ∂ψ
index; κ is the recompression index; pʹ is the mean effective stress; η is the k (θ) + k (θ) + = Cw (27)
∂x x ∂x ∂x z ∂z ∂x ∂t
stress ratio; M is the friction constant; Δpʹ is the change in mean effective
stress. where ψ is the hydraulic pressure head; k is the hydraulic conductivity; θ
Chouksey and Babu (2015) derived a modification of the stress– is the volumetric moisture content; Cw (=∂θ/∂t) is the specific water
strain constitutive model for MSW proposed by Sivakumar Babu et al. capacity; x and z are space coordinates. The biodegradation model is a
(2010a), and the modified model is shown in Eq. (21). two-stage anaerobic digestion model that contains two main on-site
[ ′ ] variables, volatile fatty acids (VFA) and methanogenic biomass (MB),
λc dp 2ηdη
and the controlling equations of the model are shown in Eqs. (28) and
′
d εv = + − kc bc Δp exp( − kc t)dt − kb εb exp( − kb t)dt
1 + e 0 p′ M 2 + η2
(29).
(21)
Feng et al. (2016) developed a constitutive model of MSW consid
ering the impact of biodegradation. The influence of biodegradation on
88
∂2 cv ∂2 cv qx ∂cv qy ∂cv ( ) k0 cv mc ∑[ ( ( ))]

(34)
′
Dc + Dc 2 − − + θe khy φexp − kvfa(cv ) − mSd = mdSi 1 − exp − ci fwater t
∂x 2 ∂z θ ∂z θ ∂z (kMC + cv ) Ys
∂cv
= where mSd is the solid mass loss at time t; mdSi is the initial mass of
∂t biodegradable component i; cʹi is the decomposition rate constant of
(28)
biodegradable component i; fwater is the water content factor. The fluid
flow model adopts an unsaturated–saturated flow model established by
∂2 mc ∂2 mc qx ∂mc qy ∂mc k0 c ∂mc
Dm + Dm 2 − − + mc − k2 mc = (29) the mass conservation equations of liquid and gas phases, as shown in
∂x 2 ∂z θ ∂z θ ∂z kMC + c ∂t
Eqs. (35) and (36).
where Dc is the VFA diffusion coefficient; cv is the concentration of ∂(ρw nSw ) ∂(ρw Vw )
volatile fatty acids; q is the advective flux; θe is the effective water = fw,t − (35)
∂t ∂z
content; khy is the maximum hydrolysis rate; φ is the relative di
( ) ( )
gestibility; kvfa is the product inhibition factor; k0 is the maximum spe ∂ ρg nSg ∂ ρg Vg
cific growth rate; kMC is the half saturation constant; mc is the = fg,t − (36)
∂t ∂z
concentration of methanogenic biomass; Ys is the substrate yield coef
ficient; Dm is the methanogenic biomass diffusion coefficient; k2 is the where fw,t is the source terms for liquid phase; fg,t is the source terms for
methanogen death rate. gas phase.
In the mechanical model, the elastic–plastic strain generated under The stress degradation compression model established by Chen et al.
load is predicted by the Modified Cam Clay model, the strain caused by (2010b) was used for the mechanical model, as shown in Eq. (13).
creep is predicted by the “equivalent time” model developed by Yin and Hubert et al. (2016) developed a thermo-hydro-biochemo-
Graham (1989), and the settlement due to biodegradation is predicted mechanical model to predict long-term settlement in bioreactor land
by the relationship between the void ratio and the void change fills. The biochemical model adopted the two-phase biochemical model
parameter. proposed by McDougall (2007), as shown in Eqs. (28) and (29). The
Hettiarachchi et al. (2009) developed a model that couples landfill hydraulic model is based on the Richards equation (Richards, 1931), as
settlement with the generation and dissipation of gas pressure and the shown in Eq. (37).
distribution of liquid. The settlement due to mechanical compression in ( )
∂ ρw nSr,w
the model is calculated by Eq. (30). + div(ρw fw ) = Qw (37)
∂t
′ ′
σ 0 + Δσ
(ΔZ)m = Zi C* log (30) where Sr,w is the water saturation degree; Qw is the injected flux; fw is the
σ′0
Darcy’s flow. The heat transfer equation is shown in Eq. (38).
where (ΔZ)m is the settlement caused by mechanical compression; Zi is ṠT + div(VT ) − QT = 0 (38)
the initial height of the landfill; C* is the compression ratio when Δσʹ
greater than0; C* is the expansion ratio when Δσ ʹ <0. The settlement due where ST is the heat storage; VT is the heat flux; QT is the heat production
to biodegradation is predicted by the first-order kinetic equation, as term. The chemical model used is a simplified version of the chemo-
shown in Eq. (31). hydro-mechanical (CHM) model proposed by Liu et al. (2005).
Reddy et al. (2017a) proposed a hydro-bio-mechanical model to
Msi ∑
4
fsj ( ( ))
(ΔZ)b = 1 − exp − kj t (31) study the complex hydraulic, mechanical, and biochemical processes
ρw j=1 Gsj
experienced by the MSW in bioreactor landfills. The mechanical model
uses a two-dimensional plane strain formulation of the Moore-Coulomb
where (ΔZ)b is the settlement caused by biodegradation; Msi is the mass plasticity model, as shown in Eq. (39).
of group i MSW solids; ρw is the density of the liquid phase. The moisture
distribution is represented by the Richards equation (Richards, 1931), as Δei = Δeei + Δepi i = 1, 3 (39)
shown in Eq. (32).
( ) where Δei is the total mechanical strain increment; Δeei is the elastic
∂θ ∂
= kw
∂h
+
∂kw
− W(t) (32) strain increment; Δepi is the plastic strain increment. The hydraulic
∂t ∂z ∂z ∂z model is based on the unsaturated Richards equation (Richards, 1931).
It analyses the interaction between liquid and gas in MSW. Eqs. (40) and
where kw is the unsaturated hydraulic conductivity; h is the matric po (41) are the constitutive relationships for the liquid and gas phases,
tential; W is the rate at which leachate is removed from or added to the respectively.
landfill. The effect of gas pressure on MSW settling is controlled using ( ) ( w )
the gas mass balance equation as shown in Eq. (33). n
Sw ∂Pw ∂Sw
+ = −
∂qi
+ Sw
∂ε
(40)
( ) Kw ∂t ∂t ∂xi ∂t
∂p ∂( ) Z ∂p ∂2 p RT
+ (Pa + p) lnZg = kg + D 2 + G (33) ( ) ( g )
∂t ∂t Zg ∂z ∂z mg Sg ∂Pg ∂Sg ∂qi ∂ε
n + = − + Sg (41)
Kg ∂t ∂t ∂xi ∂t
where p is the pressure beyond atmospheric pressure (relative pressure);
Pa is the atmospheric pressure; Z is the depth of landfill; Zg is the height where Kw and Kg are the fluid and gas bulk modulus; Pw is the pore water
of the gas phase; kg is the saturated gas conductivity of MSW; D is the pressure; qwi is the flow of liquid; ∂ε/∂t is the volumetric strain; Pg is the
diffusion coefficient; R is the gas constant; T is the average landfill g
pore gas pressure; qi is the flow of gas. The biodegradation model adopts
temperature; mg is the molar mass of the landfill gas; G is the rate of first-order kinetics for modelling, and the model is shown in Eq. (42).
generation of gas mass per unit volume of MSW.
Chen et al. (2012b) developed a coupled bio-hydro-mechanical q(t)CH4 = kb L0 Mexp( − kb t) (42)
model to study solid–liquid-gas interactions in MSW landfills and pre
dict the settlement. The biodegradation process in the model is where q(t)CH4 is the rate of methane generation at time t; L0 is the
described by a first-order kinetic equation, which also considers the biochemical methane potential; M is the total mass of MSW in the
effect of water content on biodegradation, as shown in Eq. (34). landfill.
89
Lu et al. (2019) developed a coupled bio-hydro-mechanical model where ki is the intrinsic permeability tensor; kr,w and kr,g are the relative
based on the three-phase consolidation theory and used it to study the permeability of the water and gas phases, respectively; μw and μg are the
interaction between fluid flow and MSW deformation in MSW landfills. viscosities of the water and gas phases, respectively; fw is the liquid mass
The biodegradation of MSW is described by a first-order degradation change of MSW; fg is the gas mass change of MSW. The mass conserva
model, according to which the source terms of leachate, landfill gas, and tion equation for the solutes (volatile fatty acids and methanogenic
solid skeleton can be expressed as Eq. (43), Eq. (44), and Eq. (45), biomass) is represented by Eq. (53).
respectively.
∂Si
∑
4 + Vw ∇Si − Dw ∇2 Si = f Si (i = 7, 8) (53)
Qw = ωρds Ai ci fwater exp( − ci f water t) (43) ∂t
where Si is the solute concentration in the pore water phase; Dw is the

i=1
∑
4 hydraulic diffusion coefficient; f Si is the dissolved VFA and MB mass
Qg = (1 − ω)ρds Ai ci fwater exp( − ci f water t) (44) concentration change.
i=1
The stress–strain relationship of MSW can be described by Eq. (54).
′ ( ′ )( t
)
∑
4 σ ( ′) ( ′ ′ ) σ Msd
Qs = ρds Ai ci fwater exp( − ci f water t) (45) ε = CC0 ’log ′ + εs∞ σ0 + CC∞ − CC0 log ′ 1− inl
(54)
i=1
σ0 σ0 Msd
where Qw, Qg and Qs are the leachate, gas and solid waste source terms, where CC0ʹ is the primary compression indicator for the fresh MSW; εs∞
respectively; ω is the reaction coefficient for water or leachate; ρds is the is the ultimate secondary compression strain of the fresh MSW; CC∞ʹ is
dry density of degradable waste; Ai and ci are the proportion and the the primary compression indicator for the fully decomposed MSW; Mtsd
decomposition rate constant of biodegradation component i, with i being and Minl
sd are the masses of the degradable solids of MSW at time t and at
1, 2, 3 and 4 to denote easily biodegradable, moderately biodegradable, the initial time, respectively.
hardly degradable and non-degradable MSW, respectively.
The mass conservation equations for the solid phase, liquid phase, 8. Discussion
and gas phase are shown in Eqs. (46), (47), and (48), respectively.
8.1. Advantages, disadvantages, and applicability of different settlement
∂((1 − n)ρs )
+ ∇⋅((1 − n)ρs Vs ) = Qs (46) models
∂t
∂(nSw ρw ) Based on the existing literature, Table 2 summarises the applica

+ ∇⋅(nSw ρw Vw ) = Qw (47) bility, advantages, and disadvantages of different types of settlement
∂t
models. The soil mechanics, rheological, and empirical models are early
( )
∂ nSg ρg ( ) models developed based on soil mechanics theory and field measured
+ ∇⋅ nSg ρg Vg = Qg (48) data. They have the advantages of using simple calculation formulae,
∂t
clear parameter meaning, and convenient application in practice.
where ρs is the density of the solid phase. The incremental equilibrium However, these models are mostly based on the study of conventional
equation for the representative element volume in the mechanical model soil, and do not consider the biodegradation reactions that occur in MSW
is shown in Eq. (49). landfills. Furthermore, in soil mechanics, soil particles are usually
[ ′ ′ ′ ] assumed to be incompressible, but MSW has a complex composition and
∇⋅ μ ∇(du) + μ ∇(du)T + λ Itr(∇(du) )
′ ′ ′ (49) will undergo large compression deformation after being deposited into a
= ∇⋅[2μ (dεne ) + λ Itr(dεne ) ] + ∇⋅(bIdp ) − dρg
landfill. The large amount of organic matter contained in MSW will
where μʹ and λʹ are the Lame constants; du is the displacement undergo complex biochemical reactions, and the capability to analyse
increment vector; dεne is the non-elastic strain increment; I is the unit these reactions is limited in these three types of models. In soil me
vector; g is the gravity vector. chanics models, the settlement of MSW landfills is usually divided into
Chen et al. (2020) developed a degradation-consolidation model of multiple stages, but it is difficult to accurately determine the demarca
MSW, which considers the coupling effects of municipal solid waste tion points of each stage in the application process. Rheological models
biodegradation, skeleton deformation, two-phase flow, and solutes do not inherently represent the characteristics of MSW landfills in terms
transport. The momentum balance equation for the effective stress of the of phased settlement and organic matter degradation and may produce
model is given in Eq. (50). inaccurate predictions as the forces applied to the landfill are highly
( ) ( ) ( ) variable. The empirical model does not reveal the settlement mechanism
∂u ∂ pg ∂pc ∂ρ
∇ Ds ∇ − ∇ αb χ I + ∇ αb χ I + g=0 (50) of the landfill. Furthermore, the model parameters need specific settle
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t ment data to obtain results and the physical significance of the results is
not obvious. The application also has certain limitations, and there are
where Ds is the stiffness matrix; u is the displacement vector; αb is the
cases where the long-term settlement of landfills is predicted to be too
Biot coefficient; pg is the gas pressure; χ is the Bishop coefficient; pc is the
high or too low.
capillary pressure. The mass balance equations for the water phase and
The biodegradation model can better describe the long-term settle
gas phase are expressed by Eqs. (51) and (52), respectively.
ment of MSW when it is under constant load and fully reflects the
( )
∂Sw ∂pc ∂u ∂n ki kr,w characteristics of MSW organic matter degradation. However, various
n c + Sw ∇ + Sw + ∇ − ρw w (∇(pg − pc ) + ρw g ) = f w
∂p ∂t ∂t ∂t μ factors affect the biodegradation settlement of MSW, and the degrada
(51) tion regulation is complex. Under the influence of different factors, the
biodegradation settlement of MSW landfills can change greatly. The
∂Sw ∂pc ∂ρg ∂pg ∂u ∂n research on the biodegradation regulation of MSW under different fac
− n + n(1 − Sw ) g + (1 − Sw )∇ + (1 − Sw )
∂pc ∂t ∂p ∂t ∂t ∂t tors is still in the initial stage, and most of the biodegradation models do
( ) (52) not consider the influence of environmental factors. To accurately pre
ki kr,g ( )
+∇ − ρg g ∇pg + ρg g
μ
= fg dict the settlement of MSW landfills, it is necessary to strengthen the
research on the biodegradation laws of MSW under the influence of
90
Table 2 response of MSW. However, the calculation of the constitutive model is

Applicability, advantages, and disadvantages of different settlement models. more complex, contains multiple model parameters, and is difficult to
Applicability Advantages Disadvantages apply in practice. The constitutive model proposed by Machado et al.
(2009) can take into account the effects of mechanical creep and
Soil mechanics Suitable for Clear parameter Poorly revealed
models conventional dry meaning, simple settlement biodegradation on MSW landfills and provides a more comprehensive
landfills. calculation, and mechanism, picture of the long-term stress–strain relationship of MSW. In addition,
wide application. especially the model can consider the effect of fibrous reinforcement on the me
mechanical creep chanical properties of MSW. However, this model requires many pa
and biodegradation;
difficult to
rameters, and there is no unified standard for the selection of parameter
determine the cut- α*. The values of α* of MSW at different ages and components are
off point for each different, which requires further research. The model proposed by
stage. Sivakumar Babu et al. (2010a) uses the Modified Cambridge Model as
Rheological Suitable for The model can Inherently does not
the basic framework to consider the effects of mechanical creep and
models evaluating reflect the stress- reflect the
stress-related related settlement characteristics of biodegradation on the mechanical properties of MSW and integrates
settlement. very well. MSW landfills in these two factors into the Modified Cambridge Model. However, the
terms of phased model fails to consider the reinforcing effect of fibrous material on MSW
settlement and and the model uses a first order kinetic model to calculate
organic matter
degradation, and
biodegradation-induced settlement, which cannot take into account
therefore may complex biodegradation reactions and processes. Feng et al. (2016)
produce inaccurate described the effect of biodegradation on the mechanical properties of
predictions. MSW by introducing biodegradation-induced pore change parameters
Empirical Suitable for early The formula is The model
into the model, thereby explaining the changes in the properties of MSW
models settlement simple, has fewer parameters require
prediction for a model parameters, specific landfill during long-term biodegradation. However, the model does not consider
specific landfill. and is easy to settlement data to the effect of mechanical creep on the settlement of MSW landfills. In
apply in practice. obtain results; the summary, the existing constitutive models that can be used for landfill
physical settlement calculations mainly consider load-induced transient defor
significance of the
mation, mechanical creep, biodegradation and the reinforcing effect of
model parameters is
not obvious; may fibrous material. However, all these models only partially consider these
produce inaccurate factors. In the future there is still a need to develop a simple, compre
predictions. hensive MSW constitutive model to study landfill settlement.
Biodegradation Suitable for The model can Most
The multi-phase coupling model is suitable for studying the rela
models bioreactor better describe the biodegradation
landfills and long-term models do not tionship between complex multi-field interactions and settlement in
landfills with settlement of MSW consider the landfills. The model can consider hydraulic, mechanical, chemical,
high organic under constant influence of thermal, and biological processes and their interactions, giving insights
matter content. load and fully environmental into the connection between micro and macro particles, and making
reflect the factors.
more accurate predictions of settlement. However, the model has many
characteristics of
MSW organic calculation formulas and parameters meaning the calculation is more
matter complicated, and complex nonlinear differential equations will be
degradation. generated in the calculation process, which is difficult to apply in
Constitutive Suitable for It can reflect The calculation is
practice. As previously shown, Durmusoglu et al. (2005) developed a
models studying multiple more complex and
stress–strain settlement contains many
one-dimensional gas–liquid-solid multiphase coupled model that can
response in mechanisms; the model parameters, estimate the settlement due to gas and liquid variations in landfills.
landfills. relationship which is more However, the model uses a viscoelastic approach to account for the
between stability difficult to apply in deformation of the solid matrix over time, and this approach does not
and deformation of practice.
capture the settlement resulting from biodegradation. The HBM model
landfill structures
can be studied. proposed by McDougall (2007) allows for the interaction between
Multiphase Suitable for Complex multi- The model will water, biodegradation and mechanics in landfills. However, the model
coupling studying field coupling produce complex does not consider the effect of pore gas pressure and gas flow on set
models complex multi- effects in landfills nonlinear
tlement. Hettiarachchi et al. (2009), Chen et al. (2012b), Reddy et al.
field interactions can be considered; differential
in landfills. links between equations, the
(2017a) and Lu et al. (2019) have developed their own coupled bio-
micro and macro calculation is more hydro-mechanical models, which can consider the interactions be
particles are complex and tween leachate flow, landfill gas flow and waste deformation. However,
considered. contains many these models do not consider the effects of environmental factors, such
model parameters,
as temperature, pH, etc. The model proposed by Hubert et al. (2016)
which is more
difficult to apply in describes the thermal, hydraulic, mechanical and biodegradation
the practical behaviour in landfills. However, the model does not consider creep-
process. induced strain in its settlement predictions. In addition, the model
does not consider the effect of pore gas pressure and gas flow on set
tlement. The degradation-consolidation model proposed by Chen et al.
different factors.
(2020) allows for the consideration of solid to liquid to gas in
The constitutive model is established based on a soil mechanical
terconversions in landfills, which are related to compression of MSW,
constitutive model considering both mechanical and biodegradation
hydraulic and solute transport, and changes in the pore volume. How
characteristics of MSW. The model can reflect multiple settlement
ever, the model assumes that solid particles are incompressible and that
mechanisms and is suitable for studying the stress–strain response in
pore water and pore gas are continuous, which does not correspond to
MSW landfills. The relationship between the stability and deformation
the actual situation in the landfill. In addition, the model does not
of landfill structures can also be studied based on the stress–strain
consider the influence of environmental factors. The models developed
91
in the above research consider mainly mechanical, hydraulic, gaseous, 9. Summary and perspectives
chemical, thermal and biological processes, but these consider only
some of the processes or simply superimpose several processes, without This article systematically reviews the current status of research on
a comprehensive consideration of the coupling between the various settlement models for MSW landfills, including the composition char
processes. acteristics of MSW, settlement mechanism of landfills, influencing fac
tors of settlement, general research methods of settlement, and common
8.2. Limitations of existing studies settlement models. The applicability and advantages and disadvantages
of different types of settlement models and their associated limitations
In recent decades, researchers have developed a variety of models were discussed. In general, the research of these models has expanded
that have expanded our understanding of the settlement process in MSW the understanding of the settlement process of MSW landfills to a certain
landfills. However, existing models still have some limitations in their extent, but no model can fully describe the various behaviours of the
methods as well as in the model building process. settlement process. Therefore, a comprehensive, simple, and reliable
Laboratory tests are the most common research method to study the settlement model is needed to predict the settlement of MSW landfills.
settlement problems of MSW landfills, but most of them have some Regarding further research work, we believe that the following aspects
limitations. In terms of test instruments, as shown in Table 1, most of the need further research and improvement:
existing ones are small in size, which means that test results do not
reflect the real situation. Furthermore, due to the limitation of the in (1) Further carry out large-scale laboratory MSW settlement tests to
strument size, most of these tests can only study one-dimensional ver accumulate and optimize model parameters. Test samples should
tical settlement and ignore the spatial variation (horizontal and be guaranteed in-situ as much as possible so that test results could
inhomogeneous settlement) in the landfill settlement process. In the case accurately reflect the specific conditions of the MSW landfill.
of the test samples, they are usually treated to fit the size of the test Meanwhile, the research on the coupled settlement behaviour of
apparatus before conducting tests. This destroys the originality of the MSW under the action of multiple complex factors should be
samples and means that some characteristics of MSW are not repre strengthened to accumulate long-term coupling data, and estab
sented in the tests. In addition, some researchers use samples synthe lish a reliable multiphase coupling model to describe the settle
sized in the laboratory for tests, which are significantly different from ment process of MSW landfill.
the MSW on-site. In terms of test time, the laboratory test is usually (2) Research on the constitutive properties of MSW should be
carried out for a short time (about 3 years), while the settlement of MSW enhanced to develop constitutive models that can accurately
landfill usually lasts for a long time (about 20 to 30 years), meaning that describe the elastic–plastic, mechanical creep and biodegradation
the laboratory test does not reflect long-term characteristics of the behaviour of MSW as well as the fibre reinforcement behaviour.
landfill. In addition, test data on the long-term coupling behaviour of In addition, the relationship between MSW shear strength and
MSW are still insufficient. deformation should be investigated.
Certain parameters will be used to establish a settlement model. The (3) Settlement observation work should be carried out on existing
values of these parameters are usually determined by laboratory tests or landfill under controlled conditions to accumulate on-site actual
on-site monitoring data, and some parameters cannot be measured measurement data and establish a corresponding database for
directly, so empirical values are usually used. Due to the non-uniformity optimization of the settlement model.
and anisotropy of MSW and the series of physicochemical and biodeg (4) Strengthen the research on the biodegradation settlement regu
radation reactions that occur after landfilling, the parameters used in the lations of MSW landfills, study the biodegradation settlement
settlement model are highly variable during the settlement process. characteristics of MSW landfills under the influence of different
Chen et al. (2009) found, through laboratory tests, that parameters such factors, and also consider these characteristics in the settlement
as void ratio and modified primary compression index of MSW decrease modelling process.
with increasing depth of landfill. Mokhtari et al. (2019) conducted (5) The parameters taken in the modelling process of the MSW
compressibility tests on MSW at different landfill ages using a consoli landfill settlement model have certain specificity, and the
dation instrument and found that the compressibility of MSW and the research on the parameters used in the settlement model should
corresponding parameters vary with increasing landfill age. In addition, be strengthened to make the prediction of the settlement model
with the development of new technologies and the change of local more accurate.
government policies, the parameters of MSW will also change. However, (6) MSW is an environmental geotechnical material with an unde
most existing models usually do not consider the variation of these pa fined composition, resulting in ambiguity and simplification in
rameters in the modelling process, but use a single value to define the the settlement analysis. In many cases, it is difficult to predict the
parameters throughout the settlement process (Wall and Zeiss, 1995). settlement accurately by using conventional mechanical and
Sivakumar Babu et al. (2011) found through their study that variation in numerical modelling methods. Predictive analysis based on arti
settlement model parameters can have a significant effect on settlement ficial intelligence and big data provides an effective method to
results, and the predicted values of settlement can vary significantly deal with the problems of vague definitions, uncertain and
using different values of model parameters. Therefore, high-quality incomplete data, and research in this area should be
model parameters are of great value for accurately predicting the set strengthened.
tlement of MSW landfills.
Complex physical, chemical, and biodegradation reactions occur Declaration of Competing Interest
after MSW is landfilled. The occurrence of these reactions releases heat,
generates leachate and landfill gas, and is accompanied by the occur The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
rence of landfill settlement. All these reactions interact and influence interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
one another. However, existing studies only simulate one or several the work reported in this paper.
aspects of the landfill settlement in the settlement modelling process and
do not comprehensively explain all the reactions occurring in the pro Acknowledgments
cess and do not incorporate the heterogeneous and anisotropic nature of
MSW. In addition, the modelling process of existing settlement models This research was funded by the National Natural Science Founda
seldom considers the influence of environmental factors, which can tion of China (Contract Nos. 51978625 and 51678532), supported by
significantly affect the settlement process of MSW landfills. the Zhejiang Provincial Natural Science Foundation of China under
92
Grant No. LZ21E080003, and Key research and development plan of Chen, Y.M., Xu, W.J., Ling, D.S., Zhan, L.T., Gao, W., 2020. A degradation–consolidation
model for the stabilization behavior of landfilled municipal solid waste. Comput.
Zhejiang Province under Grant No. 2021C02039.
Geotech. 118, 103341. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2019.103341.
Chouksey, S.K., Sivakumar Babu, G., Reddy, K.R., 2012. Settlement analysis of MSW
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95

Settlement of MSW Landfill

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Waste Management 149 (2022) 79–95

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

A review on settlement models of municipal solid waste landfills

in various regions, the composition of MSW is diverse, heterogeneous,

Note: MBT- Mechanical biological treatment; H- Height; D- Diameter; L- Length; W- Width.

where S is the settlement of the landfill; H0 is the initial height of the

where Cʹα1 is the intermediate modified secondary compression index;

of empirical models are usually determined for specific landfills and ( )

where εcb is the ultimate strain due to mechanical creep compression

∂2 cv ∂2 cv qx ∂cv qy ∂cv ( ) k0 cv mc ∑[ ( ( ))]

where Si is the solute concentration in the pore water phase; Dw is the

∂(nSw ρw ) Based on the existing literature, Table 2 summarises the applica

Table 2 response of MSW. However, the calculation of the constitutive model is

You might also like

Settlement of MSW Landfill

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Settlement of MSW Landfill

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Settlement of MSW Landfill

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Waste Management 149 (2022) 79–95

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

A review on settlement models of municipal solid waste landfills

in various regions, the composition of MSW is diverse, heterogeneous,

Note: MBT- Mechanical biological treatment; H- Height; D- Diameter; L- Length; W- Width.

where S is the settlement of the landfill; H0 is the initial height of the

where Cʹα1 is the intermediate modified secondary compression index;

of empirical models are usually determined for specific landfills and ( )

where εcb is the ultimate strain due to mechanical creep compression

∂2 cv ∂2 cv qx ∂cv qy ∂cv ( ) k0 cv mc ∑[ ( ( ))]

where Si is the solute concentration in the pore water phase; Dw is the

∂(nSw ρw ) Based on the existing literature, Table 2 summarises the applica­

Table 2 response of MSW. However, the calculation of the constitutive model is

You might also like

∂(nSw ρw ) Based on the existing literature, Table 2 summarises the applica