MODULE – 4

Computer Numerical Control & Robot Technology

Prepared by:
Anand A
Assistant Professor,
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
RajaRajeswari college of Engineering,
Bangalore - 74

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 What is NC/CNC?
 Numerical control of machine tools may be defined as a method
of automation in which various functions of machine tools are
controlled by letters, numbers and symbols.
 Numerical Control is a system in which the direct insertions of
programmed numerical value, stored on some form of input
medium are automatically read and decoded to cause a
corresponding function on the machine tool which it is
controlling.
 NC was invented in the year 1947 by John C Parsons in
association with MIT
 Computerized Numerical control (CNC) the term used when the
control system of an NC includes a computer.
 The availability of dedicated computer permits control features to
be made available on CNC systems .
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  Conventional machine
→ eyes, hands, brain, skill
 CNC machine
Program→ Control unit→ Motor→ Motion

Measuring & Reflection Unit

No skill is required for operating CNC m/c .

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 Elements of CNC:
➢I/P device (Part program)
➢Machine Control Unit
➢Driving unit
➢Machine tool
➢Feedback device
➢Display unit

Table
Leadscrew
Encoder A/C Motor
~

Servo Controller

Counter Comparator

Input (converted from analog to digital value)

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 A typical NC machine tool has five fundamental units. (1) the input
media, (2) the machine control unit, (3) the servo-drive unit, (4) the
mechanical machine tool unit, (5) the feedback transducer, and (6) Display
unit.
The input media contains the program of instructions, it is the detailed step-
by-step commands that direct the actions of the machine tool; the program of
instructions is called a part program. The individual commands refer to positions
of a cutting tool relative to the worktable on which the workpart is fixtured.
Additional instructions are usually included, such us spindle speed, feed rate,
cutting tool selection, and other functions. The program is coded on a suitable
medium for submission to the machine control unit. For many years, the
common medium was 1-inch wide punched tape, using a standard format
that could be interpreted by the machine control unit. Today, punched tape
has largely been replaced by newer storage technologies in modern machine
shops. These technologies include magnetic tape, diskette, and electronic transfer
of part programs from a computer.

In modern CNC technology, the machine control unit (MCU) consists of a

microcomputer and related control hardware that stores the program of
instructions and executes it by converting each command into mechanical actions
of machine tool, one command at a time. The MCU includes system software,
calculation algorithm, and transition software to covert the NC parts
program into a usable format for the MCU.
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 The third basic component of an NC system is the servo-drive unit;
the drives in machine tools are classified as spindle and feed drive
mechanisms. Spindle and feed drive motors and their servo-
amplifiers are the components of the servo-drive unit. The MCU
processes the data and generates discrete numerical position commands
for each feed drive and velocity command
for the spindle drive. The numerical commands are converted into
signal voltage by the MUC unit and sent to servo-amplifiers, which
process and amplify them to the high voltage levels required by the
drive motors.

The forth basic component of an NC system is the machine tool that

performs useful work. It is a rigid and heavy structure, having machine
slides fitted underneath the work table to each individual axis. The
machine tool is also equipped with quick change tooling system. The
machine tool accomplishes the processing steps to transform the starting
workpiece into a completed part. Its operations are directed by the MCU,
which in turn is driven by instructions contained in the part program.

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 The fifth basic component of an NC system is the feedback
transducer. As the drives move, sensors measure their actual
position. The difference between the required position and the
actual position is detected by comparison circuit and the action is
taken, within the servo, to minimize this difference.

The sixth basic component of an NC system is the display unit. It

serves as an interactive device between the machine tool and the
operator. When the machine tool is running, the display unit displays
the present status such as the position of machine slide, spindle rpm,
feed rate, part program, graphic simulation to verify the part program
before the actual machining and error messages.

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 Traditional Punched Tape
used in NC

Re-circulating balls screw

used in machine tool slides.

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Advantages of NC:
Greater accuracy and repeatability.
Reduced scrap.
High production rate.
Reduced tooling costs.
High quality.
Less lead time.
Accommodate design change.
Less skilled operator.
more complex geometries can be processed.
Multi – work possible, hence less floor space required.
Disadvantages of NC:
High initial investment.
Need for part programming.
Special maintenance required.
More costly breakdown.
Higher utilization of NC equipment.

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Advantages of CNC over conventional NC:
➢ Control using software rather than hard – wired.
➢ Increased flexibility/more versatile.(program editing,
reprogramming, tool path plotting, cutter compensation etc.)
➢ Elimination of tape reader.
➢ Multiple part program storage.
➢ Display shows instructions being executed and other operational
data.
➢ Manual data input.
➢ System integration capability.(connect to robots and other
computer to create cell)
➢ Machine diagnostics.(displays error message or identifies
problems)
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Figure: CNC Simulator
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Features of CNC:
Computer NC systems include additional features beyond what is feasible with
conventional hard-wired NC. These features, many of which are standard on most
CNC Machine Control units (MCU), include the following:
Storage of more than one part program (CNC controllers have sufficient
capacity to store multiple programs).
Various forms of program input (such as magnetic tape, floppy diskettes, USB,
Serial communications with external computers, Ethernet and manual data input
(operator entry of program).
Program editing at the machine tool itself & running the Part program
multiple times (a part program can be tested and corrected entirely at the machine
site, rather than being returned to the programming office for corrections)
Fixed cycles and programming subroutines (opportunity to store frequently
used machining cycles as macros, that can be called by the part program. Instead
of writing the full instructions for the particular cycle into every program)

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Features of CNC – Contd..
➢Cutter length and Cutter size compensation (cutter dimensions had to be set
precisely to agree with the tool path defined in the part program & the cutter is
mounted in the spindle and the sensor measures its length. This measured value is
then used to correct the programmed tool path.)

➢Interpolation (consists of generating data points between given coordinate

axis positions, The interpolator is either an electronic hardware device for a NC
system, or a software program for a CNC system. It generates thousands of
intermediate coordinate points along the programmed path between the start
point and the end point of the cut. )
Linear and circular interpolation are most commonly used in CNC programming
applications:
✓Linear interpolation is used for straight-line machining between two points.
✓Circular interpolation is used for circles and arcs.
✓Helical interpolation, used for threads and helical forms, is available on many
CNC machines.
✓Parabolic and cubic interpolation are used by industries that manufacture parts
having complex shape such as aerospace parts.
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Features of CNC – Contd..
➢Facility for Simulating the part program.

➢Acceleration and deceleration calculations:

This feature is applicable when the cutter moves at high feed rates. It is designed to avoid
tool marks on the work surface that would be generated due to machine tool dynamics
when the cutter path changes abruptly. Instead, the feed rate is smoothly decelerated in
anticipation of a tool path change and then accelerated back up to the programmed
feed rate after the direction change.

➢Communications interface :
With the trend toward interfacing and networking in plants today, most modern CNC
controllers are equipped with a standard RS-232 or other communications interface to link
the machine to other computers and computer driven devices. This is useful for various
applications, such as (1)downloading part programs from a central data file;
(2)collecting operational data such as workpiece counts, cycle times, and machine
utilization; and (3)interfacing with peripheral equipment, such as robots that unload
and load parts.

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Classification of NC/CNC:
Based on Motion Type:
Point-to-Point or Continuous path
Based on Control Loops:
Open loop or Closed loop
Based on Power Supply:
Electric or Hydraulic or Pneumatic
Based on Number of Axis(Degree of freedom):
2, 3 or Multiple axis
Based on Positioning System (Dimensioning):
Absolute or Incremental

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Point-to-point systems:
Some machine tools for example drilling, boring and tapping machines etc, require the cutter
and the work piece to be placed at a certain fixed relative positions at which they must
remain while the cutter does its work. These machines are known as point-to-point machines
as shown in figure 3 (a) and the control equipment for use with them are known as point-to-
point control equipment. Feed rates need not to be programmed. In these machine tools, each
axis is driven separately. In a point-to-point control system, the dimensional information that
must be given to the machine tool will be a series of required position of the two slides.
Servo systems can be used to move the slides and no attempt is made to move the slide until
the cutter has been retracted back.
Contouring systems (Continuous path systems):
Other type of machine tools involves motion of work piece with respect to the cutter while
cutting operation is taking place. These machine tools include milling, routing machines etc.
and are known as contouring machines as shown in figure 3 (b), and the controls required for
their control are known as contouring control. In contouring machines, relative positions of
the work piece and the tool should be continuously controlled. The control system must be
able to accept information regarding velocities and positions of the machines slides. Feed
rates should be programmed.

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Open loop systems :
Programmed instructions are fed into the controller through an input device. These
instructions are then converted to electrical pulses (signals) by the controller and sent to the
servo amplifier to energize the servo motors. The primary drawback of the open-loop
system is that there is no feedback system to check whether the program position and
velocity has been achieved. If the system performance is affected by load, temperature,
humidity, or lubrication then the actual output could deviate from the desired output. For
these reasons the open -loop system is generally used in point-to-point systems where
the accuracy requirements are not critical.
The stepping motor is driven by a series of electrical pulses generated by the MCU. Each
pulse causes the motor to rotate a fraction of one revolution. The fraction is expressed in
terms of the step angle,α, given by α = 360/N, degrees where N = number of pulses
required for one revolution.

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Closed loop systems :
The closed-loop system has a feedback subsystem to monitor the actual output and correct
any discrepancy from the programmed input. These systems use position and velocity feed
back. The feedback system could be either analog or digital. The analog systems measure
the variation of physical variables such as position and velocity in terms of voltage levels.
Digital systems monitor output variations by means of electrical pulses. Majority of CNC
systems operate on servo mechanism, a closed loop principle. If a discrepancy is revealed
between where the machine element should be and where it actually is, the sensing device
signals the driving unit to make an adjustment, bringing the movable component to the
required location. Closed-loop systems are very powerful and accurate because they are
capable of monitoring operating conditions through feedback subsystems and automatically
compensating for any variations in real-time.

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 Figure : a) Open
loop systems &
b) Closed loop
systems

Figure : Optical
Encoder a) Device
& b) Series of
pulses emmited

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3. Based on the power supply ‘Electric, Hydraulic & Pneumatic systems’:
Mechanical power unit refers to a device which transforms some form of energy to
mechanical power which may be used for driving slides, saddles or gantries forming a part
of machine tool.
The input power may be of electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic.
➢Electrical – Servo drive or Stepper motor (for machine tool slides movement)
➢Hydraulic or Pneumatic – tool clamp/declamp, Pallet clamp/declamp, Tool change arm,
Turret rotation, Rotational axis clamp/declamp (firm clamping required during machining)

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 Based on Positioning System (Dimensioning):

Figure: Absolute & Incremental system

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 CNC MACHINING CENTERS

The machining centre, developed in the late 50’s is a machine tool capable of multiple
machining operations on a work part in one setup under NC program control.
Classification
Machining centres are classified as vertical, horizontal, or universal. The designation refers to
the orientation of the machine spindle.
1. A vertical machining centre has its spindle on a vertical axis relative to the work table. A
vertical machining centre (VMC) is typically used for flat work that requires tool access from
top. E.g. mould and die cavities, Large components of aircraft.
2. A horizontal machining centre (HMC) is used for cube shaped parts where tool access can
be best achieved on the sides of the cube.
3. A universal machining centre (UMC) has a work head that swivels its spindle axis to any
angle between horizontal and vertical making this a very flexible machine tool. E.g.: Aerofoil
shapes, Curvilinear geometries.
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Advantage of this new class of highly versatile machine compared to more conventional
CNC machine tolls include:
➢Fewer steps(more DoF & multiple operations),
➢Reduced part handling,
➢Increased accuracy and repeatability because the parts utilize the same fixture
through out their processing.
➢Faster delivery of parts in small lot sizes.(reduces the lead time)

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Features of CNC machining centers:
CNC machining centers are usually designed with features to reduce non productive time.
The features are:
• Automatic tool changer :
The tools are contained in a storage unit that is integrated with the machine tool. When a
cutter needs to be changed, the tool drum rotates to the proper position and an automatic tool
changer (ATC) operating under program control, exchanges the tool in the spindle for the
tool in the tool storage unit. Capacities of tool storage unit commonly range from 16 to 80
cutting tools.
• Automatic work part positioner:
Many horizontal and vertical machining centers have the capability to orient the work part
relative to the spindle. This is accomplished by means of a rotary table on which work part
is fixtured. The table can be oriented at any angle about a vertical axis to permit the cutting
tool to access almost the entire surface of the part in a single setup.
• Automatic pallet changer:
Machining centers are often equipped with two (or more) separate pallets that can be
presented to the cutting tool using an automatic pallet changer. While machining is
performed with one pallet in position at the machine, the other pallet is in a safe location
away from the spindle. In this location, the operator can unload the finished part and then
fixture the raw work part for next cycle.
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 Automatic pallet changer

Automatic tool changer

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 Automatic work part positioner:

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 CNC PART PROGRAMMING

Programming Methods:
➢Manual part programming, word address format (A word consists of an
address followed by numerals.)
➢Computer assisted part programming(APT)
➢Use of CAD/CAM (tool path simulation)
➢Manual Data Input.

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 Part Program Content(NC words)

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 Work part Zero Point of machine on a CNC lathe

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 Machine Zero Point and Work part zero
point on CNC milling machine

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 Figure :Tool Length Compensation

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Figure : Simulation 48
 Figure : Dry run

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 Industrial Robotics
INTRODUCTION:
Robotics is an example for programmable automation, where these devices that are
programmed can move parts, or can do work with a tool. Robotics is a multidisciplinary
engineering field dedicated to the development of autonomous devices.

Definition of a Robot:

A robot is a re-programmable, multi-function manipulator designed to move

material parts, tools or specialized devices, through variable programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks. (Robotic Institute of
America, 1979)

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In, 1942 Isaac Asimov wrote a short science fiction story in which the word 'robotics' was
first used and presented 3 laws of robotics.

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ROBOT ANATOMY:
➢Manipulator(Base & Body) - Positioning of objects
➢End effectors - Orientation of objects
➢Control unit
➢Actuators (drive unit)
➢Sensors (Internal - information about the robot itself & External -
information in the surrounding environment)
➢Power supply

Manipulator consists of joints, links and other structural elements of robot:

➢Joints provide relative motion, while Links are rigid members between joints .
➢Various joint types: linear and rotary, Each joint provides a “degree-of-freedom”
➢Most robots possess five or six degrees-of-freedom.
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 Figure :ROBOT ANATOMY
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Types Of Drive Systems:
There are three basic drive system used in commercially available robots:
1. Hydraulic drive:
gives a robot great speed and strength. These systems can be designed to actuate linear or
rotational joints. The main disadvantage of a hydraulic system is that it occupies floor
space in addition to that required by the robot.
2. Electric drive:
compared with a hydraulic system, an electric system provides a robot with less speed and
strength. Accordingly, electric drive systems are adopted for smaller robots. However,
robots supported by electric drive systems are more accurate, exhibit better repeatability,
and are cleaner to use.
3. Pneumatic drive:
are generally used for smaller robots. These robots, with fewer degrees of freedom, carry
out simple pick-and-place material handling operations.
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Types of Manipulator Joints:
Translational motion
➢Linear joint (type L)
➢Orthogonal joint (type O)
Rotary motion
➢Rotational joint (type R)
➢Twisting joint (type T)
➢Revolving joint (type V)

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Robot Body-and-Arm Configurations :(Classification based on
Physical configurations)
➢Industrial robots come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Four basic configurations are
identified with most of the commercially available industrial robots.
➢Polar coordinate body-and-arm assembly
➢Cylindrical body-and-arm assembly
➢Cartesian coordinate body-and-arm assembly
➢Jointed-arm body-and-arm assembly

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Cartesian configuration: A
robot which is constructed around
this configuration consists of three
orthogonal slides, as shown in fig. the
three slides are parallel to the x, y, and z
axes of the Cartesian coordinate system.
By appropriate movements of these
slides, the robot is capable of moving its
arm at any point within its three
dimensional rectangularly spaced work
space.

DOF : 3, All Linear motion

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Cylindrical configuration:
in this configuration, the robot
body is a vertical column that
swivels about a vertical axis. The
arm consists of several orthogonal
slides which allow the arm to be
moved up or down and in and out
with respect to the body. This is
illustrated schematically in figure.

DOF : 3,
Two Linear motion
One Rotational Motion

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Polar configuration: this
configuration also goes by the
name “spherical coordinate”
because the workspace within which
it can move its arm is a partial
sphere. The robot has a rotary base
and a pivot that can be used to raise
and lower a telescoping arm.

DOF : 3
One Linear motion
Two Rotational Motion

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Jointed-arm configuration:
This is similar in appearance to the
human arm, as shown in fig. the arm
consists of several straight members
connected by joints which are
analogous to the human shoulder,
elbow, and wrist. The robot arm is
mounted to a base which can be
rotated to provide the robot with the
capacity to work within a quasi-
spherical space.

DOF : 3 Rotational Motion

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Advantages &Benefits of Industrial Robot:
• Robotics and automation can, in many situation, increase productivity, safety, efficiency,
quality, and consistency of Products
• Robots can work in hazardous environments
• Robots need no environmental comfort
• Robots work continuously without any humanity needs and illnesses
• Robots have repeatable precision at all times
• Robots can be much more accurate than humans, they may have milli or micro inch
accuracy.
• Robots and their sensors can have capabilities beyond that of humans.
• Robots can process multiple stimuli or tasks simultaneously, humans can only one.
• Robots replace human workers who can create economic problems.
Dis-advantages of Industrial Robot :
1) Replacement of human labor.
2) Robots are an expensive initial cost.
3) Can only do what it is instructed to do; nothing more, nothing less
4) Greater unemployment
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Technical Features Of An Industrial Robot:
The technical features of an industrial robot determine its efficiency and effectiveness at
performing a given task. The following are some of the most important among these
technical features.
Degree of Freedom (D.O.F) –
Each joint on the robot introduces a degree of freedom. Each dof can be a slider,
rotary, or other type of actuator. Robots typically have 5 or 6 degrees of freedom. 3 of
the degrees of freedom allow positioning in 3D space, while the other 2or 3 are used
for orientation of the end effector. 6 degrees of freedom are enough to allow the robot
to reach all positions and orientations in 3D space. 5 D.O.F requires a restriction to 2D
space, or else it limits orientations. 5 D.O.F robots are commonly used for handling tools
such as arc welders.
Work Volume/Workspace –
The robot tends to have a fixed and limited geometry. The work envelope is the
boundary of positions in space that the robot can reach. For a Cartesian robot (like an
overhead crane) the workspace might be a square, for more sophisticated robots the
workspace might be a shape that looks like a ‘clump of intersecting bubbles’.
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Precision of Movement:
The precision with which the robot can move the end of its wrist is a critical consideration
in most applications. In robotics, precision of movement refers to measure of
performance of robot’s movement which can be described as a function of three
features:
1. Spatial resolution (Control resolution)
2. Accuracy
3. Repeatability
1.Spatial resolution (Control Resolution) – is the smallest increment of movement
into which the robot can divide its work volume. Spatial resolution depends on two factors:
the robot’s position control system and its feedback measurement system and the
robot’s mechanical inaccuracies.
The control system’s ability to divide the total range of movement for the particular joint
into individual increments depends on the bit storage capacity in the control memory
which is given by the relation, Number of increments = 2n ,where n= number of
bits in the control memory.
For example – a robot with one sliding joint with a full range of 1m, having a control memory
which has a 12 bit storage capacity . The spatial resolution or number of increments is given by
number of increments = 212 = 4096 (total range of 1m is divided into 4096 increments, where
each increment value is 0.244mm).
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Accuracy –
➢refer to a robot’s ability to position its wrist end at a desired target point within the
work volume.
➢The accuracy of a robot depends on the spatial resolution because the ability to achieve
a given target point depends on how closely the robot can define the control increments
for each of its joint motions.
➢In worst case, the desired point would lie in the middle of the two adjacent control
increments.(or can be defined as one half of the control resolution ignoring the
mechanical inaccuracies).

Repeatability –
➢ it is concerned with the robot’s ability to position its wrist at a point in space that had
previously been taught to the robot.
➢The robot’s mechanism will have some natural variance in it and limitations of
control resolution. This means that when the robot is repeatedly instructed to return to the
same point, it will not always stop at the same position.

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 PROGRAMMING THE ROBOT

There are various methods which robots can be programmed to perform a given work
cycle. Programming method are divided into four categories.
1. Manual method
2. Walkthrough method (On-line)
3. Lead through method (On-line)
4. Off-line programming
Manual method:
This method is not really programming in the conventional sense of the world. It is more
like setting up a machine rather than programming. It is the procedure used for the
simpler robots and involves setting mechanical stops, cams, switches or relays in the
robots control unit. For these low technology robots used for short work cycles (e.g., pick
and place operations), the manual programming method is adequate.
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Walkthrough method:
In this method the programmer manually moves the robots arm and hand through the
motion sequence of the work cycle. Each movement is recorded into memory for
subsequent playback during production. The speed with which the movements are
performed can usually be controlled independently so that the programmer does not
have to worry about the cycle time during the walk through. The main concern is getting
the position sequence correct. The walk through method would be appropriate for
spray painting and arc welding.

Lead through method:

The lead through method makes use of a teach pendant to power drive the robot
through its motion sequence. The teach pendant is usually a small hand held device with
switches and dials to control the robots physical movements. Each motion is recorded
into memory for future playback during work cycle. The lead through method is very
popular among robot programming methods because of its ease and convenience.

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 Teach pendant
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Off- line programming:
This method involves the preparation of the robot program off-line, in a manner
similar to NC part programming. Off-line robot programming is typically accomplished
on a computer terminal. After the program has been prepared, it is entered in to the
robot memory for use during the work cycle. The advantaged of off-line robot
programming is that the production time of the robot is not lost to delay in teaching the
robot a new task. Programming off-line can be done while the robot is still in
production on the preceding job. This means higher utilization of the robot and the
equipment with which it operates.

Another benefit associated with off-line programming is the prospect of integrating the
robot into the factory CAD/CAM data base and information system.

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 Sensors in robotics

➢A sensor is a window for a robot to the environment. Sensors allow robots to

understand the objects in their surrounding environment.
➢Sensors are used in robots for a variety of tasks. A greater use of sensors, therefore, is
highly essential to avoid uncertainty and achieve higher productivity.
➢Sensors are generally classified into two groups: internal sensors and external sensors.
➢Internal sensors such as its position sensor, velocity sensor, acceleration sensors, motor
torque sensor, etc obtain the information about the robot itself.
➢External sensors such as cameras, range sensors contact and proximity sensors and force
sensors gather the information in the surrounding environment.

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 Types of sensors used in robotics.
➢ Vision sensors (use of camera)
➢ Tactile sensors (sense of touch )
✓ Touch sensor
✓ Force/Stress sensor
➢ Proximity (nearness) & Range (distance) sensors
✓ Optical proximity devices,
✓ Eddy-current proximity detectors,
✓ Ultrasonic sensors
➢ Voice sensors

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Vision sensors:
➢Vision system is a sensor used in the robots for viewing and recognizing an object.
➢Robot vision is made possible by means of camera with a sufficient light source.
➢The camera is mounted either on the robot or in a fixed position above the robot so
that its field of vision includes the robots work volume.
➢It has several components such as a camera, digitizing hardware, and an interface
hardware & software.
➢The vision process includes three important tasks, namely:
➢Sensing & Digitizing Image Data (Capture the image & convert into digital data form)
➢Image Processing & Analysis (convert the digital information using suitable
algorithms and interpret the information with the previously stored data in the control
unit)
➢Applications (enable the robot to carry out the following kinds of operations)
✓Inspection
✓Orientation (if randomly oriented)
✓Part Identification
✓Location
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 Figure: Vision System
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Tactile sensors:(sense of touch)
➢Tactile sensors provide the robot with the capability to respond to contact forces
between itself and other objects within its work volume.
➢Measures information arising from physical interaction with its environment.
Tactile sensors can be divided into two types:
1. Touch sensors

2. Force (Stress) sensors

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Touch sensors:
➢are used simply to indicate whether contact has been made with an object without
regard to the magnitude of the contacting force.
➢These sensors provide a binary output (1/0, enable /disable) signal wrt contact made with
the object or not.
➢A simple micro switch or limit switch can serve the purpose of a touch sensor.
The devices are frequently used in –
✓To indicate the presence or absence of parts in a fixture or at the pickup point along a
conveyor.
✓Used as a part of inspection probe to measure the dimensions on a workpart.

Figure : Robotic Platform Employing Bumper Coupled to Touch Sensor

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Force (Stress) sensors :
➢are used not only to indicate that
contact has been made with the object
but also to measure the magnitude of
the contact force between the objects.
➢Strain gauge, load cell, piezo
electric devices are typically employed
in force measuring sensors.
Potential use of robots with tactile
sensing capabilities would be –
✓Capability to grasp parts of
different sizes in material handling,
loading & unloading workpart.
✓In assembly, the robot could
perform delicate part alignment and
joining operations.(pressure
distribution)

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Proximity (nearness) & Range sensors(distance):
➢A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects
without any physical contact.
➢A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of
electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the
field or return signal.
➢This sensing capability can be engineered by means of optical proximity
devices, eddy-current proximity detectors, ultrasonic sensors, and other
devices.
➢In robotics, proximity & Range sensors are be used to indicate the presence or
absence of a work part or other object, for determining the location of an object
(workpart) in relation to the robot
➢Another important application is for sensing human beings in the robot work
cell (helpful in preventing injury to human workers in the factory).

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Optical proximity sensors :
A complete optical proximity sensor includes a light source(emitter), a sensor
that detects the light(detector), a frequency sensitive amplifier which is an
integral part of the light detector.
The light beam reflected from the object is picked up by the detector. The light
beam is modulated(adjusted) to a specific frequency, where the frequency
sensitive amplifier responds only to light of that frequency. If the robot is
approaching a light reflected object, the light intensity of the reflected beam gets
stronger thus changing the status of the circuit. The robot can then steer clear of
the object.

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Figure: Emitter and detector are 2 separate units (Left), Emitter cum detector in a single
package(right)

Figure: Ultrasonic proximity

sensor working principle

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 How Ultrasonic Sensors Work

➢An ultrasonic sensor is an instrument that measures the distance to an object using
High-frequency ultrasonic sound waves.

➢Ultrasonic sensors work by sending out a sound wave at a frequency above the range of
human hearing.

➢The sound waves which travels through the air and if there is an obstacle or object,
it will bounce back to the sensor. (Viz. Objects in its path will partially reflect the
emitted signals,)

➢which are then received back by the sensor and decoded.

➢Sensor calculates the time interval between sending the signal and receiving the echo
to determine to identify the position and distance of objects relative to them (robot).

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 Figure: Eddy current proximity sensor
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Principle:
➢If a metal object comes in the close proximity of the coil, then eddy currents are induced
in the object due to the magnetic field. These eddy currents create their own magnetic
field which distorts the magnetic field responsible for their generation.
➢As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the amplitude of alternating current.
This can be used to trigger a switch.

➢Eddy current proximity sensors detect the proximity or presence of a target

by sensing fluctuations in magnetic field generated by a reference coil.
Eddy current sensor operates based on the inductive eddy-current principle. It
measures the distance based on the extraction of energy from an oscillating
circuit, which is required to generate eddy current in an electrically-conductive
materials.
When the sensing coil is supplied with an alternating current, it causes a
magnetic field to form around the coil. If an electrically conducting material is
placed in this field, eddy current field is induced according to the Faraday’s
induction law. When the object moves, it causes the change in the impedance of
the coil, which is proportional to the change in the distance between the sensor
and the target.
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Voice sensors:
Another area of robotics research is voice sensing or voice programming.
Voice programming can be defined as the oral communication of commands to the
robot or other machine. The robot controller is equipped with a speech recognition
system which analyzes the voice input and compares it with a set of stored word
patterns when a match is found between the input and the stored vocabulary word
the robot performs some actions which corresponds to the word.
It would also be beneficial in especially in hazardous working environments for
performing unique operations such as maintenance and repair work. The robot could be
placed in hazardous environment and remotely commanded to perform the tasks by means
of step by step instructions.

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Industrial Robot Applications can be divided into:
Material-handling applications:
• Involve the movement of material or parts from one location to another.
•It includes part placement, palletizing and/or depalletizing, machine loading and
unloading.
Processing Operations:
• Requires the robot to manipulate a special process tool as the end effectors.
• The application include spot welding, arc welding, riveting, spray painting, machining,
metal cutting, deburring, polishing.
Assembly Applications:
• Involve part-handling manipulations of a special tools and other automatic tasks and
operations.
Inspection Operations:
• Require the robot to position a work part to an inspection device.
• Involve the robot to manipulate a device or sensor to perform the inspection.
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Material Handling Applications:
This category includes the following:
➢Part Placement
➢Palletizing and/or depalletizing
➢Machine loading and/or unloading
➢Stacking and insertion operations.
Processing operations:
• Robot performs a processing procedure on the part.
• The robot is equipped with some type of process tooling as its end effector.
• Manipulates the tooling relative to the working part during the cycle.
Industrial robot applications in the processing operations include:
➢ Spot welding
➢ Continuous arc welding
➢ Spray painting
➢ Metal cutting and deburring operations
➢ Various machining operations like drilling, grinding, laser and water
➢jet cutting, and riveting.
➢ Rotating and spindle operations
➢ Adhesives and sealant dispensing
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Assembly operations:
➢The applications involve both material-handling and the manipulation of a tool.
➢They typically include components to build the product and to perform material
handling operations.
➢There are some traditionally labor-intensive activities in industry and are highly
repetitive and boring. Hence are logical candidates for robotic applications.
These are classified as:
➢ Batch assembly: As many as one million products might be assembled.
➢ The assembly operation has long production runs.
➢ Low-volume: In this a sample run of ten thousand or less products might be made.
➢ The assembly robot cell should be a modular cell.
➢ One of the well suited areas for robotics assembly is the insertion of odd electronic
components.
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Inspection operation:
➢Some inspection operation requires parts to be manipulated, and other applications
require that an inspection tool be manipulated.
➢Inspection work requires high precision and patience, and human judgment is often
needed to determine whether a product is within quality specifications or not.
Inspection tasks that are performed by industrial robots can usually be
divided into the following three techniques:
➢ By using a feeler gauge or a linear displacement transducer known as a linear variable
differential transformer (LVDT), the part being measured will come in physical contact
with the instrument or by means of air pressure, which will cause it to ride above the
surface being measured.
➢ By utilizing robotic vision, matrix video cameras are used to obtain an image of the area
of interest, which is digitized and compared to a similar image with specified tolerance.
➢ By involving the use of optics and light, usually a laser or infrared source is used to
illustrate the area of interest.
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