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MODULE – 2
CAD and Computer Graphics Software
&
Computerized Manufacture Planning and Control System

Prepared by:
Anand A
Assistant Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering,
RajaRajeswari college of Engineering,
Bangalore - 74
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CAD and Computer Graphics Software :

The design process, applications of computers in design, software configuration,
functions of graphics package, constructing the geometry.
Transformations: 2D transformations, translation, rotation and scaling, homogeneous
transformation matrix, concatenation, numerical problems on transformations.

Computerized Manufacture Planning and Control System:

Computer Aided Process Planning, Retrieval and Generative Systems, benefits of
CAPP, Production Planning and Control Systems, typical activities of PPC System,
computer integrated production management system, Material Requirement
Planning, inputs to MRP system, working of MRP, outputs and benefits, Capacity
Planning, Computer Aided Quality Control, Shop floor control.
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2D Translation in Computer Graphics

In Computer graphics, 2D Translation is a

process of moving an object from one
position to another in a two dimensional
plane.
Consider a point object O has to be moved
from one position to another in a 2D plane.
Let-
Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold,
Yold)
New coordinates of the object O after
translation = (Xnew, Ynew)
Translation vector or Shift vector = (Tx, Ty)
Given a Translation vector (Tx, Ty)-
Tx defines the distance the Xold coordinate
has to be moved.
Ty defines the distance the Yold coordinate
has to be moved.
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This translation is achieved by adding the translation coordinates to the old

coordinates of the object as-
•Xnew = Xold + Tx (This denotes translation towards X axis)
•Ynew = Yold + Ty (This denotes translation towards Y axis)

In Matrix form, the above translation equations may be represented as-

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PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON 2D TRANSLATION IN COMPUTER

GRAPHICS-
Problem-01:
Given a circle C with radius 10 and center coordinates (1, 4). Apply the translation with
distance 5 towards X axis and 1 towards Y axis. Obtain the new coordinates of C without
changing its radius.
Solution-
Given-
•Old center coordinates of C = (Xold, Yold) = (1, 4)
•Translation vector = (Tx, Ty) = (5, 1)
Let the new center coordinates of C = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the translation equations, we have-
•Xnew = Xold + Tx = 1 + 5 = 6
•Ynew = Yold + Ty = 4 + 1 = 5
Thus, New center coordinates of C = (6, 5).
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Alternatively,
In matrix form, the new center coordinates of C after translation may be obtained as-

Thus, New center coordinates of C = (6, 5).

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Problem-02:

Given a square with coordinate points A(0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0). Apply the
translation with distance 1 towards X axis and 1 towards Y axis. Obtain the new
coordinates of the square.

Solution-

Given-
•Old coordinates of the square = A (0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0)
•Translation vector = (Tx, Ty) = (1, 1)

For Coordinates A(0, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner A = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the translation equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold + Tx = 0 + 1 = 1
•Ynew = Yold + Ty = 3 + 1 = 4

Thus, New coordinates of corner A = (1, 4).

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For Coordinates B(3, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner B = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the translation equations, we have-
•Xnew = Xold + Tx = 3 + 1 = 4
•Ynew = Yold + Ty = 3 + 1 = 4
Thus, New coordinates of corner B = (4, 4).
For Coordinates C(3, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner C = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the translation equations, we have-
•Xnew = Xold + Tx = 3 + 1 = 4
•Ynew = Yold + Ty = 0 + 1 = 1
Thus, New coordinates of corner C = (4, 1).
For Coordinates D(0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner D = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the translation equations, we have-
Xnew = Xold + Tx = 0 + 1 = 1
Ynew = Yold + Ty = 0 + 1 = 1
Thus, New coordinates of corner D = (1, 1).
Thus, New coordinates of the square = A (1, 4), B(4, 4), C(4, 1), D(1, 1).
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2D Rotation in Computer Graphics-

In Computer graphics, 2D
Rotation is a process of rotating
an object with respect to an angle
in a two dimensional plane.
Consider a point object O has to
be rotated from one angle to
another in a 2D plane.

Let-
Initial coordinates of the object O
= (Xold, Yold)
Initial angle of the object O with
respect to origin = Φ
Rotation angle = θ
New coordinates of the object O
after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).
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This rotation is achieved by using the following rotation equations-

•Xnew = Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
•Ynew = Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
•In Matrix form, the above rotation equations may be represented as-
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PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON 2D ROTATION IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS-

Problem-01:
Given a line segment with starting point as (0, 0) and ending point as (4, 4). Apply 30
degree rotation anticlockwise direction on the line segment and find out the new
coordinates of the line.
Solution-
We rotate a straight line by its end points with the same angle. Then, we re-draw a line between
the new end points.
Given-
•Old ending coordinates of the line = (Xold, Yold) = (4, 4)
•Rotation angle = θ = 30º
Let new ending coordinates of the line after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the rotation equations, we have-
Xnew
= Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
= 4 x cos30º – 4 x sin30º
= 4 x (√3 / 2) – 4 x (1 / 2)
= 2√3 – 2
= 2(√3 – 1)
= 2(1.73 – 1)
= 1.46
Thus, New ending coordinates of the line after rotation = (1.46, 5.46).
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Alternatively,
In matrix form, the new ending coordinates of the line after rotation may be obtained as-

Thus, New ending coordinates of the line after rotation = (1.46, 5.46).
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Problem-02:
Given a triangle with corner coordinates (0, 0), (1, 0) and (1, 1). Rotate the triangle by 90 degree
anticlockwise direction and find out the new coordinates.
Solution-
We rotate a polygon by rotating each vertex of it with the same rotation angle.
Given-
•Old corner coordinates of the triangle = A (0, 0), B(1, 0), C(1, 1)
•Rotation angle = θ = 90º
For Coordinates A(0, 0)
Let the new coordinates of corner A after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the rotation equations, we have-
Xnew
= Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
= 0 x cos90º – 0 x sin90º
=0

Ynew
= Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
= 0 x sin90º + 0 x cos90º
=0
Thus, New coordinates of corner A after rotation = (0, 0).
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For Coordinates B(1, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner B after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).
Xnew
= Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
= 1 x cos90º – 0 x sin90º
=0
Ynew
= Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
= 1 x sin90º + 0 x cos90º
=1+0
=1
Thus, New coordinates of corner B after rotation = (0, 1).
For Coordinates C(1, 1)
Let the new coordinates of corner C after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).
Xnew
= Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
= 1 x cos90º – 1 x sin90º
=0–1
= -1
Thus, New coordinates of corner C after rotation = (-1, 1).
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Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after rotation = A (0, 0), B(0, 1), C(-1, 1).
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2D Scaling in Computer Graphics

✓In computer graphics, scaling is a process of modifying or altering the size of

objects.
✓Scaling may be used to increase or reduce the size of object.
✓Scaling subjects the coordinate points of the original object to change.
✓Scaling factor determines whether the object size is to be increased or reduced.
✓If scaling factor > 1, then the object size is increased.
✓If scaling factor < 1, then the object size is reduced.
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Consider a point object O has to be scaled in a 2D plane.

Let-
•Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold)
•Scaling factor for X-axis = Sx
•Scaling factor for Y-axis = Sy
•New coordinates of the object O after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew)

This scaling is achieved by using the following scaling equations-

•Xnew = Xold x Sx
•Ynew = Yold x Sy

In Matrix form, the above scaling equations may be represented as-

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PRACTICE PROBLEMS BASED ON 2D SCALING IN COMPUTER GRAPHICS-

Problem-01:
Given a square object with coordinate points A(0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0). Apply the
scaling parameter 2 towards X axis and 3 towards Y axis and obtain the new coordinates
of the object.
Solution-

Given-
•Old corner coordinates of the square = A (0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0)
•Scaling factor along X axis = 2
•Scaling factor along Y axis = 3

For Coordinates A(0, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner A after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the scaling equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold x Sx = 0 x 2 = 0
•Ynew = Yold x Sy = 3 x 3 = 9

Thus, New coordinates of corner A after scaling = (0, 9).

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For Coordinates B(3, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner B after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the scaling equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold x Sx = 3 x 2 = 6
•Ynew = Yold x Sy = 3 x 3 = 9

Thus, New coordinates of corner B after scaling = (6, 9).

For Coordinates C(3, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner C after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the scaling equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold x Sx = 3 x 2 = 6
•Ynew = Yold x Sy = 0 x 3 = 0

Thus, New coordinates of corner C after scaling = (6, 0).

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For Coordinates D(0, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner D after scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).
Applying the scaling equations, we have-
•Xnew = Xold x Sx = 0 x 2 = 0
•Ynew = Yold x Sy = 0 x 3 = 0
Thus, New coordinates of corner D after scaling = (0, 0).
Thus, New coordinates of the square after scaling = A (0, 9), B(6, 9), C(6, 0), D(0, 0).
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Homogeneous Coordinates:
➢The rotation of a point, straight line or an entire image on the screen, about a point other
than origin, is achieved by first moving the image until the point of rotation occupies the
origin, then performing rotation, then finally moving the image to its original position.
➢The moving of an image from one place to another in a straight line is called a translation. A
translation may be done by adding or subtracting to each point, the amount, by which picture
is required to be shifted.
➢Translation of point by the change of coordinate cannot be combined with other
transformation by using simple matrix application. Such a combination is essential if we wish
to rotate an image about a point other than origin by translation, rotation again translation.
➢To combine these three transformations into a single transformation, homogeneous
coordinates are used. In homogeneous coordinate system, two-dimensional coordinate
positions (x, y) are represented by triple-coordinates.
➢Homogeneous coordinates are generally used in design and construction applications. Here
we perform translations, rotations, scaling to fit the picture into proper position.
➢The homogeneous coordinates representation of (X, Y) is (X, Y, 1).
➢ Through this representation, all the transformations can be performed using matrix / vector
multiplications.
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Composite Transformation:
A number of transformations or sequence of transformations can be combined into
single one called as composition. The resulting matrix is called as composite
matrix. The process of combining is called as concatenation.
Suppose we want to perform rotation about an arbitrary point, then we can perform
it by the sequence of three transformations
✓Translation
✓Rotation
✓Reverse Translation
The ordering sequence of these numbers of transformations must not be changed. If
a matrix is represented in column form, then the composite transformation is
performed by multiplying matrix in order from right to left side. The output
obtained from the previous matrix is multiplied with the new coming matrix.
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Example showing composite transformations:

The enlargement is with respect to center. For this following sequence of
transformations will be performed and all will be combined to a single one
Step1: The object is kept at its position as in fig (a)
Step2: The object is translated so that its center coincides with the origin as in fig (b)
Step3: Scaling of an object by keeping the object at origin is done in fig (c)
Step4: Again translation is done. This second translation is called a reverse
translation. It will position the object at the origin location.
Above transformation can be represented as TV.STV-1
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General Pivot Point Rotation or Rotation about Fixed Point:

For it first of all rotate function is used. Sequences of steps are given below for rotating an object about
origin.
•Translate object to origin from its original position as shown in fig (b)
•Rotate the object about the origin as shown in fig (c).
•Translate the object to its original position from origin. It is called as reverse translation as shown in fig
(d).
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Step1: The object is kept at desired location as shown in fig (a)

Step2: The object is translated so that its center coincides with origin as shown in fig (b)
Step3: Scaling of object by keeping object at origin is done as shown in fig (c)
Step4: Again translation is done. This translation is called as reverse translation.
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The above translation matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as:

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For homogeneous coordinates, the above rotation matrix may be represented

as a 3 x 3 matrix as-
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For homogeneous coordinates, the above Scaling matrix may be represented

as a 3 x 3 matrix as-
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Introduction to Process Panning

➢Once the design of the product has been evolved from customer’s views, its
manufacturing necessitates careful planning and scheduling of the various
processes of manufacture. So that, the product is made to right specifications and
delivered at the right time at a minimal cost.

➢Process planning acts as a bridge between design and manufacturing by

translating design specification into manufacturing process detail. Hence, in
general, process planning is a production organization activity that transforms a
product design into a set of instruction (sequence, machine tool setup etc.) to
manufacture machined part economically and competitively.

➢Alternatively, process planning is the systematic determination of the detailed

methods by which parts can be manufactured from raw material to finished
product.

➢In recent years, computer aided process planning (CAPP) has been recognized as
a key element in computer integrated manufacturing (CIM).
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Figure : Represents the

various steps involved in
developing a process
plan.
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Various steps are discussed as follows :

➢The analysis of finished part requirement is the first step in process planning. Initially the
features of parts are analyzed. Examples of geometric feature include plane, cylinder, cone
step, edge and include fillet. These common features can be modified by the addition of
slots, pockets, grooves, holes and others.
➢The second step is the selection of raw work piece shape, size (dimensions and weight),
material and other attributes are determined. Weight and material of the raw part are
determined by the functional requirement of plan.
➢The next logical step in process planning is to determine the appropriate types of
processing operations and their sequences to transform the features, dimensions and
tolerances of a part from the raw to the finished state. There may be many ways to produce a
design some times constraints are also considered like some feature be machined before or
after other. Furthermore, the types of machine, available tools as well as batch size influence
the process sequence.
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➢Next step to be followed in process planning is the selection of machine tools on which these
operations are made. Unit cost of production, manufacture lead time and quality are three basic criteria
for evaluating the suitability of a machine tool to accomplish an operation.
➢Next step to be followed is the selection of tools work holding devices and inspection equipments.
Features on the workpieces are generated using a combination of machine tool and cutting tools. Work
holding devices are used to locate and hold the workpiece to generate features. In order to ensure the
dimensional accuracy, tolerance and surface finish on the feature, inspection equipments are required.
Part features play a vital role in the selection of machine tools, fixture and inspection equipment.
➢Now sixth step which has to be performed is the determination of machining condition and
manufacturing time. The controllable variables of machine condition are cutting speed (υ), feed (f) and
depth of cut (d).
➢Minimum cost per piece, maximum production rate and manufacture lead time are same for the
model to be optimized for high production and less cost.
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Why computer support for process planning?

➢The manual process planning is often a tedious and time demanding engineering
process and it is one of the labour activities in the preparatory stage of
manufacturing. There are many routine, heuristic, deciding and intuitive activities
used by a planner. There is an effort for these activities to be supported by
computer. Computer support can markedly help to solve some planning activities.
Computer aided process planning (CAPP) system is software for the automated
design of route sheet.
➢Computer Aided Process Planning aids in creation of process plans for
manufacturing and increases the flexibility of manufacturing.
➢Process planning is a task which requires a significant amount of both time and
experience. Computer support or computerised process planning systems can help
reduce a process planning time and increase plan consistency and efficiency.
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CAPP systems work in conjunction with

CAD and other computer systems.
There are four main elements in
designing a CAPP system: input, output,
database, and manufacturing decision-
making rules. As shown in the CAPP
model, data preparation is a necessary
step for obtaining proper product
definitions for the CAPP system which
is carried out after the CAD system is
completed. After the completion of data
preparation the data is entered into
CAPP and is supported by knowledge
and physical rules. When the CAPP
operation is completed, the next step is
output. From this output, the next
operation is post processing which
prepares data for production planning
and scheduling activities. Finally, the
production planning and scheduling
operations are carried out.
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Whether it is retrieval system or a generative system, computer-aided process planning

offers a number of potential advantages over manually oriented process planning.
1. Process rationalization. Computer-automated preparation of operation routings is more likely to be
consistent, logical, & optimal than its manual counterpart. The process plans will be consistent because the
same computer software is being used by all planners. We avoid the tendency for drastically different
process plans from different planners. The process plans tend to be more logical & optimal because the
company has presumably incorporated the experience & judgement of its best manufacturing people into
the process planning computer software.
2. Increased productivity of process planners. With computer-aided process planning, there is reduced
clerical effort, fewer errors are made, & the planners have immediate access to the process planning data
base. These benefits translate into higher productivity of the process planners. One system was reported to
increase productivity by 600% in the process planning function.
3. Reduced turnaround time. Working with the CAPP system, the process planner is able to prepare a route
sheet for a new part in less time compared to manual preparation. This leads to an overall reduction in
manufacturing lead time.
4. Improved legibility. The computer prepared document is neater & easier to read than manually written
route sheets. CAPP systems employ standard text, which facilitates interpretation of the process plan in the
factory.
5. Incorporation of other application programs. The process planning system can be designed to operate
in conjunction with other software packages to automate many of the time-consuming manufacturing
support functions.
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Several computer-aided process planning systems are available for use for a variety of
manufacturing operation.
These systems can broadly be clarified into two categories :
(i) Variant computer aided process planning method.

(ii) Generative computer aided process planning method.

The variant approach was used in early computer-aided process-planning systems, and is
basically a computerised database retrievel approach . The variant or retrieval approach is
based on group technology methods of classifying and coding parts for the purpose of
segregating these parts into family groups. In this approach, parts produced in a plant are
grouped into part families, distinguished according to their manufacturing characteristics. For
each part family, a standard process plan is established. The plan is stored in a computer file
and then retrieved for new parts that belong to that family. Some form of parts classification
and coding system is required to organise parts into families for correct retrieval of the
appropriate plan for a new part. A major problem with this approach is the lack of adequate
classification models that can provide consistency in classifying and coding parts. It is also
restrictive in that new parts to be planned have to be similar to those already in the data file.
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Retrieval CAPP systems/ Variant CAPP:

➢This has evolved out of the traditional manual process planning method. A process plan
for a new part is created by identifying and retrieving an existing plan for a similar part,
followed by the necessary modifications to adapt it to the new part.
➢It is based on GT principles, i.e., part classification and coding. These coding allow the
CAPP system to select a baseline process plan for the part family and accomplish about 90%
of the planning work. The planner adds the remaining 10% of the planning by modifying the
baseline plan.
➢If the code of the part does not match with the codes stored in the database, a new process
plan must be generated manually and then entered into database to create a new baseline
process plan for future use.
Advantages and limitations of Variant CAPP:
➢ Investment in hardware and software is not much.
➢The system offers a shorter development time and lower manpower consumption to
develop process plan.
➢The system is very reliable and reasonable in real production environments for small and
medium size companies.
➢Quality of process plan depends on knowledge and background of process planner.
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The second approach to computer-aided process planning is the generative type. Systems
of this type synthesise the process plan for a new part, based on an analysis of part
geometry, material and other factors that may influence manufacturing decisions. Inputs to
the system would usually include a comprehensive description of the part. This may also
involve the use of some form of part coding, but this does not involve the retrieval of
existing standard plans. These systems usually employ either a set of algorithms or
knowledge- based techniques to progress through the various technical and logical decisions
toward an appropriate process plan for a part. The generative approach provides fast advice
to designers early in the design process and is closely coupled with the product-modelling
activities. Once the manufacturing technology, and the type of equipment or process have
been chosen, further detailed planning is carried out as usual. The use of knowledge-based
systems and artificial intelligence techniques was the next major development in generative
process planning.
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Figure : Generative CAPP

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Generative CAPP:
➢Process plans are generated by means of decision logics, formulas, algorithms, and
geometry based data that are built or fed as input to the system.
➢Format of input
– Text input (interactive)
– Graphical input (from CAD models)
➢First key: to develop decision rules appropriate for the part to be processed. These rules
are specified using decision trees, logical statements, such as if-then-else, or artificial
intelligence approaches with object oriented programming.
➢Second key: Finding out the data related to part to drive the planning. Simple forms of
generative CAPP systems may be driven by GT codes.
➢The generative CAPP has all the advantages of variant CAPP however it has an additional
advantage that it is fully automatic and a up-to-date process plan is generated at each time.
➢It requires major revisions if a new equipment or processing capabilities became available.
➢The development of the system in the beginning is a difficult.
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Production Planning and Control Systems

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