CHAPTER - 8 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER ORGANIZATION LEARNING OBJECTIVES « Introduction, Input/Output devices, Data storage, Microprocessor, Memory map, Memory interface, RAM, ROM, Computer memory, memory organisation and addressing 80 Introduction The.term computer gets its name from the word conputation. Computers are built with electronic components that can perform computation very fast. Computers are of two types namely analog computer and digital computer. Analog computers work with analog input signals. They are used to study direct simulation of a physical system. Digital computers work with digital input signals. They are used to process the data and achieve the desired objectives with greater precission. Digital inputs are obtained by usign an analog to digital converter. Recently digital computers are used to computer and analyse the data, take decision and control external processes to optimise the performance of a system. These computers are also used in scientific calculations, space guidance, traffic control, commercial and buiseness data processing etc. The block digram of a digital computer is shown in the figure 8.1. A digital computer consists of five units (i) Input unit (ii) Storage unit (iii) Arithmetic-logic unit (iv) control unit and (v) Output unit. Control ALU Unit Storage Unit Output Unit Figure 8.1 Block diagram of a digital computer i a Gan mree fee Tk. ee |, 146 Digital Systems & Application, The central processing unit (CPU) isthe brain oF a digital computer and Tene de to the physical combination of the control unit and the arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The CPU is buy, Chasingle semiconductor chip and it serves as a microporcessor. Hence a mieroporeessorisaVLg chip which consists of electronic logic ciruits and control unit to execute arithmetic and log den tions and other functions ina prescribed manner for the movement i“ See digital data. A microcomputer consists ofa microprecessor chip, memory chips, inpu on aaa the circuit connectors. Hardware means the physical components and the eee computer. Software refers toa set of programs written for the computer to run it and to ac] ieve the desired objectives, The input and output devices of a digital computer are known as peripheral devices. The function of different units ofa digital computer are explained below @ Input Unit- The input unit links the external environment with the computer system. This unit brings the Program and data to the computer. It converts the information into binary form for the computer to understand it. The conversion is achieved by electronic circuits termed as the interface. The input devices transfer the converted data to the CPU for Processing further. The input unit is basicaly a digital system actuated by electromechanical parts and Controlled by electronic digital circuits, Key board, mouse, floppy disc and scanner are the examples of input devices. GD Storage Unit - The storage unitis also known as memory unit, This unit consists of devices to store data and instructions applied to the computer throught the input unit. It holds the intermediate and the final results as the computer executes a set of instructions, called the Program. The information required by the control unit is also stored in the storage unit. The time required to get the information depends on the type of the storage devices RAM, ROM, magnetic tapes and disks are the examples of storage devices. (ii) Arithmetic Logie Unit- The arithmetic logic unit performs all the arithmetic logic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division together with logic operations as specified by a program. The data and the instructions stored in the storage unit are transferred to ALU before processing as and when requred. The transfer of data between the storage unit and the ALU takes place both ways many time till the processing is completed. (iv) Control Unit - The control unit instructs the other uni supervises the transfer of informations among different by are from the program stored in the memory unit, operation specified the instructions. It also confirms that the necessary data are supplied from the storage unit. It delivers the required control signals to establish th, dinati between different units of the computer, © coordination (v) Output Unit - The output unit links the computer system to the outside environment, It brings the processed data and the results from the central Precessing unit. The i conve he processed data andre in binary form toa eats eee ote sen circuits ell the output interface before presenting tothe use The aug 2 electronic system driven by eletromechaneal pats and conttlled by drain circular is a digital video display and floppy disks are the examples ofouput devin stinter, plotter, 8.1 Input/Output Devices The input devices attached to the computer form the input unit, Key its what to do and when to do and units. Itrecovers the instructions one It informs the ALU to perform the board, Mouse, floppy wy Nagnetic ink character reader (MICR), optical mark reader (OMR), optical character ‘is and joystick are the examples of input devices, The basic structure of a computer is (0 eo he figure 8.2 — In put Output Memory Figure 8.2 Basic structure of a computer, The input unit takes the input and converts it into binary form so that it can be understood by se-computer Since a computer operates on electricity, it can understand only the languages of electricity i.e either ON or OFF or high or low Voltages. Hence a cmputer can understand the binary language that uses just two number, 0 for OFF and 1 for ON or 0 for low voltage and | for high voltage respectively. The output devices attached to the computer form the output unit. The output unit brings the binary output coming from the CPU and converts it toa readable from. Vidual display unit (VDC), printer, plotter, speaker, speech synthesizer and coder are examples of output devices. The input and output devices are collectively known as peripheral devices. Acompter follows. input-process-output cycle. The Ist stage is performed by the input unit, the 2nd stage is performed by the CPU and the third stage is performed by the output unit. The memory of the computer holds the input and the integmediate output during the processing. The CPU is the control centre for the computer, It guides, directs and governs the performance of a computer. It has two components namely control unit (CU) and Arithmetic logic unit (ALU). The ALU performs all the four arithmethic (+, = */) and some logical (S,>, =) operations. The CU controls and guides the interpretation, flow and manipulation of data and information. It sends Control signals until the requred operations are done properly by ALU. The control unit gets the program instructions from the memot after the other. Italso controls the flow of data form input devices to Output devices, 82 Data Storage The storage devices are used to store data and instructions ‘heinput unit. Broadly, the storage devices are of two types (i) (ii) Read Only Memory (ROM). Random Access Memory (RAM): The random access memory (RAM) is basicall a stora e device to store information in the binary form. It consists of an attay of storage cells with cue hecessary to transfer the information in the out ot the storage cells, The information is randot I Written or read from any desired storage call, Hence itis termed as random, access memory or ay Write memory, In the RAM the storage cells are flip-flops, The logic diagram of a I-bit RAM Shown in the figure 8.3. is ry unit and exgutes them one memory and from memory to applied to the computer through random Access Memory (RAM) and ‘ion 10 Computer Organisation 147 } yeti148 Digital Systems & Applications Address - [)— Read line Outputs mop input Write © cP enable ; ya Figure 8.3 Logic diagram of a I-bit RAM A 1-bit RAM consists of an RS flip-flop, two AND gates and one Nor gate. It has three inputs one output. The address input line is excited to state | to read data out o' or write data into the storage cell. The write enable line is also excited to state | for the wri e operation. If the write input is in logic state 1, the circuit shows that S = | and R=0. Hence Qalie the input | is stored in the memory. The output of the final AND gate is the read out is also in state 1. This Confirms that the write operation has been correctly executed. Similarly the alternative logic state 0 can be written into or read out from the unit. The block diagram of a RAM is shown in the figure 8.4. |p data input line k address lines SE Read en Write n data output lines Figure 8.4 : Block Diagram ofa RAM The RAM store binary information in groups of bits called words, A word consis of and 0’s and can represent an instruction, one or more alphanumeric characters, a number etc. The 1 data input lines provide the binary data and information to be stored in the memory and the n data output lines supply the data and information coming that ofthe memory. The k addres lines provide abinary number ofk bits that specify the address ofa particular word chooses among the 2« words available inside the memory. The write input transfers the binary data into the memory and ther ad input transfers the bnary data from the memory to the output, The Memory unit is 5 ry a the re number of words (28 and the number of bits per word (0). Inthe RAM number often ey tte equal to the product of the number of words and the number of bits Per Word (2 x storage cell is capacity 2x 16 has 10 address lines and 16 bits per word and2"° namie, of Word n). ARAM of K, Hence the memory capacity is written as 1 K x 16 or 2K bytes. Similarly a me, rds i.e., 1024 ~ 1 * 16 can be written as 1M x 16 or 2M bytes, and a memory Capacity 2 x 16 0 mory capacity x 16 or 2 G bytes. IC RAMs are built with either bipolar or MOS transistors, Ba 2€ Written as 1 G of two types - (i) Static RAM (ii) Dynamic RAM. "Basically RAMs are‘an tO Computer Organisation - uotion —— = = = id ; siatie RAM (SRAM) 7 Static RAM consists of flip-flops to store binary informati Os nformation remains valid so long as the power is applied to the unit, Hence SRAMis pes SRAM takes up more space for a given storage capacity. SRAM uses more power, It Pa ple Se thas less storage capacity, SRAM can be either bipolar or MOS. High speed SRAMs 22 00 smaller and rapid access typeof memory : : a Dynamic RAM (DRAM) : Dynamic RAM consists of transistors and eapacitrs. I inary information by charging the capacitors. Depending on the switching action of the sf ie the capacitor either contains no charge (0 bit) ora charge (1 bit). DRAM provides volatile se he contents are lost the event of power failure. DRAM takes up less space for a given see capacity. Ituses less power. DRAM can be MOS. se capactor charges deley with time, the capacitors are tobe recharged periodically. The sont of time taken 10 produce data required from memory, from the start of access until the iy of data, is called memory access time. The fabrication of IC RAM is shown in the figure 83 RAM ae SRAM. DRAM —! el MOSSRAM MOSDRAM Figure 8.5 : Fabrication of IC RAM Read Only Memory : The read only memory (ROM) is a storage device to store binary information, rhe binary information stored in the ROM is made permanent during the hardware producticn a: the device and can not be altered. Hence ROM is non-volatile. The block diagram of EROM is shown in the figure 8.6. It consists of m inputs (I, 1, ... I...) and n output (QQ one Q,,) where m and n are not equal. — | o— Inputs xn 1,2—$— a Outputs 1 Qer QQ, Figure 8.6 : Block Diagram of a ROMDigital Systems & Applica tion Is 150 Jaress and each bit combination of the op Foomg ett bit combination oF he inputs orms an c forms a word. The inputs ean have all possible combination of the Dits | and © The numer possible addresses with m inputs is 2". The number of bits per word is n. In a ROM an output won) is selected by a separate address. Since there are 2” distinct addresses, it can store 2" differen words. Therefore the word, available at the output depends on the address applied at the input, The ‘ad as required. The ROM is specified by thy output word corresponding to an input code can be re: { number of permanently stored word (2") and the number of bits per word (n). ie., 2"*n. ARON specified by 28 x § means it has 2° = 32 distinct words stored permanently in the ROM and each word has 8 bits. The number of output lines is equal to the number of bits in the word. Hence the the number of input terminals. Hence the ROM has 8 outout terminals. The power of 2 represents ROM has 5 input terminals. The particular word required at the output lines is determined by the input address. If the address at the input is 1111] then the decimal equivalent is 31 and word number 31 is selected in the memory and its contents are appeared at the output lines. The device is known as read only memory because memory is normally used to denote a storage unit and word read denotes that the contents of a word corresponding to an address appears at the output terminals. A ROM can be realised from decoder-encoder combination as shown in the figure 8.7. 1, 1, Inputs Decoder : Encoder Ta 0,21, Q Figure 8.7 - Realisation of a ROM from decoder-encoder combinabon IC ROMs are built with either bipolar junction on MOS transistors. Basically ROMs are of three types - () Programmable ROM (ii) Erasable ROM (iii) Electrically erasable PROM Programmable ROM (PROM) : PROM stores data permane i th 7 only once. Itcan be built with either bipolar junction or MOS eee ane care Erasable PROM (EPROM) : EPROM is another t ; : 2 type of PR¢ i reprogrammed to record different information. The chip can ere eel Tight, Ifthe EPROM is in use then the information can only be read and thei pesrosed fo.ultraviold the chip unless it is erased. It can be built with MOS transistor. eeumas ion remains of)jountn to Computer Organisation ectrieally erasable PROM (EEPROM) : EEPROM can be ia signals. Information stored in BEPROM can be retained for many years without any deo ypplied. It can be built with MOS transistor. The fabrication of ICROM is shown in the oo 151 programmed and erased by foe 88 ROM PROM EPROM EEPROM| j | MOSEPROM]| | MOSEEPROM BJTPROM | MOSPROM| Figure 8.8 - Fabrication of ICROM 83 - Computer Memory : Computer memory may be classified as main memory and peripheral memory. The main memory is the internal part of the computer and serves as the program memory and it is very fast. The peripheral memory is the add on memory with very large storage capacity. The peripheral memory is also known as auxiliary memory and it is very slower than the main memory. It serves as the data memory for storing extremely large quantities of data. The main memory is in constant communication with the CPU during program execution. The program to be currently executed and any data used by the program are stored in the main memory. Semicnductor ‘memories are well suited as the main ememory because of their high speed of operations. The main ‘memory is constructed from semiconductor IC devices but the auxiliary memory consists of magnetic memory and optical memory. Semiconductor Memory : It is composed of bipolar junction or MOS transistors on an integrated circuit, Semiconductor memories are of two types namely ROM and RAM. ROM and RAM can be constructed to store extremely large amounts of data within a computer system. ROM and RAM can store both programmed instructions and data in the computer. The semiconductor Memory consists of a rectangular array of memory cells fabricated on a silicon wafer, The basic "memory cell consists ofa transistor flip-flop or acircuit which can store charge and is used to store | bit information. Semiconductor memories can be classified as either bipolar, metal oxide Semiconductor (MOS), or complementary metal oxide sexiconductor (CMOS) according to the ‘ype of transistor used to construct the memory cell. The total number of cells used in amemory determines its capacity In géneral faster operation ithe characteristic of bipolar memory chip but greater packing density, reduced size and cost and lower power requirements are the character ti of MOS and CMOS memory chips. The block diagram of a RAM chip is shown in th e figure 8.9,ig | 152 Digital Systems & Application, Read Enable Address Li : Figure 8.9 “Block diagram of RAM Chip . The logic circuitry associated with a RAM will allow a single bit of information to be stored Im any memory cell. This is the write operation. The logic circuitry that will detect wheather a0 or 1 is stored in any particular memory cell. This is the read operation. The fact that a bit can be written i.e., stored in any memory cell or read i.e., detected from any memory cell suggests the description random access. A control signal called chip enable is used to enable or disable the chip. In the read mode the data from the selected memory cells is made available at the output. In the write mode the information at the data input is written into i.e., stored in the selected cell. The address lines determine the cells written into or read from. Since each cell is a transistor circuit, a lossof de power means a loss of data. Hence a RAM provides volatile data storage. An application in which data changes frequently calls for the use of a RAM. The block diagram of a ROM chip is shown in the figure 8.10 Address Lines Fig - 8.10 - Block diagram of ROM Chip The content of a ROM is fixed during manufacturing by metallization or by the presence oF absence of a working transistor in a memory cell or by opening or shorting the gate structure or by the oxide layer thickness. There are logic circuitry and address lines to select any desired memory cell in the memroy. Therefore a ROM is also random access. When enabled the data from the selected cells is made available at the output. There is no write mode. Since data is permanently stored in each memory cell, a loss of power does not cause a loss of data. Hence a ROM provides non-volatile data storage. An application in which the data does not change but the required datav yyction 10 Computer Organisation . ~~ be available calls for the use of a ROM. For example a lookup table which stores the values will mw pematical constants like trigonometric functions or logarithmic functions or a fixed program offs that used to find the square not of a number could be stored in a ROM. se Example 1 : State the type of semiconductor memory for main memory ina hand calculator, ‘Ans. RAM Example - 2 : State the type of memory for storing values of logaririhms. ‘Ans. ROM Example - 3 : State the type of memory used for storing prices of vegetable produce. ‘Ans, EPROM Example - 4 : State the type of memory used in emergency stop procedures for an industrial pill now in the design stage. Ans. PROM Magnetic Memory : Magnetic memory includes the recording of digital information on mangetic tape, hard disk and floppy disks. Magnetic storage devices are quite sophisticated and are externally accessed. Magnetic memories are capable of storing large quantities of digital data. Magnetic disks (hard disks and floppy disks) are referred to as the mass memory because they can store huge amounts of data. Magnetic disks are important components in almost all micro-computers and mini-computers. Large reels of magnetic tape are economical and widely used in mass storage components in large computer system. The basic principle used in each case is the magnetization of small spots in the thin film of magnetic material. The principle of writing (recording or storing) binary data on a magnetic surface is shown in the figure 8.11. The write head is a small electro- magnet placed very closed to a moving magnetic surface. ._— Electro magnet | | i\o i ‘ ' _ Input pulse Magnetic ' p-}—« Voltage flux Is 1 7 ; 1 i 1 i \ 7 Magnetic Surface Fig - 8.11 - Magnetic Recording| 154 Digital Systems & Apblicat When input pulse voltage is applied to the coil Ofte elestromagnet Perea of the may cy surface under the electromagnet is magnetized in a certain cic “a ey Pees fopposie Polarity is applied the region under the electromagnet is magnetized in he opposite direction. aque bit 1 or 0 is thus imprinted on the region disregarding the existing stat co magnetization OF the region. The principle of reading binary data from a magnetic surface is shown in the figure g The read head is a small electromagnet placed very close to a moving magnetic surfac. tions Electro magnet ——> Output pulse Magnetic 2 Voltage flux Magnetic Surface Fig - 8.12 - Magnetic Reading ‘The magnetized region (recording | or 0) under the electromagnet induces a voltage pulse of acertain polarity in the coil depending on the direction of magnetization of the region and indicates wheather the recorded bit is a 1 or 0. In most cases the read head and the write head are combined to forma single unit which is known as dual read-write head. Magnetic Tape : Magnetic tape storage is non-volatile. It has immense capacity of storing data at relatively low cost per bit. It is a mass storage and back up device. A single magnetic tape may be of very long length and can store thousands of megabyte, The magnetic tape is wound on reels and must be unwound to read and write. The main drawback of the magnetic tape is the long time required to access a specific block of data. The magnetic tape is produced by the deposition of athin film of magnetic material on a long strip of plastic which is then would on areel. The adjacent regions on the surface of the magnetic tape are magnetized with one polarity on the other to represent | and 0 and dual read-write head is used to sense or alter the magnetization. Data can be recorded on magnetic tape either in coded form or in binary form. Either seven or nine dual read-write heads are connected in parallel for use with magnetic tape. As the magnetic tape moves past the heads, datais read or written. In the 7-bit system, alpha-nui there is 1 parity bit. In the 9-bit system a data is composed of 8-bits and the ninth bit is for parity either even or odd. Data storage on a magnetic tape is sequential Hard Disk : Hard disk is produced by the deposit i ; in circu oA Position of 6 circular isk (usually aluminium). Itisa secondary storage device nie nee on a thin random access. The recorded data can beread many tinRs introduction to Computer Organisation : 155 jut the magnetization in the opposite direction ofa patch represents a 1. The binary bits are feroded on concentric circles called tracks, Tracks are divided into sectors as shown in the figure- 3. i Sectors Tracks Fig - 8.13 - Hard Disk The hard disks used in small computer system are 3.5 inches or 5.25 inches in diameter. Hard disks drive with 40 to 400 gigabyte capacities are common in micro-computer systems. Hard disk is rotated at speed between 3600 to 7200 rpm. In high end computer hard disk rotates at speed 1500 rpm resulting an access time of 16 ms to 36 ms. Hard disks are widely used incomputer sytem because of short access time and high storage capacity. The number of tracks and sectors are different for different computer systems and for different manufacturers. The smaller hard disks used in micro-computer systms have around 300 tracks. In a modern computer system there are options to use 3.5 inch hard drives of capacity 80 GB and above, 2.5 inch hard drive of capacity 40 GB to 120 GB and palm size pocket hard drive of capacity 2.5 GB and 5 GB in addition to internal hard disks. Flopply Disks : Floppy disk is produced by the deposition of magnetic material on a semirigid plastic disk. Floppy disks are also known as diskettes or floppies. The floppy disk is permanently housed in a flexible square jacket that protects the disk from dust. Write Protect notch Spindle Ey drive Index hole] Ox access hole Read-write access Fig - 8.14 - Floppy Disk7 for the read write he index ace ‘The read-write opening provides i rahe ea When the write prone the use of photo-sensor to establish a reference as ae ‘The floppy disk data can not be recorded on the disk, loss of data is pr i 4 protaby Nora,’ . ive. The ive unit consists of a sing}. a device and it must be nserted into a disk drive, The d se drive pindle drive rowan’ ead te head, a write mechanism and a track positioning mechanism. : the map ti is about 80 ms, 1 jg set ; py di tig at a speed of 360 rpm. Hence the a ste for Nop disk upon the data to he oto device, It is also divided into tracks and sectors wing 2 sided high density 5.25 inch floppy disk has a capacity of 1.2 MB. Doubl inch floppy disk has a capacity of 2.88 MB. kcbas tence, mple- 1: Asingle-sided double density 8-inch floppy disk has tracks ny 76 and sectors 0 to 25. What is the total storage capacity of Ans, Number of sect be ry le Exan Mbered ge, the disk» 6 77 Bytes per sector = 256 Storage capacity of the disk = 77 x 26 x 256 = Example-2: The tot Number of trac! 12.512 bytes. al storage capacity ofa floppy disk having 80 tracks 128 bytes/sector is 163840 bytes. What is the number of se disk ? And storin ClOrs of the Ans. Number of sectors = Heaeia) =16 7 "— 80x128 Optical Memory : It is the latest mass memo: The operation of an optical memor laser beam offa disk th Optical memories ry technology which has ry is based on the reflection or scat at has microscopic pits or bub! are of three types namely promising future, tering of an extremely narrow; les representing logic is burned on its suface, compact disk, digital versatile disk and blue ray disk Compact Disk (CD) : CD is an optic al storage device having a storage Capacity of upto 700 MB. It is relatively cheap. There are three types of CDs namely CD-ROM, CD-R and CD-RW, CD-ROM: CD-ROM devices are mass produced in factory usin; CD-ROM drives use LASER technology to read data from it. A semicor high intensity light wave of stable wavelength ~ 780 mm. A lens system the disk over 1 jum diameter spot. The intensity of the reflected light fir received by photo sensors ives the information of binary data store: ga stamp press technology. nductor LASER generatesa directs the LASER towards ‘om metallic reflection layer din the CD. There are two The pit is 0.12 jum deep compared ties are about 25% and 70% from the Pit and land respectively. The intensity of reflected light changes every time laser beam travels from land to pit or pit to land. This change is read as binary | anda constant intensity reflected light is interpreted as zero, The pit width is such that there is at | ve 1 cast 2 and at most 10 zeroes between every binary 1. This is done by Converting every 8-bit byte into a 14-bit as eight to fourteen modulation (EFM). The diameter o 3 value by a process known : "CD-ROM is 12cm and its depth is 1 mm. The depth ofa CD-ROMs four parts namely label layer, protective layer, reflective layer and transparent substrate layer. THe Pits and lands are for ayer. The CD-ROM is highly reliable med on the transparent substrate |;othe data protected by 10-20 um thick protective lacquer layer on one side and label on the ahs of 1.2mm thick polycarbonate layer. Hence the data can be ma a a in normal physical abuses. The small scratches on the surface do not directly erase the data lo a eate extra areas of light scattering. The data is stored in the form ofa spiral of around 20000 ie totaling 4.5 km of length and it contains 2 billion shallow pits on the surface. The symbol vi np-ROM represents the speed at which data is read from the CD-ROM. The symbot 1X a for 150 Kbps. CD-ROMs are available today in speed range of 48X to 75X. san gaxample - 1: Whatis the speed of a 48X CD-ROM ? ‘Ans. 48X = 48 = 150 Kbps = 7200 Kbps. Example - 2 : What is the speed ofa 78X CD ? Ans. 75x = 75 x 150 Kbps = 11250 Kbps. CD-R: Compact Disk - Recordable allows to write data only once and it can not be erased. he CD-R drive has LASER unit that uses higher intensity light wave for write operation than read operation. CD-R disk does not have pits and lands but it has a photo-sensitive organic dye between reflective layer and polycarbonate substrate that write laser heats to nearly 250°C. This melts the dyeto form a depression mark in the recording layer in proper places. The places burnt have lower reflectivity of light. Hence read laser has two different intensities on reflected light while reading the disk. Earlier version of CD-R was called as WORM i.c., write once read many times. WORM requires data to be written in only one session or one go. Now CD-R can be written in multiple sessions till it is completely filled. The writing speed of CD-R is much slowed that the read speed. CD-RW : Compact Disk - Rewritable or CD read write is an erasable disk in which data can bewritten and erased many times. CD-RW uses an active layer of silver-indium-antimony-tellurium alloy that has a polycrystalline structure making it reflective. Writting data on CD-RW uses highest power of laser which heats the selected places to 500°-700°C. At this hi igh temperature the chemical structure liquifies loging its polycrystalline structure and cooling solidifies to an amorphous state whose reflectivity is reduced from 25% to 15%. The read operation on CD-RW is like CD-ROM and CD-R that notes the difference in reflectivity on the reflecting surfaces. To erase data the LASER operates at a lower power setting and heats the active material to 200°C. This converts the material from amorphous state to its polycrystalline structure and makes the material reflective again. Ina CD-RW the rewrite operations can be done 1000 times or more. 12X/I 0X/32X/ CD-RW indicates that CPU and media permitting CD-drive can write to CR-R disk at 12X speed, write to CD-RW disk at 10X speed and read from CD at 32X speed. DVD (Digital Versatile Disk) : DVD is also known as Digital Video Disk and it is an optical storage device that looks like a compact disk. DVD is able to store nearly 15 times data more than that store by CD. It can transfer data to the computer about 20 times faster than CD-ROM. DVD is also known as Super Density Disk (SD) and can store da ta upto 17 digabytes. It can also store four hours of movies on one side. DVD drives use smaller wavelength (635 mm or 650 mm) and lower numerical aperature lens system to read smaller dimension land and pits. Each side has two layers ftom which data is read and in certain disks data is written on both the sides of DVD. Single sided single layer DVD has a storage capacity of 4.7 GB, single sided double layer DVD has a storagea os Digital Systems @ lic | ong td eal DVD has a storage capacity of 9.4°G3 Ra r capacity of 8.5 GB, double sided oF es In DVD terminology IX means 1.35 Mtn Si layer DVD has a storage capacity SS ee me are three types of. DYDs lle oa ae only memory is an optical storage devieg 2 ae 17.1GB. DVD-ROMs were originally developed for then storage capacity between 4.7 GB to 17. B. toring large amounts of data, DVD-ROM vig industry. Huge capacity makes them attractive for sto 1g vg can read audio CDs, CD-ROMs, CD-Rs and CD-RWs. : aa DVD-R : Digital Video Disk - Recordable allows to write data on the sk only once andrea it many times but the data can not be erased. DVD-RW: Digital Video Disk - Rewritable or DVD-read write is an erasable disk in Which data can be written and erased many times, Blue-ray Disk (BD) : BD is an optical storage disk format which h a standard DVD or CD. BD is mainly used for high definitions (HD) vi BD format uses a blue-violet laser instead of red laser. The new BD form data than DVD can store. The storage Capacity of BD is upto 25 GB on GB on a double layer disk. BD is used for recording rewriting, playbac! data. The advantages of using blue-violet laser of wavel a shorter wavelength that red laser of wavelength 650 nm which make: blue-vioet laser with even greater percision. This allows the data t and stored in less space, Therefore it is possible disk, as the same dimensions of. deo and data storage, Thy it can store five times More a single layer disk and sp K of HD video and storing length 405 nm is thatithas S it possible to focous the © be packed more tightly to fit more and more data on the blue ray 8.4 - Memory Organisation and is a means for storing data or information in binary forms. It consists o} in which numeric and alphanumeric y s data is known as data memory but memory used to sti i ‘am memory. Computers which store programs in i - In stored programe type computers Programs are stored as a set of machine language instructions in binary forms. The number of illions in other memories, Each and may range from 4 to 64 or more vi ain number of bytes. For exam les, a.16 bit word j word is 4 bytes, a Memory location is a set bit micro-com, ° le Word, For example, each memory uter cons E own asacell The! P 'sts of 8 latches. Each 7 ° atch stores one bit of word, and is Thatcanbe stoned ee° oe the size ofa memory is the total number of bits or bytes or words 1K. ence the size ofa memory is expressed ag multiple at 2'°= 1924 = expressed as a. certs bytes and a 32 bitr ction to Computer Organisation 159 1 emo! y system rec i Bach memory SY quires several different types of input and output lines to perf fo perform the * elect the address i ea | ae in memory that is to be accessed for read it ‘ . Select either read or write operation to be performed or write operation. med. 2 3, Suppl’ the’input data to b i 3. " ” e stored inn it i A ; memory during write operation. Hold the outptit data coming from memory dyring read operti Enable or disable the memor i = =e ‘ 'y, So that it : read/write command, will. or will not respond to addresses inputs and ‘These basic functions are explained in thegliagramh ofa 32 x 4 memory shown in figure-8.15 e-8.15. 4324 memory can store 32 numbers of 4-bit word. Data inputs 5. Real/write command Address ‘ 32x4 ee Memory Memory Enable Data outputs of a32 x 4 memory. four data input lines I, 1,1, and tion the word being read from Fig- 8.15 - Diagrams Ina 32 * 4 memory the word size is 4-bits. Hence there are [and four data output lines Op» 0,9, and O,. During @ read opera pears at the data output lines. ved memory stores 32 25 (32) different storage from 00000 t0 11111 ic., 0 t0 31. Therefore access one memory location for read or write Jocation is applied to the address inputs. In ai having storage capacity of 2" words. read/write (R/W) input line determines the memory operation that will ry systems there are two separate inputs, one for read and one for write. is used the write ope memory apy words. Hence it has Address Inputs : A 32 : locations and 32 different binary addresse® ranging there are five address inputs Ay Ay AAs and A,. To operation the 5 bit address code for that particular general N-address inputs are jred for a memory R/W Input: The take palce. In some memo When a single R’W input es place for RW ration takes place for RW = 0 ang the reac 1 operation tak| Digital Systems g Ap, 160 Memory Enable Tn many memory systemsall or part of the memory can bedesee it does not respond to the other inputs An active high input will enable the memog "°® normally when itis kept high. low input wil disable the memory and prevents itto rey P% R/W inputs. o Example - 1 : Find the size of memory (2") in K. Ans. 2" = 2048 = 2 x 1024 =2K. Example - 2: Express the memory size 2"in K. Ans, 2" = 24 x 2!9 = 16 x 102: 16 K. Example - 3 : Express a memory size of 2'* in K. Ans, 2'6 = 26 x 2!0 = 64 x 1024 = 64 K. Example - 4 : A memory has a eapacity of 64 K x 16. (a) Find the number of data input and data output lines. (b) Find the number of address lines. (©) Find the capacity in bytes. Ans. (a) The word size of 64 K x 16 is 16 bits. Hence it has 16 data input lines and 16 date output lines. (b) The memory stores 64 K = 64 x 1024 = 26 x 2! =2'6 words. Hence it requires 16 address lines. (©) 1 byte =8 bits. 64 K x 16 = 8K x 128K The memory has capacity of 128 K bytes. 8.5 -Microprocessor : Microprocessor is a LSI or VLSI chip consisting of electronic logic circuits to ae computing functions and take decisions in a prescribed manner to change the sequence Bliss execution. The microprocessor is Similar to a CPU in many ways but all the electronic logic' a . and control unit are on one chip: The microprocessor consists of three segments namely aritl Mit and logic unit (ALU), register,unit and control unit. The block diagram of a micro-compute with a microprocessor is shown in the figure below. : Input Output} — Register System bus ALU unit Control unit [Memory] Microprocessor : : Fig. 8.16 : Block diagram fa micro-computer. putin a * rious oO Arithmatic Logic Unit : ALU is the segment of the microprocessor whete ear 3 operations are perfromed on data. It performs arithmatic operations like addition and 5 and logic operations like AND, OR and XOR operations. iyal to Computer Organisation ster Unit : It consists of an array of registers identified by letters such as B, CD, 161 hese registers are used to store data, instructions and data addresses temporarily dameei : he ton ofaprogram. a Control Unit : It provides the necessary timing and control signals to coordinate all the rations in the microprocessor. Tt controls the flow of data between the microprocessor and memory sapeipel ‘The microcomputer consists of microprocessor, peripherals like input/ output devices gd memory chips. These components are arranged around common communication path called aga bus. The entire assembly of these components is known as a system and the components are tov assub-SySteMs. Microprocessor are used in many fields including personal computer, engineering work-station sai computer aided design (CAD) machines. Microprocessors are also used in medical ‘annertation, home appliances, industries, communication systems, office administration, printing technology, robots, toys and entertainment equipments Recently 8-bit microprocessors are widely used and they have become part of microcontrollers, Forexample, Intel 8051, Intel 8085, Intel 8086, Intel 80386, Zilog Z8 and Motorola HCO8 series and Microchip PIC series. Intel $085 is an 8-bit general purpose microprocessor capable of addressing a 64K memory. ites forty pins, operates with a +5V single power supply and a 3 MHz single phase clock. Microprocessor Architecture - Microprocessor architecture is the internal logic design of the microprocessor which determines the process of data manipulation and communication with peripherals, Input devices are used to enter instructions and data for programming am icroprocessor toperform desired function on the given data. ‘Accumulator Flag register B c D E H L Pointer Counter ‘Address_bus 16 lines Bidipectional Unidirectional ig 8.17 Registers in 8083 Microprocessor. . gor analyzes the instructioins and perform the preseribed operations on the “The microprOees eq in a memory o passed tothe output deviees. The microprocessing data, The result 2 OF Gevices which can perform various operations onthe data witha set of unit (MPU) cone ems MPU and microprocessor are synonymous. control signa!s 7=— Digital Systoms & Applica general purpose registers in a 8085 microprocessor to store 8-bit data dunes the program execution. Th are identified by eters B, CD, Ey Hand Land arg st 8 inthe figure 8.17."The registers can be combined in pars like BC, DE and IL for 16-bitoperane™ These registers are programmable and with the help of instruetions data can be transferreq ipa them. For example, data can be transferred from E to D by the instruction MOV D, E, ‘om, ‘The accumulator of a 8085 microprocessor is an 8-bit register used to store 8-bit data and perform arithmatic and logic operaions. It is a part of ALU and is denoted by A. The flag register of an Intel 8085 microprocessor is an 8-bit register which is used to examine data conditions accessing the register with an instruction. Program status word (PSW) is an instruction referring to the accumulator and the flag register. The flags have great importance in decision making. Therear, five flags (flip-flops) in the ALU of the microprocessor in accordance with the results Stored inthe accumulator. These flip-flops are set or reset. These flags are affected by the arithmatic oF logic operations performed by the ALU. These flags (flip-flops) reflect the data conditions in the ccmulator The five flags of a microprocessor are zero (Z) flag, carry (CY) flag, sign (S) flag, parity (P) flag and Auxiliary Carry (AC) flag. The zero flag is set to | if 0 is the result of an arithmatic operation in ALU. The carry flag is set to | to indicate a carry if the sum in the accumulator exceeds 8-bits The sign flag is set to 1 if the D, bit of the 8-bit result attains the state-1. Hence if D,=1 then the number is negative and ifD, = 0, then the number is positive. The parity flag is set to | ifthe result >f an operation is an even number of Is, The Auxiliary Carty is set to | ifa carry is generated in an urithmatic operation by the digit D, and transferred to the digit D,. The AC flag in used only for BCD arithmatic. The program counter (PC) is a 16-bit register containing memory addresses. Hence it isa memory pointer. The program counter points to the memory addresses from which the next byte is 0 be brought. It is employed to sequence the program execution. The Stack Pointer (SP) is a 16-bit register containing 16-bit memory addresses. It serves as. 4 memory pointer to locate the stack in the memory. The stack is a group of memory locations used ‘or a temporary storage of the binary information during the program execution. The microprocessor 2xecutes the computing functions specified in a program and controls the timings of the flow of data. The microprocessor communcates with the memory and the input/output with the system bus. 3us isa group of lines used to transfer bits between the microprocessor and the other components of he computing system. The memory stores the program containing the binary instructions and the lata. It also supplies the instructions and the data to the microprocessor and stores the data and results. The input device is used to enter data and instructions under the control of a program. Ihe output device is used to obtain the data from the microprocessor as dictated by the orogram. Bus Structure : The microprocessor communicates with the memory and peripherals by 162 There are s executing the following steps : (i) {dentification of peripherals or the memory location. (i) Data transfer (iii) Supply of timing or synchronization signal.jptroduction to Computer Organisation ‘These operations are performed by yy thi ol bus. The bus structure is shown in the figure’, ier namely, address bus d: = 8.18. : us data bus and Address bus put | | ut pul Microprocessor} Data bus = > Fig - 8/8: Bus Structure contr ified by A, t0 A, The bits are transferred from the ut not in the reverse direction through the address hese lines are unidirectional. The microprocessor identifies the peripherals or the “ddress bus. Each peripheral or memory location is identified by using a “dress. The address bus carries @ 16-bit address and hence it can address Tocations. In this ease 65536 in rounded off to 64000 or 64 K. Hence of 16 lines ident Address Bus : It consists d memory bt microprocessor to the peripherals ant bus. Therefore #! memory location by the a binary number called the a pie = 65536 = 64 K memory he microprocessor has 64 K memory. Data Bus : Data bus consists of 8 lines identified by D, © D, for ti microprocessor and peripherals (oF memory) in both the direction. bidirectional. The microprocessor transfers data by the data bus. It can man! numbering 2° = 256. The largest number appearing on the data bus is (ILI), = bus determines the word length and the size of register ofa microprocessor. Control Bus : nchronization signals. The Control bus has of single lines to carry sy! microprocessor supplies timing signal The microprocessor launches the 16-bit address from amemory location. The address is decoded by an exterr location is detected and a control signal “Memory Read” i -signal excites the memory chip and the 8-bit data contained data bus and are transferred to t is is instruction fe Interfacting Devices * Interfa! circuits required to hhe microprocessor. This ting devices are the additional logic interconnect the peripherals withthe microprocessor. The interfacing devices include buffers decoders and latches. Tristate lost devices are very useful for the bus oriented systems where various componets 5 fines, Tristate logic devices have three states namely two logic states (logic 0 and loi nda high imp stale. This device hasan enable line: Ifenable line is not activated then i 1 impedance state. Ifthe enable is high then the device actsas an inverter. The micr 3 with one peripheral atime by enabling the line of the interfa (I/O) devices can with the sor in two ways: ransfer of data between the Therefore these lines are pulate 8-bit data 255. The data anumber Is by the control bus. from the address bus to read an instruction nal logic circuit on the bus. The memory sent out by the microprocessor This in the memory location are put on the .tch operation. communicates at be interfaced oprocessor Input.outpu cing device.164 Digital Systems & Application & Peripheral mapped /0, ii) Memory mapped /0, i : voit Peripheral mepged VO an 8-bit address is employed by the microprocessing unit (Mpyy ‘o identify an VO. IN and OUT instruction are used for transfer of dala. In the memory mapped /9, al6-bitaddress i used by the microprocessing unit (MPU) to address an /O. Associated instructions are used for transfer of data, Interrupt ome i Rest Interrupt Ready and old. Irene et etd thal th interval operations ae Suspend and program counter in cleared and the program can be executed atthe zero memory address, jp interrupt is activated them the microprocessor is interrupted from executing the current program and directed to execute another program called service routine and to resume the current program after finishing the service routine, If Ready is activated them the microprocessor goes to wait state and slower peripherals are synchronized with the microprocessor. If Hold is activated them Microprocessor directs the external peripheral to use the buses. The 8085 microprocessor uses five interrupt signals to interrupt the execution of a program, ‘These five interrupt signals are INTR, RST 5.5, RST 6.5, RST 7.5 and TRAP. The Signal INTR (Interrupt Request) is used as general purpose interrupt. The signal INTA (Interrupt Acknowledge) is used by the microprocessor to acknowledge an interrupt. The signals RST 5.5, RST 6.5 and RST 7.5 restart, interrupt and transfer the program control to specific memory locatioins. The TRAP signal is a non-maskable interrupt and has the greatest priority. Programming a Microprocesor : A program consists of a set of instructions written in logical form to direct a microprocessor to perform the specific operations in a given sequence, These operations are of five types namely - xternal devices for four operations namely (i) Data transfer operations. (i) Arithmatic operations. \ (iii) Logic operations. \ (iv) Branching operations. (v) Stack, I/O and machine control operations. An Instruction is a command to the microprocessor to perform a specific task in the given data, It has two parts. The part of an instruction which shows the task to be performed is known as operation code (opcode). The part of the instruction which contains the data to be operated, is knownas operand. The instruction can be written inhexadecimal code but it is difficult to understand this code. Therefore a symbolic code is used for each instruction. This symbolic code used for an instruction is known as mnemonic. Ifthe programs are written in mnemonics then the medium of communication with the computer is said to be assembly language. If the communication with the computer is done through instructions in the binary form them medium of communication is said to be in machine language. An assembler is a computer program which translates an assembly language program from mnemonics to the binary machine language of a computer. A program stored in the ROM which interprets the input from a key board and transforms the input into its binary equivalent is known as a monitor program:yr to Computer Organisation duc! e Tie mero ov H, L- ‘The mnemo! swov EM ‘The mnemon mov M,B. Themnenomic Itcauses the data ‘AS to be transferred to the register D. The opcode is MVI and the operand ispand AS 8,6-Memory Map : Memory map isa pictorial representation in which memory devices are ‘gated inthe whole range of adresses. Memory addresses provide the locations of various memory fetes in the system, The interfacing logic defines the memory address range for each memory ieee The conept of memory map and memory addresses ean be explained with an analogy of ential houses built in sequence and their numbers. Ifthe houses are given three decimal numbers then one theusand houses can be numbered fom00 0999. The numbering scheme can be devised with the concept ofa block, There will be 100 houses in a block. These houses ina block to be numbered with last two decimal digits from 00 1099. Similarly the blocks are to be identified by the first decimal digit. For example a house with uber 342 is house number 42 in block 3. Inthis scheme all the houses in block 0 will be numbered from 000 £0999 in block 1 from 100+to 199 in block 2 from 200 to 299, in block 3 from 300 10399, iablock 4 from 400 to 499, in block 5 from 500 to 599, in block 6 from 600 to 699, in block 7 from 3000 799, n block 8 from 800 to 899 and in block 9 from 900 to 999. Therefore the numbering scheme with three decimals is able to give addresses to one thousands houses from 000 10 999 with 100 houses in each block. All the houses are identical with 8 rooms in each house. ‘The example of numbering houses can be directly applied to assign addresses to memory repstrs, In an 8-bit microprocessor system there are 16 address lines for memory. Therefore itisa numbering system of 16 Binary bits which ean identify 2° (65,536) memory registers and each repster with a 16 bit address. The entire memory addresses can range from 0000 to FFFF in Hex. Inthe hexadecimal number system 16 binary bits are equivalent to four Hex digits. Hence Hex digits which can be used to give addresses to 65,536 memory register are from 0000H to FFFFH in different memory chips. In our analogy a memory chip is similar to a block in housing scheme and aregister is similar to a house with eight identical rooms. AFamemory chip has 256 registers toon only 20 phim OF of 65,536 are needed and it requires eight address lines because 2*= 256, Now we can use the remaining eight address lines to assign fixed logic to generatea fixed number. This can be done by using the remaining eight lines for the Chip Select through appropriate logic gates. In computer system 1K = 1024. Hence a | K-byte memory chip has 1024 registers with & bits each. A group of 256 registers Is defined as a page and cach register is viewed eens eae oa Hence | K-byte memory chip can be viewed as a memory chip with fou pages with each page having 256 resisters Similarly with two Hex digits, 256 registers can be aa i eae prt FFH. 1024 register can be numbered with four Hex digits from 0000H to 03 Pon aersa car tat the high order digits of | K-byte memory range from 00 to 03 representing four pages (00, 01, 02, 03). Inan $-bit microprocessor system this page concept is used frequently. for an instruction of data transfer from the register L to the re nic for an instruction of data transfer from a memory location to the microprocessor nic for copying the data from the microprocessor register to memory locations for the make immediate instruction is MVID, AS. \| VJ166 Digital Systems & Applications : ses of the memory chi The term memory map is normally used for the entire range of addres ips : wus to the relationshj, ina given system. The relationship of ablock of houses tothe road map is ae memory addres? ofmemory addresses to the memory map. However the terms memory : ate used synonymously. The following points can be summarized for the memory map. dressing capaci (@ Inanumbering system the number of digits determines the maximum A — z nk {he system. 16 address lines of 8085 microprocessor can address 65,53 , ee — of address lines required to identify the registers, is, determined by the number of registers in the memory chip. (iii) The address lines whieh are used to select registers in memory are called low or he tines. These address lines ean be assigned any logic level 0 or 1 depending on the register being selected, i (™) The address lines which are used to select a chip are called high order address lines. These Address lines must have a fixed logie fora given range of address. — (©) The memory address range of a given chip can be changed by changing the hardware ofthe Chip Select (CS) line. This fine is also known as the Chip Enable (CE) line. 8.7- Memory Interface: Memory is an integral part of a micro-computer, It is important to interface a memory chip with th © inicroprocessor. The microprocessor needs to access memory frequently to read instruction Codes and data stored in memory during a program execution, The interfacing circuit enables the microprocessor to access the memory to read instruction codes and data stored. Memory has certain Signal requirements to write into and read from its registers. Similarly the microprocessor initiates aset of signals when it wants to read from and write into memory. The interfacing process involves designing a circuit that will match the memory requirements with the microprocessor signals. The primary function of memory interfacing is that the microprocessor should be able to read from and write into a given register ofa memory chip. To perform these operations the microprocessor should - (i) beable to select the chip. (ii) identify the register. iii) enable the appropriate buffer, To interface memory with the microprocessor the followi ng steps must be followed : (i) The required address lines of the address bus chip. (ii) The remaining address lines of the address bus are decoded and the signal is connected to select the chip. are connected to the address lines of the memory (iii) Control signals memory read (MEMR) and memory write (MEMW) are generated by combining RD and WR signal with 10/M and are used to enable the appropriate buffer. The process of address decoding results in identifying a register for a given address,jnrosuation to Computer Organisation » Theterm computer gets its.name from the word conputation. » Computers are built with electronic components that can perform i "analog computers work with analog input signals a «Digital computers work with digital input signals. » The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of a digital computer and it i Treptysieal combination ofthecontounitand the arithmetic ae ae « The input unit links the external environment with the computer system. instructions applied to the computer throught the input unit. « Thearithmetic logic unit performs all the arithmetic logic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division together with logic operations as specified by a program. : ‘The control unit instructs the other units what to do and when to do and supervises the transfer of informations among different units. « The output unit links the computer system tothe outside environment. ‘The random access memory (RAM) is basicall a storage device to store information in the binary form. «The RAM stores binary information in groups ofits, called words. ‘Aword consists of 1’s and 0’s and can represent an instruction, one or more alphanumeric characters, a number etc, Static RAM consists of flip-flops to store binary information. The stored information remains valid so long as the power is applied to the un Dynamic RAM consists of transistors and capacitors. It stores binary information by charging The storage unit is also known as memory unit. This unit consists of devices to store data and | | the capacitors. The read only memory (ROM) is a storage device to store binary information. The binary information stored in the ROM is made permanent during the hardware production of the device and can not be altered. PROM stores data permanently and it can be programmed only once. EPROM is another type of PROM which can be erased and reprogrammed to record different information. « EEPROM can be programmed and erased by electrical signals. ‘The main memory is the internal part of the computer and serves as the program memory and it is very fast. «. The peripheral memory is the add on memory with very large storage capacity. « The peripheral memory js also known as auxiliary memory and it is very slower than the main memory. «The nigin memory/as inconstahtcammuniestzon with the CPU during program execution. mn hi BD. ‘he prosraae nn 070.--7-7-7—1, can data U pa es SMOKE the: ‘The program to be currently executed and any data used by the PISS oer ate Main memor I. sone Semicnducto, memories are well sutedas the main ememory because of their high speed or Operations, The main memory is constructed from semiconductor IC devices but the auxiliary memory Consists of magnetic memory and optical memory. Semiconductor Memory :Itis composed of bipolar junction or MO Circuit, )$ transistors on an integrateg Semiconductor memories are of two types namely ROM and RAM. Magnetic memory includes the recording of digital information on ™ and floppy disks. Magnetic tape storage is non-volatile. | Hard disk is produced by the deposition of magnetic material on a thin circular rigid disk (usually aluminium), It is a secondary storage device and is used for both sequential ang random access, angetic tape, hard disk Floppy disk is produced by the deposition of magnetic material on a semirigid plastic disk, Floppy disks are also known as diskettes or floppies. _ Optical Memory : Itis the latest mass memory technology which has a promising future, The operation of an optical memory is based on the reflection or scattering of an extremely narrow laser beam offa disk that has microscopic pits or bubbles representing logic is burned on its suface, Compact Disk (CD) : CD is an optical storage device having a storage capacity of upto 700 MB, CD-ROM : CD-ROM devices are mass produced in factory using a stamp press technology. CD-R: Compact Disk - Recordable allows to write data only once and it can not be erased, CD-RW : Compact Disk - Rewritable or CD read write is an erasable disk in which data can be written and erased many times. DVD (Digital Versatile Disk) : DVD is also known as Digital Video Disk and it is an optical storage device that looks like a compact disk. DVD is able to store nearly 15 times data more than that store by CD. DVD-ROM : Digital Video Disk - Read only memory is an optical storage device having storage capacity between 4.7 GB to 17.1 GB. DVD-R : Digital Video Disk - Recordable allows to write data on the disk only once and read it many times but the data can not be erased. DVD-RW : Digital Video Disk - Rewritable or DVD-read write is an erasable disk in which data can be written and erased many times. Blue-ray Disk (BD): BD is an optical storage disk format which has the same dimensions of a svandard DVD or CD. BD is mainly used for high definitions (HD) video and data storage.eemory used to store data is known as data memory but memory used known as program memory. ry used to store programs is ory consists of storage elements like flip- tare : < Me tee Bs ents ike flip-flops or capacitors in semiconductor memoriés and magnetic domains in magnetic memories. : « Astorage element is known as acell. , Each memory consists of locations for storing binary information or bits. « Bach storage location is identified by an address. Amemory location is aset of devices capable of storing one word. « The capacity or the size of a memory is the total number of bits or bytes or words that can be stored. Microprocessor is 2 LSI or VLSI chip consisting of electronic logic circuits to perform computing functions and take decisions in a prescribed manner to change the sequence of program execution. The microprocessor consists of three segments namely arithmatic and logic unit (ALU), register unit and control unit. Microprocessor architecture is the internal logic design of the microprocessor which determines the process of data manipulation and communication with peripherals. Interfacting devices are the additional logic circuits required to interconnect the peripherals with the microprocessor. Inthe Peripheral mapped /O an 8-bitaddressis employed by the microprocessing unit (MPU) to identify an 1/0. In the memory mapped I/O, a 16-bit address is used by the microprocessing unit (MPU) to address an I/O. Memory Map : Memory map is a pitorial representation in which memory devices are located in the whole range of addresses. « Memory addresses provide the locations of various memory devices in the system. ‘The interfacing logic defines the memory address range for each memory device. ‘The interfacing circuit enables the microprocessor to access the memory to read instruction codes and data stored. ‘The primary function of ‘memory interfacing is that the microprocessor should be able to read from and write into a given register of amemory chip.eg I ptroduction to Computer Organisation 470 Digital Systems & Applications 34 35. 1 36 31, 38. 4 “39. 5. 6. 7. top doves a % (hats andom access memory ? Draw te logic diagram of bit RAM and explain its working. ‘do you mean by SRAM and DRAM ? 42, eRe memo ? Draw the block diagram of a ROM and explain its working, a lecoderencoder combina 4“ by PROM, EPROM and EEPROM ? on an by a word ? 6 u DVD - ROM (b) DVD-R (c) DVD-RW tea short note on blue 31. What is data memory ? 32, What is program memory ? 33. What are store program type computers ? ‘What are the storage elements in semiconductor memories ? What are the storage elements magnetic memories ? ' is amemory cell ? Explain in details about memory organisation and addressing Explain the following memory sizes in K. fa) 2" 2" ©)2%— @| a" ‘A memory has a capacity of 96 K » 16, (a) Find the number of data input and output lines. 6) e number of address (©). Find the capacity in bytes. What do you mean by interface ? Write shotes notes on : (a) Memory interfacing. ()_ Memory map. Distinguish between peripheral mapped I/O and memory mapped VO. With a neat block diagram explain the working of a microprocessor. icroprocessor architecture. Discuss about the bus structure of a microprocessor. Discuss ab terfacing devices of a microprocessor. Discuss about the inturrupts of a microprocessor.