Teaching and Teacher Education 104 (2021) 103388

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Teaching and Teacher Education

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/tate

Review article

Teachers’ perceptions of emotional display rules in schools: A

systematic review
Kristabel Stark*, Elizabeth Bettini
Boston University, 2 Silber Way Boston, MA, 02215, USA

h i g h l i g h t s

Teachers' perceptions of display rules, shaped by identity and context, are a fundamental aspect of teachers' affective experiences and professional
outcomes.

Gender, sexual identity, role, school culture, school level, and momentary physical location shape teachers' perceptions of display rules.

Teachers conform to perceived display rules to provide emotional support, foster academic development, and show professional competency.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Display rulesdnorms regarding the expression of emotion in professional settingsddrive teachers' in-
Received 20 October 2020 ternal regulation of external emotional displays, and therefore have important implications for teachers'
Received in revised form professional success. In this systematic review, we synthesize the findings of 32 studies examining
10 May 2021
teachers' perceptions of the display rules of teaching, and their perceptions of the display rules' functions
Accepted 11 May 2021
Available online 29 May 2021
in schools. We find that teachers' identities and contexts shape their perceptions of display rules; further,
we find teachers perceive display rules as a means to provide appropriate emotional support to students,
to foster students’ academic development, and to position themselves as competent professionals.
Keywords:
Display rules
© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Emotional labor
Emotional regulation
Teacher socialization
Teacher professionalism

Contents

1. Conceptual framework: integrating the individual and organizational factors shaping emotional regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. Inclusion criteria screening stage 1: K12 teacher sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. Inclusion criteria screening stage 2: data regarding perceptions of display rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3. Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.1. Overview of the studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2. Teachers’ perceptions of the display rules in their schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3. Universal display rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.4. Teachers perceive display rules as dependent on their identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.5. Teachers perceive display rules as dependent on context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.6. Teachers’ perceptions regarding the function of display rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.7. Providing appropriate emotional support to students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.8. Fostering students’ academic development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.9. Positioning oneself as professionally competent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (K. Stark), [email protected] (E. Bettini).

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K. Stark and E. Bettini Teaching and Teacher Education 104 (2021) 103388

4. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.1. Future research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

Though the work of teaching evokes a wide variety of emotional also costs teachers significant cognitive resources, which limit their
responses (Keller et al., 2014; Taxer & Frenzel, 2015), teachers do capacity to apply these resources to other aspects of their jobs
not display all of the emotions they naturally feel, instead engaging (Muraven & Baumeister, 2000). Such emotional demands of
in a wide range of emotional regulation strategies (Sutton 2004, teaching can lead to emotional exhaustion (Tuxford & Bradley,
2009; Taxer & Gross, 2018). For example, a teacher may feel angry 2015) and decreased self-efficacy (Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2014). For
at a student's noncompliance and want to yell in frustration, but example, Kinman et al. (2011) found that teachers who reported
instead choose to redirect the student with a steady voice and calm engaging in more emotional labor to conform to display rules also
face. On a different occasion, a teacher may feel a desire to laugh out reported higher levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonal-
loud at a child's humorous comment in class, but instead put on a ization (components of burnout), as well as weaker job satisfaction
stern face and refocus the class on the instructional activity. (though social support moderated these effects).
In professional organizations, implicit or explicit norms Previous research has clearly established that school display
regarding how employees are expected to feel and display emotion rules have important implications, by demonstrating the effects of
drive many of these decisions. Sociologist Arlie Hochschild first various emotional labor strategies in which teachers engage in
documented how workers engage in emotional labor, or “the response to these rules. However, the ways in which teachers
management of feeling to create a publicly observable facial and respond to display rules depends on both their perceptions of what
bodily display” (Hochschild, 1983, p. 7) in order to conform to these display rules are, as well as their understanding of purposes they
professional norms. Researchers have used the term display rules to believe the display rules serve. By definition, display rules are
describe institutional norms regarding whether expression of intrinsic to particular organizations, yet researchers have not sys-
certain emotions is acceptable within the context of one's profes- tematically reviewed the ways in which teachers' identities and
sional work (Rafaeli & Sutton, 1989). Display rules can be positive, contexts shape their perceptions of display rules and the functions
such as [do] “Smile!” or [do]“Make eye contact!” (i.e., the they serve. Therefore, in this review, we examine the specific as-
requirement to perform particular emotions) or negative, such as pects of teachers’ identities and contexts which shape their per-
“Do not yell!” or “Do not cry!” (i.e., the prohibition of particular ceptions of school display rules.
emotional displays); and, they may be explicitly provided to em-
ployees during training or implicitly reinforced by an organization's
1. Conceptual framework: integrating the individual and
culture (Christoforou & Ashforth, 2015; Diefendorf & Richard,
organizational factors shaping emotional regulation
2003). Some researchers further distinguish between feeling rules
and display rules; feeling rules are norms requiring how workers
For this analysis, we draw on a sociocultural theory of emotional
should feel internally, regardless of their external displays of
appraisal to conceptualize teachers' emotional regulation processes
emotions, whereas display rules specify what emotions should be
(Ahmed, 2014; Markus & Kitayama, 1994). As such, we view
publicly displayed (Hochschild, 1983).
teachers' emotional expressions as shaped by the cultural mean-
In response to perceived display rules, researchers have found
ings they ascribe to particular emotional experiences, and the
that workers often engage in two emotional regulation strategies:
norms which shape these experiences. Whereas many studies of
deep acting and surface acting (Hochschild, 1979). Deep acting is
teachers' emotional labor address which particular strategies
conceptualized as reappraisal or reconsidering the antecedents of
teachers use to regulate their emotions, in this study, we address
the emotion to actually experience a different emotion; surface
the ways in which teachers' situated identities within organizations
acting is conceptualized as suppressiondhiding or faking emotions
shape the belief that they need to regulate their emotions. Our
(Grandey, 2000). Two recent reviews of quantitative research on
review provides a summary of the empirical evidence regarding
teachers’ emotional labor provide compelling evidence that
teachers’ perceptions of display rules in the context of schools,
teachers engage in both surface and deep acting on a regular basis,
building on existing theory regarding the presence and impact of
and that engaging in emotional labor strategies has important
display rules across various types of organizations.
implications for their professional success (Wang, 2019; Yin, 2019).
Importantly, an investigation of the factors that shape teachers'
On an individual level, conforming to display rules can help
perceptions of display rules (in contrast to prior investigations of
teachers to sustain the positive classroom climate necessary for
teachers' use of particular emotional labor strategies to meet those
student achievement (Evans et al., 2009; Thapa et al., 2013). Feeling
display rules) moves the focus of teacher emotional labor research
that they are successfully navigating emotions through the use of
from the individual teacher's experiences to an examination of how
emotional labor strategies may also contribute to teachers' sense of
the norms of the school organization, as a collective, may impact
personal accomplishment (Brackett et al., 2010; Kinman et al.,
various teachers within an organization in diverse ways. Whereas
2011). On an organizational level, employees’ emotional displays
much research on teachers' emotional regulation provides impor-
can affect the overall culture of the organization in which they
tant insight into the experiences of individual teachers, research on
work. Because emotions are contagious (Hatfield et al., 1994), when
the display rules in schools can provide insight into the
teachers engage in the emotional labor necessary to express more
organization-wide affective cultures in which teachers work.
positive emotions, this may result in the spread of positive emotion
Jakhelln (2011) notes, “Emotional conventions or rules can be un-
within the school culture (Ashkanasy & Ha €rtel, 2014; Barsade,
derstood as a strategy to cope with challenges of daily work, but
2002).
also provide an effective and invisible way of developing confor-
However, despite the potential benefits of emotional labor,
mity …” (p. 278) and contends that these rules thus require inter-
regulating emotional expressions to conform with display rules
rogation. Therefore, for this study, we conducted a systematic
2
K. Stark and E. Bettini Teaching and Teacher Education 104 (2021) 103388

literature review to address the following questions: which teachers felt they needed to conform to display rules, but did
not report on their perceptions of the type of displays rules to
1) How do teachers' specific identities and organizational contexts which they needed to conform. For qualitative studies, we included
shape their perceptions of the display rules in their schools? any studies in which the researcher directly asked about display
2) What do teachers perceive as the function of display rules in rules, as well as studies in which teachers’ perceptions of display
schools? rules were discussed in the findings.
Regardless of study method, included studies had to specifically
address teachers' emotions in the context of display rules, not just
2. Method their emotional experiences. They also had to explicitly address the
reasons teachers engage in emotional labor, by articulating teach-
To respond to our research questions, we conducted a system- ers' perceptions of the nature and/or function of display rules.
atic search of extant research. To identify all literature pertaining to Studies that measured the frequency of teachers' discrete emotions
the display rules guiding the emotional labor of teaching, we con- (e.g., Taxer & Frenzel, 2015) were excluded as they did not address
ducted a full text database search for peer-reviewed, English-lan- the professional impetus for teachers' regulation of these emotions.
guage articles using the words (teacher* or educator*) AND Studies that measured the frequency with which teachers sup-
(“emotional labor” OR “emotional labour”) and (“display rules” OR pressed, evoked, or genuinely expressed emotions, but did not
“feeling rules”) within the following databases: ERIC, Academic provide detail on what display rules they were responding to or
Search Premier, Business Source Complete, APA Psycinfo, Education why they were responding in a certain manner were also excluded
Full Text, and ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global, in December (i.e., Sutton, 2004). Studies that examined emotional regulation but
2020. We specified full text for all databases except dissertations, did not use emotional labor theory as their conceptual foundation
for which we specified that “emotional labor” or “emotional la- were also excluded (e.g., Taxer & Gross, 2018). Some studies
bour” must be a key word, due to the breadth of topics typically demonstrated correlations between leadership styles, job de-
reviewed in a dissertation; in total, we identified 348 unique arti- mands, or teachers’ personalities and their emotional labor, but
cles from the databases. After the database search, we then per- these were also excluded because they did not provide insights into
formed two rounds of screening on these articles to determine what the display rules were or what function those display rules
whether they met inclusion criteria for the review. were serving (e.g., Zheng et al., 2018).
Both peer reviewed studies and doctoral dissertations were
2.1. Inclusion criteria screening stage 1: K12 teacher sample eligible for inclusion. If a dissertation had been published as a peer-
reviewed article, we excluded it, including the peer-reviewed
In the first round of coding, the first author screened all the article instead of the dissertation (e.g., Edwards, 2016); we also
articles by reading the abstracts and, when necessary, the methods excluded master's level theses that had not been published. We set
sections, of the 348 unique articles to assess whether the article no limits regarding the country in which the study was conducted,
included data gathered from preservice or in-service K-12 teachers. though we did endeavor to attend to cultural differences in
Because this study explores teachers’ perceptions of display rules, emotional labor display rules and rationales in our analysis. We
only studies that collected empirical data from teachers were note that due to our limited fluency in other languages, we were
included in the review. To be included in our review, studies had to only able to review studies published in Englishdthough we do not
address the emotional labor of K-12 teachers. Studies that wish to negate the value of research published in other languages
addressed the emotional labor of professors (e.g., El-Alayli et al., addressing display rules of teaching.
2018), daycare workers, or preschool teachers (e.g., Fu, 2015) At both stages of inclusion criteria screening, the second author
were excluded, as the organizational structures, educational pur- double coded 20% of the articles, with inter-rater reliability at 91%
poses, and professional responsibilities of university and early for the first round and 85% for the second round; we reviewed all
childhood contexts are significantly different from K-12 schools and articles for which there was disagreement and came to consensus.
may result in different display rules for different purposes. Studies After finalizing the list of articles from the databases (n ¼ 30), the
that included other staff members, besides teachers, were included, first author cross-checked our list of included articles with the ar-
unless the study did not measure or disaggregate teachers (e.g., ticles included in the reference lists of Wang (2019) and Yin (2019)
Maxwell & Riley, 2017). In addition, non-empirical articles (e.g., (e.g., an ancestry search), to ensure that we had not missed any
Landhal, 2014) were excluded. In total, there were 119 articles relevant articles. In addition, the first author used Google Scholar to
retained, in which the samples were comprised of K-12 teachers. review all articles in which included articles were cited (e.g. a
progeny search), to check if there were any additional articles
2.2. Inclusion criteria screening stage 2: data regarding perceptions which met inclusion criteria. In both the ancestry and progeny
of display rules search, the first author used the same screening procedures
described above, first reviewing article abstracts and/or methods
In the second stage of screening, the first author examined the sections for K12 samples, then for content regarding teachers’
full text of each remaining article to determine whether the article perceptions of display rules. We identified two additional studies
addressed teachers' perceptions of their schools' display rules. (Hannagan, 2018; Ybema & van Dam, 2014) outside of the database
Studies were first categorized by the nature of their data collection search. The results of our search and coding are visualized in Fig. 1
instrument (e.g. whether a survey or interview protocol was used below; in total, we included 32 articles in our review.
to gather teachers' perceptions of display rules). To be included,
studies using a survey instrument needed to include data on the
nature or function of display rules, not just the extent to which 2.3. Analysis
teachers felt they needed to conform to display rules (e.g., Cheung
et al., 2011). Many studies were excluded at this stage because they After finalizing the corpus of studies, we analyzed the data using
measured teachers' use of particular emotional labor strategies (e.g. both deductive and inductive coding cycles (Saldan ~ a, 2015). First,
surface acting, deep acting), but did not measure why teachers used the first author created an organizational matrix with data
them; similarly, many were excluded which measured the extent to regarding each study's design, including the theoretical framework,
3
K. Stark and E. Bettini Teaching and Teacher Education 104 (2021) 103388

Fig. 1. Search procedures.

research questions, sampling strategy, sample characteristics, data emotional display rules are affected by both personal and social
collection instrument and method, and data analysis method; the aspects of their professional experiences. As former K12 special
authors conferred on which aspects of study designs would be educators and current teacher educators, we are both intimately
relevant to the research questions and discussed how the research familiar with the ways in which our own emotions while teaching
designs informed what findings we could draw from the data. are shaped by organizational and professional norms. We practiced
During this step, we examined the extent to which researchers reflexivity by considering our own biases and beliefs as we devel-
were transparent about their research process, such that readers oped themes, and by returning to the articles to look for confirming
might “trace their logic of inquiry” (AERA 2006, p. 38), by noting the and disconfirming evidence of the emerging themes. To address the
specific strategies authors reported using to justify the credibility robustness of the emergent themes, the second author examined
and/or validity of their findings. In doing so, our aim was to sum- ten of the articles for 1) disconfirming evidence of the themes, and
marize the aggregated evidence across all studies more credibly, 2) findings that were relevant to one of the research questions but
rather than to suggest that certain analytic methods are more or did not fall under any of the themes identified by the first author.
less warranted for inquiries into teachers' display rules. The second author did not find disconfirming evidence of the
Next, the first author used structural coding (Saldan ~ a, 2013) to themes, nor did she identify additional themes. However, she did
index findings and quotes that were relevant to each of the two identify additional relevant quotes and offered several suggestions
research questions. The first author then engaged in two separate regarding subtheme organization. The authors agreed to restruc-
thematic analyses for excerpts coded as types of display rules and ture subthemes accordingly and draw on the new quotes as
those coded perceived functions of display rules. During this process, evidence.
the influence of teachers’ identities and contexts on their percep-
tions of display rules emerged as prominent; as a result, excerpts
were coded into subthemes based on identity, such as gender, role, 3. Findings
and sexuality. For the second research question, it became clear
that teachers perceived display rules as serving both adult-facing 3.1. Overview of the studies
and student-facing outcomes; subthemes emerged through itera-
tive rounds of coding. Tables 1 and 2 provide a summary of the study designs for the 32
Throughout our analysis, we relied on our sociocultural studies included in this review. Although these studies represent
conception of emotion to examine how teachers’ perceptions of nationally diverse samples, none addressed relationships between
participants' ethnic identities and their experiences of display rules.
4
K. Stark and E. Bettini Teaching and Teacher Education 104 (2021) 103388

Table 1
Qualitative studies included in our review.

Citation Country Scopea N Levelb Content % Datae Analytical Methodf Efforts to Establish Trustworthiness and Credibility Validity &
Areac Femd Reliabilityg

Member Positionality Peer External Triangulation of

Checks Statement/ Debriefing/ Auditing Multiple Data
Reflexivity Reliability Sources

Acheson et al. (2016) U.S.A. SS 5 S Foreign 100% I TA: inductive & x

language deductive
Bryan-Zaykov U.K. SS 6 S Mixed 67% I Grounded theory x x
(2012)
Cribbs (2015) U.S.A. SS 26 P & S Mixed 77% S&I TA: inductive x
Edwards (2016) U.K. MD 14 P Mixed 71% I TA: deductive x
Hargreaves (2001) Canada MD 53 P & S Mixed Not I TA: inductive
stated
Hebson et al. (2007) England MD 26 P & S Mixed 73% I TA: deductive
Horner et al. (2020) U.S.A. MS 68 P & S Mixed 84% I&S Grounded theory x x x
Hosotani and Imai- Japan SS 24 P &S Mixed 33% I Grounded theory x x
Matsumura
(2011)
Isenbarger and U.S.A. SS 1 P Mixed 100% I, O & A Grounded theory x x x x
Zembylas (2006)
Jakhelln (2011) Norway SS 3 S Mixed 66% I, O & A TA: inductive and x
deductive
Kang, 2020 South SS 1 P EFL 100% I, O & A TA: inductive x x
Korea
Kerr & Brown (2016) U.S.A. SD 19 P & S Special 95% I Grounded theory x x
education
Kitching (2009) Ireland NR 39 P Mixed Not I&A TA: inductive
stated
LeBlanc (2018) U.S.A. SS 1 S English 100% I&O Discourse analysis x x
Loh and Liew (2016) Singapore MD 10 S English Not I&A TA: inductive x
stated
Mackenzie, 2012 U.K. MD 44 P & S Special 95% Focus TA: inductive
education groups
Mawhinney (2008) U.S.A. SS 28 P Mixed Not I & O TA: inductive & x
stated content analysis
Neary et al. (2016) Ireland MD 15 P & S Mixed Not I & A Not described
stated
O'Toole (2017) New SD 20 P Mixed 85% I TA: inductive
Zealand
O'Connor (2008) Australia MS 3 S Humanities 66% I Phenomenological
analysis
Rayner and Espinoza England MS 16 P & S Mixed 69% I & O & TA: inductive & x
(2016) A deductive
Soto (2011) U.S.A. SS 6 S Mixed 83% I & O TA: inductive x x x
Winograd (2003) U.S.A. SS 1 P Generalist 0% A Bio. Analysis x x
Yin et al. (2012) China MS 25 S Mixed Not I & A TA: inductive x x
stated
Yin et al. (2016) China MS 8 S Mixed Not I & O & TA: deductive and x x x
stated A inductive
Zembylas (2004) U.S.A. SS 1 P Science 100% I & O & TA x x x
A
a
SS ¼ single school; MS ¼ multiple schools w/in single district; MD ¼ multiple schools in multiple districts.
b
S ¼ secondary (9e12); P ¼ primary (k-8).
c
Content area of teachers in sample, if provided.
d
% Female; rounded to the nearest 1%; none of the studies reported nonbinary genders.
e
I ¼ interview; S ¼ survey; O ¼ observations; A ¼ artifacts.
f
TA ¼ thematic analysis; SEM ¼ structural equation modeling; CFA ¼ confirmatory factor analysis.
g
There are other steps researchers could have taken (e.g., extensive field engagement, building rapport); this is not intended to be comprehensive, and researchers are not
expected to use all these methods simultaneously.

In addition, although display rules are specific to particular orga- themselves (i.e., member checking), and transparency regarding
nizations (Christoforou & Ashforth, 2015), only 13 studies drew researchers' own identities (i.e., positionality), which might inform
participants from a single school. The majority of studies were their understanding of participants. However, we found that only
qualitative studies using interview or focus group data; as shown in 12 of the qualitative studies included a positionality statement;
Tables 1 and 2, efforts to establish validity and reliability (for only 9 provided participants with an opportunity to review the
quantitative studies) or trustworthiness and credibility (for quali- manuscript (member checking).
tative studies) varied significantly across the studies. For example,
given the intrinsic importance of identity in one's perception of
3.2. Teachers’ perceptions of the display rules in their schools
display rules, we specifically looked for two types of strategies used
to establish the credibility of claims regarding participants' iden-
As shown in Table 3, the majority of studies indicated that
tities: verification of researchers' claims by the participants
teachers perceive the display rules of teaching as dynamic and
5
K. Stark and E. Bettini Teaching and Teacher Education 104 (2021) 103388

Table 2
Quantitative studies included in our review.

Citation Country Scope N Level Content Experience % Fem Data Analytical Method Efforts to Establish Validity & Reliability

Reported Used an Reported Used Cognitive

Factor Expert Scale Interviews and/or
Structure Panel Reliability Focus Groups

Barber et al. U.S.A. MD 659 P & S Mixed Mixed 87% S Descriptives, correlations, x
(2010) group comparison, CFA/SEM
Brown et al. U.S.A. MD 468 P & S Mixed Mixed 79% S Descriptives, correlations, x x
(2014) group comparison & content
analysis
Hannagan U.S.A. SS 22 P Mixed Mixed Not S & Descriptives, group x
(2018) stated A comparisons, TA, content
analysis
Lee et al. U.S.A. MD 403 S Physical Mixed 36% S Descriptives & group x x
(2018) education comparisons
Ybema and Netherlands MD 220 P & S Mixed Mixed 49% S SEM, CFA x
van Dam
(2014)
Valenti et al. U.S.A. MD 61 P & S Special Mixed 75% S Multilevel models x
(2019) education

Table 3
Perceptions of display rules by article.

Perceived Types of Display Rules Perceived Functions of Display Rules

Article Universal Norms for Identity- Context- Position Oneself as a Provide Emotional Foster Students' Academic
Teaching Dependent Dependent Competent Professional Support to Students Development
Norms Norms

Acheson et al. (2016) x x x x

Barber et al. (2010) x x x x
Brown et al. (2014) x x
Bryan-Zaykov (2012) x x x x
Cribbs (2015) x x
Edwards (2016) x x
Hannagan (2018) x x x
Hargreaves (2001) x
Hebson et al. (2007) x
Horner et al. (2020) x x x
Hosotani and Imai- x x
Matsumura (2011)
Isenbarger and Zembylas x
(2006)
Jakhelln (2011) x x
Kang, 2020 x
Kerr & Brown (2016) x x x
Kitching (2009) x
LeBlanc (2018) x x
Lee et al. (2018) x
Loh and Liew (2016) x x
Mackenzie, 2012 x x
Mawhinney (2008) x
Neary et al. (2016) x x
O'Toole (2017) x x
O'Connor (2008) x x x x
Rayner and Espinoza x x x
(2016)
Soto (2011) x x
Valenti et al. (2019) x
Winograd (2003) x x x x x
Ybema & van Dam, 2013 x
Yin et al. (2012) x x x x x
Yin et al. (2016) x x x
Zembylas (2004) x x x

situated; however, a few studies noted teachers’ perceptions of display rules as universal for all teachers. In a self-study of his own
universal display rules. emotional experiences teaching elementary school in the United
States, Winograd (2003) listed the following as universal norms for
teachers' emotional expression: 1) having “affection or even love”
3.3. Universal display rules for students; 2) showing enthusiasm for the subject matter and
students; 3) avoiding overt displays of extreme emotions; 4) loving
Two qualitative studies described teachers' perceptions of
6
K. Stark and E. Bettini Teaching and Teacher Education 104 (2021) 103388

their work; and 5) having a sense of humor. In Yin and Lee’s (2012) related to their perceptions of display rules. Several participants in
study of the experiences of 25 teachers in China, universal norms Bryan-Zaykov's (2012) study described being cognizant of the
for emotional expression in teaching were described as: 1) commit students perceiving particular emotional displays as sexual, and
to teaching with passion, 2) hide negative emotions, 3) maintain carefully establishing boundaries around how to interact with
positive emotions, and 4) instrumentalize emotions to achieve students of the opposite gender. In addition, Neary et al. (2016)
teaching goals; member checking confirmed these findings. In described the emotional labor of same-gender couples in Ireland
addition, two survey studies suggested that norms regarding pos- who must conform to the heteronormative display rules within
itive emotions may be perceived as stronger than norms regarding their Catholic school communities. The teachers described the need
negative emotions. In a survey of 659 teachers in the United States to regulate physical actions that signified emotions such as passion
with strong model fit, Barber et al. (2010) found that 97% of or love (e.g., holding hands with their same-sex partner within the
teachers agreed or strongly agreed with the statement, “I feel that school grounds) in order to conform with heteronormative
the expression of positive emotions is important for effectively emotional display rules (Neary et al., 2016).
doing my job,” whereas only 40% of teachers agreed or strongly Finally, teachers' perceptions of display rules depend on inter-
agreed with the statement, “I feel that the expression of negative sectional aspects of teachers’ identities. In a multiple case study of
emotions is important for effectively doing my job” (p. 180). In a novice teachers in Norway, for example, Jakhelln (2011) found that
study of 61 special educators in the United States using a survey the intersection of age and gender may give rise to particular
instrument with high internal reliability, Valenti et al. (2019) found display rules. One young, novice female teacher in this study
that teachers reported a higher mean for positive display rules than explained,
negative display rules.
I had not really given much thought to what it might mean that I
Apart from these four studies, however, the literature revealed
was so close in age to the students. We often have very similar
that most teachers' perceptions of display rules depended signifi-
points of reference, and it is difficult to separate the roles of
cantly on their own identities, as situated within the particular
teacher and private person … It is especially a problem with
school contexts in which they worked. In the following sections, and
classes of just young men … it is not easy to know how one
Table 3, we examine the dynamic and situated nature of teachers’
should be angry while at the same time keeping one's dignity
perceptions of display rules.
and respect (p. 283).
3.4. Teachers perceive display rules as dependent on their identities
Taken together, these studies suggest that female teachers and
Teachers perceived display rules as associated with and teachers of minoritized sexualities feel that their emotional dis-
dependent upon intersecting aspects of their identities, including plays are more constrained by organizational norms than male
gender and sexuality, age, and understanding of role. teachers and teachers with heterosexual identities. However,
Gender and Sexuality. Teachers generally expressed that their considering the disproportionately female samples in the survey
display rules prescribed more expression of positive than negative studies, resulting in a low number of male teachers surveyed, more
emotions, but there were gender differences in the degree to which research is needed to understand male teachers' experiences, as
this was the case. Analyzing a survey of 659 teachers in the United well as non-binary teachers' experiences. In addition, while the one
States, Barber et al. (2010) found female teachers were more likely study which examined sexually minoritized teachers’ experiences
than male teachers to respond affirmatively to the item, “I feel that (Neary et al., 2016) contributes an important perspective to the
the expression of positive emotions is important for effectively field, more methodologically transparent studies would help sub-
doing my job (p. 178). Similarly, analyzing a survey of 220 teachers stantiate its claims.
in the Netherlands, Ybema and van Dam (2014) found that female Role-Based Identity. Because some teachers identify strongly
teachers reported more positive as well as negative display rules with their role as a teacher of a particular content area or group of
than male teachers; female teachers felt a heightened sense of students, some teachers perceived display rules as dependent on
professional responsibility to enact particular emotional displays their role-based identity. For example, because science is often
compared to male teachers. understood as a discipline free of emotion, and scientists are
The gendered nature of display rules was particularly high- perceived as being expected to rely on reason and logic rather than
lighted in LeBlanc's (2018) discourse analysis case study of a vet- emotion, science teachers’ perceptions of display rules may differ
eran, female English teacher in the United States. LeBlanc (2018) from art teachers, for whom creativity and emotional expression
found that the teacher adjusted the emotional tone of her speech to might be more encouraged. A veteran, elementary science teacher
meet perceived professional norms regarding interactions with in the United States explained:
students. Specifically, when responding to student behavior, she
The assumption by many of my colleagues … is that emotion has
changed the emotional tone of her voice to match that of her stu-
no place in the teaching of science. I am constantly reminded of
dents so that she would come across as professional in their eyes.
how I should teach [the children] the scientific … the rational
She explained,
process … whatever that means … you have to be neutral and
The difference between the discipline of a male teacher and a objective in science … this marked a tremendous struggle in my
female teacher is this: If I have to stop addressing the class to teaching (Zembylas, 2004, p. 309, 312).
correct a student behavior … I find that, no matter how ‘right’ I
was, the student often feels hurt and angry at the correction and
The elementary science teacher described the dissonance of
‘defends himself’ by attributing the situation to my feeling bit-
wanting to display her passion for science while conforming to the
chy (they don't say that … I just think I see it). On the other hand,
display rules of a content area often stereotyped as lacking emotion.
if my male colleagues do the same in no uncertain terms (say,
Other teachers also described the emotional labor of down-
‘Joe, shut up!’), the student generally can take the correction
playing their emotions to meet professional display rules that
with the reflection that he ‘kind of deserved it’ … (p. 159e160).
regulate the extent to which they can express their passion for the
subject. For example, describing the emotional labor of suppressing
Only two studies addressed how participants' sexual identities
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K. Stark and E. Bettini Teaching and Teacher Education 104 (2021) 103388

their passion for the language and teaching grammar instead, a speak in the foreign language for the duration of class precluded
novice English teacher in Singapore stated, “I'm exhausted from the her from developing emotional bonds with and between students,
effort of having to constantly overwrite and rewrite my personality whose proficiency in the language was low, creating an
and I'm beginning to go about in a noticeable daze” (Loh & Liew, “emotionally sterile environment” (Rayner & Espinoza, 2016, p.
2016, p. 275). 2262) in which genuine emotions could not be communicated. In a
Much is left to explore about the impact of role-based identity in study of five foreign language teachers in a rural high school in the
teachers' perceptions of display rules, as only a subset of teacher United States, where parents and students were politically opposed
roles were examined, in only a handful of studies, and none used to learning a foreign language, Acheson et al. (2016) found that
methods permitting generalization. Further, across the studies foreign language teachers experienced higher demands to adhere
which examined the role of identity in teachers’ perceptions of to positive display rules, compared to teachers in other content
display rules, only two (Bryan-Zakov, 2012; LeBlanc, 2018) utilized areas. Community disinvestment in foreign language education
member checks, which are a key aspect of establishing the trust- meant the teachers had to display more positive emotions in order
worthiness of such intimate findings. to maintain students' engagement. A teacher explained that,
although students often made racist comments about other cul-
3.5. Teachers perceive display rules as dependent on context tures, “I try to not be ugly back because that can make it worse, I've
found. I mean, I try to be positive about it even though what they
Second, teachers also associated perceived display rules with say strikes a nerve” (Acheson et al., 2016, p. 531).
particular teaching contexts, including the level of the school, the The type of school also intersects with the culture of the school
school culture, and physical locations within schools. to influence teachers' perceptions of display rules. For example, in
School Level. In a survey of 659 K-12 teachers in the United private schools, the relationship between teachers and parents may
States, elementary teachers reported higher perceptions of sup- be shaped by the direct financial transaction between the school
portive display rules than high school teachers, although almost all and the family. One private school teacher in Australia explained
teachers believed that showing positive emotions was important in that sometimes she has to demonstrate care for her students in
the work of teaching (Barber et al., 2010). These differences may be order “to show the parents they're getting value for money …
driven by stages in child development, as teachers may perceive there's the whole idea that [the parents] pay and you produce, and
that younger children require more emotionally supportive in- you produce well” (O'Connor, 2008, p. 121). Schools founded within
teractions with adults. For example, in a qualitative study of pri- a religious tradition may also have display rules aligned with the
mary Irish teachers, one teacher explained, rules of that religion. Teachers in a Catholic school described having
to adhere to particular norms about their gender or sexuality based
It depends, the older the child you teach, the more I teach, the
on the religious nature of the school (e.g., hiding affection for a
more [emotions] … you'd show them …. with the younger
same sex partner, adhering more to traditional gender norms for
children, you just say ‘teacher wasn't happy with what you did
emotional expression; Neary et al., 2016). A teacher at an urban
today and it's such a pity you let me down’. You don't seem to be
charter school in the United States described the display rule of
using your disappointment-just let them know that their
using emotions to express disapproval of small behavioral in-
behavior affects other people's attitudes and feelings because
fractions, which she didn't personally find offensive but were un-
they should know that … the older they get (Kitching, 2009, p.
acceptable in the larger culture of the school, explaining,
150).
I act like things bother me a lot more than they actually do … I
think you have to perform in the classroom, because I could care
The expectation that older children should be better able to
less. Who cares if they're chewing gum? Who cares if their shirts
intuit teachers' emotional responses, whereas younger children
are tucked out, but it's a rule, and they have to follow it. And I
may not be able to, changed the way this teacher conceptualized
think that if it is a rule, and they have to follow it, then we need
the emotional display rules for older versus younger children. On
to do it, you know? But I mean, I could care less (Soto, 2011, p.
the other hand, a secondary teacher in the United States recognized
86).
how even with secondary students she sometimes needed to
explicitly explain her emotional expressions, because “they are no
longer kids, but they are mentally making that transition … if you Despite shared organizational culture, however, teachers may
don't model the tools and resources, then how do you expect to get still interpret display rules differently. For example, Cribbs (2015)
them to make that transition?” (Horner et al., 2020, p. 20). found that teachers within a single charter school held a wide
Current research therefore suggests that teachers' perceptions range of beliefs regarding which emotional expressions were
of students' developmental level may impact their perceptions of appropriate during negative interactions with studentsdin the
display rules. However, as only one study addressing the role of absence of explicit messaging regarding display rules from the or-
school level was conducted outside the U.S., future research should ganization, teachers hold diverse perceptions of display rules.
examine how cultural norms regarding expectations for students at It is clear from existing research that teachers' perceptions of
different ages may relate to teachers’ perceptions of appropriate display rules vary based on their particular type of schools (e.g.
emotional displays. private schools, charter schools). However, because there are
School Culture. In a survey of 468 teachers in the United States, currently only a few studies on each type of school, more research is
Brown et al. (2014) found significant differences in teachers' per- needed in order to determine whether variation in teachers’ per-
ceptions of positive and negative display rules across the 22 schools ceptions of display rules within these types of schools (e.g. differ-
included in their study, indicating display rules vary greatly across ences among various charter schools) is just as extensive as
schools. Other studies demonstrated the impact of specific aspects differences across types of schools.
of school culture on display rules. For example, the extent to which Physical Location. Teachers associated display rules with
the school culture supports multiculturalism and multilingualism particular physical locations both within (Bryan-Zakov, 2012;
may influence teachers' emotional displays (Acheson et al., 2016; Mawhinney, 2008) and beyond (Kitching, 2009; O'Connor, 2008;
Rayner & Espinoza, 2016). A secondary foreign language teacher in O'Toole, 2017) the school building. Some physical locations within
the U.K. explained how the school's requirement that students the school building are associated with particular display rules. For
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K. Stark and E. Bettini Teaching and Teacher Education 104 (2021) 103388

example, in an ethnographic study of teachers' experiences in the I ran into a student at a restaurant recently. I was happy to see
school lunchrooms, Mawhinney (2008) noted that, in these spaces, her, but since my table was directly beside hers, I felt that I had
“teachers can reveal their emotions in a safe space” (p. 201) to be careful during my conversations with my dining com-
providing them “[an] outlet of release” in a context in which panion to not reveal any personal information and to not discuss
“teachers are expected to mask their emotions throughout most of school matters lest I be overheard. Even though it was well after
the day” (p. 204). She observed teachers in the lunchroom freely ‘school time,’ I felt that I still needed to keep up my ‘teacher’
express their true emotions, joking around about students e until persona” (p. 43).
two students unexpectedly walked into the lunchroom, and “every
teacher put their ‘teacher masks’ back on … the smiles were
Taken together, existing literature on teachers’ perceptions of
removed from their faces, and they immediately became more
display rules demonstrates the importance of physical context in
serious. Even the tone of the teachers talking to the students was
the ways that teachers conceptualize professional emotional dis-
different” (Mawhinney, 2008, p. 204).
plays. However, because each of these settings was only examined
As described earlier, however, display rules vary greatly with the
in one study (e.g., only one study on hallways), more research is
culture of the schooldeven in the same type of location within the
needed to examine how perceptions differ across school
school. For example, while Mawhinney (2008) found that teachers
organizations.
significantly modulated their emotional displays around students,
even when in the staff room; in contrast, in interviews with
teachers at an international school, a teacher in Bryan-Zakov's 3.6. Teachers’ perceptions regarding the function of display rules
(2012, p. 78) study of display rules at Northern European interna-
tional school identified a different set of emotional display rules for Our second research question asked why teachers engage in
staff room: “When a student comes on some daft errand, I never emotional labor e the purposes that they believe display rules
feel like I have to put on a show … although you might watch your serve, and their motivation to conform to them. We found that
swearing (laughs) …. It's our place. They're the guests.” Bryan- educators conceptualized display rules as a mandate to strategically
Zakov (2012) further found that while the display rules of partic- use their emotions in particular ways, rather than the mandate to
ular physical locations within a school (staff room, classroom, express or hide particular discrete emotions. In Brown et al.’s (2014)
hallway, etc.) are dependent on the school culture, they may also study, a teacher remarked, “I believe the expectation in schools for
shift fluidly within a school based on the particular activities professionals is not a question of whether or not to display or hide
occurring at various times of day or year. Teachers explained how emotions. Instead, the expectation is related more to how to …
the display of their emotions depended on the power dynamics of express/cope with emotions in a professional manner” (p. 68).
the space, and the activities occurring within it. For example, Teachers perceived the function of display rules as ensuring their
classrooms were typically considered “teacher zones,” where the strategic use of emotions in professional situations, rather than
teacher could freely express their emotions and dominate the serving the function of mandating or prohibiting specific types of
space, expecting students to express less emotions. However, emotional displays in all interactions. Across the studies, we found
sometimes the teachers would “gift” the classrooms to the stu- three overarching functions of display rules e that is, three ways in
dents, allowing the students to express the full range of their which teachers felt they were expected to strategically use their
emotions and have free social interactions with each other. Simi- emotions: 1) to provide appropriate emotional support to students,
larly, the hallways shifted: when they were full of students during 2) to foster students' academic development, and 3) to position
non-instructional times of day, teachers often described hiding themselves as competent professionals in interactions with other
their emotions and ignoring particular student behavior in these adults.
student-dominated spacesdbut when instructional time began,
teachers were not hesitant to use a wider range of emotional dis-
plays to motivate students to re-enter the classroom and begin 3.7. Providing appropriate emotional support to students
their work.
Teachers' emotional display rules are also marked by the doors Across studies, participants described a professional and orga-
of the school building. When teachers interact with their students nizational mandate that they should use their own emotions to
outside of school, display rules change to reflect the norms of the provide appropriate emotional support to students. A teacher in the
physical space they share. For example, Kitching (2009) described a U.K. explained,
teachers’ experience taking students on a field trip to a church,
No matter how you're feeling, the fact that you feel that you
where she needed to display a “cross face” to express to kids that
can't do the job, that the support you want isn't there … you still
their behavior was inappropriate in the sacred setting (p. 148). On
then have to be there for the children, you still make sure their
the other hand, when teachers leave the school building after work,
needs are being met even though you know yours are not being
they may finally be able to leave the display rules of the profession
dealt with (Hebson et al., 2007, p. 691).
behind. An Australian teacher explained,
I'll just be very engaged with [students], and I will work with
Teachers felt that display rules functioned to help them priori-
them as much as I can. But, at the end of the day, as soon as I
tize students’ emotional needs, and not get distracted by their own
walk out of that classroom, I become myself again. I've turned
personal emotions while fulfilling their professional re-
that switch off. I'm a performer [during the school day]
sponsibilities. A teacher in China explained, “A good teacher should
(O'Connor, 2008, p. 122).
be able to separate public and private emotions. A good teacher
knows that their role as a teacher is professional when they sit on
In contrast, for teachers who live in the same communities as the platform … At this time, his personal emotions are less
their students, emotional display rules may extend beyond the important” (Yin, 2016, p. 14). Display rules function as reinforce-
walls of the school building. For example, one teacher in ment of the expectation to express their care for students in
Hannagan's (2018) study of elementary school teachers in the appropriate ways. Regarding a behavioral incident with a student, a
United States explained, U.S. elementary teacher explained:
9
K. Stark and E. Bettini Teaching and Teacher Education 104 (2021) 103388

This [event] reminded me once again how overwhelming it was the sadness and frustration some of these severe needs may raise,
to find the “right” way to show that I care for [the student] display rules helped them to suppress the display of such emotions
without compromising his academic learning as well as without in order to meet their professional responsibilities (Kerr & Brown,
showing my own frustration and sadness at what happened 2016). In a study on the emotional experiences of British teachers
(Isenbarger & Zembylas, 2006, p. 129). working with students who had experienced trauma, Edwards
(2016) found that display rules served to help teachers demon-
strate appropriate care to students; conforming to these display
In two studies, teachers described showing anger when student
rules involved both evoking empathy for students whose behaviors
safety was at risk. For example, in Cribbs' (2015) study, several
the teachers found challenging, as well as hiding feelings of concern
teachers at a charter school in the U.S. felt that negative emotions
during interactions with students. One primary teacher explained,
may be expressed when a student's safety is at risk but should
“Some of the things these kids tell you … genuinely shock you …
otherwise be withheld. A primary teacher in Japan (Hosotani &
but you have to make it look like, you know, don't worry, it will all
Imai-Matsumura, 2011) explained:
be fine” (p. 59).
I always show anger over life-threatening issues, behaviors that
involve risk of injury, and insult to others. It's not enough to talk 3.8. Fostering students’ academic development
calmly in order to make kids realize that those things are really
bad and unacceptable. I think I need to show, or fake, emotions In addition to helping teachers provide appropriate emotional
to teach them (p. 1044). support to students, display rules also served to help teachers
support students' academic development. As a secondary teacher
in China explained, “You need to mobilize the emotions which can
When safety was at risk due to external circumstances, however,
facilitate student learning. Those pure, personal emotions are
teachers felt that the display rules required the expression of an
useless in classroom teaching if they have no function in helping
entirely different set of emotions in order to demonstrate appro-
student learning” (Yin, 2016, p. 11). Across the studies, teachers
priate emotional support. In a study of teachers' emotional displays
described a professional and organizational mandate to use their
during and after the 2011 earthquake in Christchurch, New Zealand,
own emotions to directly foster students' academic development
O'Toole (2017) found that teachers hid many of their true emotions
by 1) creating a positive classroom culture for learning and 2)
in order to protect their students. As one primary teacher
engaging students in instructional content. Understanding that
explained,
emotions are contagious (Hatfield et al., 1994), teachers described
It was quite a separating process because there was an internal using proactive displays of positive emotions to spread a positive
person who was quite freaked out, but there was very much the affective state among their students, as well as to protect them-
external professional kind of face, and the only time that that got selves against more negative affective states they might absorb
close to slipping was when you made eye contact with another from students or other staff, which could harm the quality of their
adult … and you'd in the moment actually be yourself and instruction. An ESL teacher in South Korea explained, “I have to
[then]. No. Hang on! You can't afford this because the kids create an atmosphere where the students can learn English more
around you, are all looking to you to go, ‘Is this ok? If you're ok, effectively. To do so, it is imperative that I understand my emotions
we're ok’ (p. 524). as a teacher. Based on this, I either change or maintain my feelings
for the students' benefit” (Kang, 2020, p. 5). Often, teachers dis-
played positive affect to establish atmospheres conducive to
Teachers understood that display rules serve to maintain
learning. For example, a teacher in China explained, “Teachers
boundaries regarding how teachers appropriately express care for
should try our best to make them [students] feel happy, so I smile as
their students within professional settings. For example, a female
often as possible in my teaching, and do all I can to entertain them.
Australian teacher asserted that she “will never cross that line and
Whatever my feeling is, I will do this” (Yin, 2016, p. 11). Similarly, a
feel too much” and that she needed to “[know] how to care the
primary school teacher in the U.S. explained, “As the smiling faces
right way and amount’’ (O'Connor, 2008, p. 121). Teachers may also
of my students came through the door, I had to be ‘on’ as they
need to balance displays of care for individual students with the
needed for me to be pleasant and excited to start our day”
needs of the whole class. For example, Rayner and Espinoza (2016)
(Hannagan, 2018, p. 43). Hosotani and Imai-Matsumura (2011)
described how teachers needed to “hide concern for the one child
found that elementary teachers in Japan engaged in “direct staging”
in order to attend to the whole class” and explained that “not being
and “intentional” spreading of emotion in order to evoke emotion
able to help can be stressful” (p. 2260). The work of caring for
or convey approval to students in their classrooms; one teacher
students sometimes involves expressing positive emotions to
explained:
particular students, but also may involve evoking positive group
feelings. A male Australian teacher explained that his work often When I see my classroom not making progress or plodding, I
involved, “creating a sense of belonging with kids you don't really sometimes use and convey my emotion as a shot in the arm for
know’’ (O'Connor, 2008, p. 122). A teacher in China (Yin, 2016) the children. It happens not only with anger but also with joy. I
explained, “You need to pretend to be cool when you interact with think I sometimes need to express joyful emotion, telling the
the students. You can't be too close to them. You have to keep a kids ‘I like it’ to raise their morale (p. 1044).
distance from them, which is the entrenchment of a teacher. You
need to protect yourself!” (p. 12).
A female secondary humanities teacher in Australia explained
Teachers found that display rules gave them heuristics for dis-
the process of engaging in emotional labor to spread positive affect
playing appropriate care when serving particular populations of
among students, in order to motivate them: “You cop so much from
students. For example, special educators in a study in England
everyone else's emotions, and then you have to create all these
noted how display rules provide emotional boundaries for them-
positive emotions in students. You have to motivate yourself to
selves as they respond to children with significant medical com-
motivate them” (O'Connor, 2008, p. 124). Teachers amplified their
plications or emotional/behavioral disabilities, particularly in cases
own emotions to get students excited about learning. An Australian
where they are asked to visit hospitals (Mackenzie, 2012). Despite
teacher described exaggerating her emotions to deliver content
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K. Stark and E. Bettini Teaching and Teacher Education 104 (2021) 103388

more effectively as “intentional charm” or “deliberate charisma” display rules include teachers' gender, sexual identity, and role. The
(O'Connor, 2008, p. 122). A female secondary foreign language aspects of teachers' contexts which influence their perceptions of
teacher in the rural United States explained, “Participation [goes] display rules include the level of their school, the culture of their
up if they see me excited, if they see me motivated” (Acheson et al., school, and their physical location within (or beyond) the school. In
2016, p. 530). In a study of a U.S. elementary teacher, the participant addition, we found that existing research demonstrates three
explained, “Often [my] excitement excites them, too, [so I'm] trying overall functions of display rules: teachers perceive the function of
to stimulate emotions in children, to heighten their learning. But as display rule as a means to 1) provide appropriate emotional sup-
you see, often it's them that get me excited! We take turns in port to students, 2) foster students’ academic development, and 3)
getting each other excited about learning” (Zembylas, 2004, p. 316). ensure that they position themselves as competent professionals.
Some teachers specifically described using dramatic emotional Understanding that teachers' perceptions of emotional norms
expressions in their verbal communications in order to engage are dependent on specific aspects of their identities and their
students. A female teacher in China explained, “If the composition contexts has important implications for practice. Because display
carries gentle sadness, you should lower and slow down the voice rules depend on intersecting aspects of teachers’ identities and
so that students could have that mood of grief” (Yin 2012, p. 61). contexts, not all teachers operating within the same building are
One teacher in China stated, “The voice, tone and emotion of a doing so under the same awareness of display rules, and all
teacher in a lesson [have such influence]. If you don't have such teachers do not have equal emotional job demands. School leaders
attributes and speak drily straight forward, students will feel bored should recognize that emotional burdens are not equally distrib-
and will not follow you to learn” (Yin, 2012, p. 61). In a study of uted among their staff; particularly, female staff and educators with
teachers at an urban charter school in the U.S., Soto (2011) found non-dominant identity markers will likely face disproportionate
that teachers deliberately displayed a range of emotions during emotional demands. Leaders should therefore consider the ways in
instruction to engage teens in academic material. At other times, which they distribute responsibilities so as to promote equitable
teachers deliberately suppressed their emotions in order to engage division of demands and resources.
students in content; for example, a science teacher in the U.S. In addition to teachers' identities, physical location, school cul-
described hiding her nerves or lack of interest in the lesson in order ture, and school level also shape teachers' perceptions of emotional
to ensure that students would engage in it (Horner et al., 2020). display rules. As such, school leaders need to be aware of the
explicit and implicit display rules operating in their buildings and
3.9. Positioning oneself as professionally competent pay careful attention to whether the ways teachers display emotion
support the school's efforts to effectively serve their students.
Finally, teachers perceived display rules as serving to ensure that Leaders should consider providing explicit professional expecta-
they were perceived as professionally competent by their col- tions for emotional displays, particularly if the ways that these
leagues. Teachers viewed conforming to display rules through teachers are expressing emotion do not align with the broader
expressing particular emotions as a means to demonstrate their vision for culture and climate at the school.
professional skill and capacity in challenging situations. For We found that teachers viewed the function of display rules as a
example, in Edwards' (2016) student of teachers of foster care means to support students' emotional and academic development.
students in the United Kingdom, a teacher explained, “You've got to Given the link between emotional display and academic develop-
keep a grip at all times … you've got to show … I'm the professional ment, leaders should consider how they can recognize emotional
person, I'm here to help you” (Edwards, 2016, p. 62). expression as a pedagogical competency in teachers, and how they
In many studies, teachers specifically described conforming to a can train teachers to be aware of the costs and benefits of using
display rule of suppressing negative emotion, in order to position their own emotions for instructional purposes. They should also
themselves as professionally competent in the eyes of other adults. support teachers’ efforts to use their own emotions to care for
A secondary teacher in the U.K. explained: students in appropriate ways, by providing teachers the opportu-
nity to discuss the challenges of this professional responsibility.
With staff I put on a professional act. Some days I don't feel good
As Loh and Liew (2016) note, “Central to the concept of
and I want to be elsewhere. But because I'm a professional I put
emotional labour is the idea that individuals struggle to reconcile
on the right face … so if someone asks me how I am, I'll say fine
their public, private and professional selves in order to carry out the
regardless of how I really feel inside (Rayner & Espinoza, 2016, p.
demands of their jobs” (p. 271). Overall, administrators should
2260).
provide formal or informal guidance to help teachers critically
reflect on questions such as: Who sets the cultural norms of
Similarly, a young teacher in Norway described feeling pressure emotional display in teaching? How does my own identity influ-
from her colleagues to hide her struggles in the classroom when ence my emotional displays? What is the purpose of my emotional
interacting with other staff (Jakhelln, 2011). Teachers also described display in student and adult interactions? What does this mean for
how display rules functioned to ensure that they were able to work the student I'm interacting with? How will students react to these
effectively with colleagues for whom they did not naturally feel emotions, and how will I equitably process reactions that feel
positive affect. For example, a teacher in Bryan-Zaykov's (2012) inappropriate or undesired?
study of an international school described replacing displays of
hatred with collegial displays in order to maintain a “professional 4.1. Future research
relationship” (p. 73) with a colleague she suspected of inappro-
priate conduct with students. Emotional expressions are an essential part of teachers’ pro-
fessional work, and extant research indicates teachers in many
4. Discussion parts of the world experience pressure to display or hide particular
emotions in order to meet professional demands. Although this
Our systematic review of the literature confirmed that teachers universal aspect of teaching has been addressed from a variety of
perceive display rules as dependent on their identities and their angles in this small set of studies, many gaps remain, which future
contexts. Specifically, existing research has demonstrated that the research should consider addressing.
aspects of teachers' identities which influence their perceptions of We found that teachers' understanding of display rules vary
11
K. Stark and E. Bettini Teaching and Teacher Education 104 (2021) 103388

depending on their own identities, and different cultures may have implications for teachers, and their students, around the world.
different emotional display rules for teachers. Further research is
needed to understand how display rules operate in the context of References
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