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The Multi-Country
Study on the Drivers of
Violence Affecting Children
The Challenge The main outcome will be improved primary violence

Confronted with growing global evidence on the prevention interventions which are sensitive and
incidence and prevalence of violence, government responsive to variations by age and gender and that fully
officials and policy makers worldwide are asking: consider the needs of children and the adults who live
with them.
What drives violence
affecting children The Approach
This action-oriented and analytical research explores
and what can be done
both the drivers of violence and “what works” within
about it?
different perspectives and contexts and among different
MULTI-COUNTRY
programmatic approaches. Effective violence prevention
The Study efforts hinge on identifying both risk and protective
The study identifies and analyses how structural STUDY ON THE
factors and determining when in the course of a child’s
factors—the social, cultural, economic, legal, organiza-
tional, or policy responses—interact to affect everyday DRIVERS OF VIOLENCE
development they emerge.
The UNICEF Office of Research—Innocenti in collabora-

violence in children’s homes and communities. In turn, it
will identify causal pathways to better inform national AFFECTING CHILDREN
tion with the University of Edinburgh, UNICEF Country
Offices and their national counterparts, and with the
strategies for violence prevention. Unpacking the drivers
support of NY Head Quarters, promotes research linked
of violence—focusing on girls and boys at different
stages of the life course, from the very young to older
Italian Report
to programme (re)-design, implementation and
measurement—in effect, the development of more
adolescents—will contribute to comparative global and
contextualized approaches to violence prevention.
national evidence bases on why and how change
happens. The multi-country study combines research with
programme practice to generate innovative
platforms for global and national learning.
Any part of this document may be freely reproduced with appropriate acknowledgement.
This text has been drafted for the Istituto degli Innocenti by Erika Bernacchi, Ayana Fabris and Marco
Zelano under the scientific supervision of Donata Bianchi and Raffaella Pregliasco.
The literature review has been carried out by Ayana Fabris with the support of Cristina Mencato from
the Biblioteca Innocenti Library.
The secondary data analysis has been carried out by Marco Zelano.
Unicef Office of Research Innocenti and the University of Edinburgh supervised the research process.
The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do
not necessarily reflect the policies or views of UNICEF. This text has not been edited to official
publications standards and UNICEF accepts no responsibility for errors.
Suggested Citation: Bernacchi, Fabris, Zelano. Multi-country Study on the Drivers of Violence Affecting
Children. Italian Report. Istituto degli Innocenti, Firenze, 2016
Istituto degli Innocenti - Piazza SS. Annunziata 12 - 50122 Firenze

tel. +39 055 2037343 - fax +39 055 2037344 – [email protected] – www.istitutodeglinnocenti.it/
© 2016 Istituto degli Innocenti, Firenze

ISBN 978-88-6374-047-2
MULTI-COUNTRY STUDY ON THE DRIVERS OF VIOLENCE AFFECTING CHILDREN ITALIAN REPORT
CONTENTS
Executive Summary 3
Definitions 8
1. Introduction – The Multi-Country Study 13
2. The Political Economy of Italy - Issues Unique to Italy 16
3. The Child Protection System 24
4. Services and Response 28
5. Policy Timeline 30
6. Evidence on Violence Affecting Children: Methodology 31
7. Types of Violence: 32
Child Sexual Abuse 32
Child Physical Abuse 37
Child Emotional Abuse 39
Polyvictimisation 41
8. Places: 42
Violence affecting Children: In the home 42
Violence affecting Children: In schools and outside schools 44
Violence affecting Children: In the community 51
Information, Communication and Technologies 53
9. Relationships: 55
Parents and Children 55
Mothers and Children 56
Fathers and Children 57
Siblings and other family members 58
Partners and peers 59
10. Across Childhood/Key Transitions 60
Age/Gender Nexus 60
11. Ethnicity 65
12. Violence Prevention Interventions: Findings from the Mapping 67
13. Concluding remarks 71
Bibliography 72
Appendix A: Methodology 77
Appendix B: included Studies 80
Executive Summary
Violence affecting children is prevalent in all societies – high, middle and low income – yet, the evidence base to
support effective interventions remains weak. The Multi Country Study on the Drivers of Violence Affecting
Children – coordinated by Unicef Innocenti Office of Research with the technical support of the University of
Edinburgh and carried out for Italy by the Istituto degli Innocenti - stands at the intersection of evidence, policy
and practice. Central to the study is the link between generating quality research, translating that into evidence,
and turning evidence into effective and meaningful interventions. The four focus countries are Zimbabwe, Viet
Nam, Peru and Italy. They have been selected for geographic and socioeconomic diversity, as well as the
presence of quantitative data sets on violence affecting children and governments committed to violence
prevention. Italy joins the study representing southern Europe as a high-income country. Participation in the
study marks the Government of Italy’s commitment to reducing and preventing violence, a mission shared
within different ministries involved.
1. Data on Violence affecting Children in Italy

Evidence available in Italy, though limited, indicates that violence affecting children is a widespread
phenomenon. Collecting data on an issue still shrouded in social taboos makes the subject of violence a
particularly challenging research topic. In Italy, some important research efforts, even with their limitations,
have been completed providing a peek into what appears to be significant trends. We include here the results
of the two most significant surveys on the prevalence of violence against children the first from a retrospective
study asking women about childhood experiences and the other capturing the types of abuse experienced by
children taken care of by the social services due to maltreatment.
a) The nationally representative survey Vite in Bilico (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006), a retrospective study of
women between 19 and 60 years of age (n=2320) investigates the experiences of violence by women
when they were minors. Data presented below, in Figure 1., provides estimates on the prevalence of
violence and maltreatment among the Italian female child population. In this study sexual abuse1 and
maltreatment2 were measured. Study results show that fewer than one-third (26%) of women
reported never having suffered sexual abuse or maltreatment. One half of all women interviewed
suffered from some form of maltreatment, 6 percent from sexual abuse only and poly-victimization
(suffering from both or multiple types of abuse) was reported at 18 percent.
1
The survey includes the following types of sexual abuse: exhibitionism; verbal harassment; exposure to child pornography;
touching and acts of masturbation; attempted penetration; penetration
2
This includes physical abuse identified by behaviors such as recurring physical punishment; beatings with objects, hair pulling
or violent jerks; beatings with trauma. Psychological abuse identified as: criticizing or devaluing ironies. Material neglect:
medical assistance was not sought in case of illness; inadequate clothing for the season, no supervision on eating. Emotional
neglect: parents’ lack of support and attention concerning children’s school activities; no accompanying during falling asleep;
no play time between parent and child; entrusting children to outsiders or very old people. Witnessing Violence)
3
MULTI-COUNTRY
MULTI STUDYON
COUNTRY STUDY ONTHE
THEDRIVERS
DRIVERSOFOFVIOLENCE
VIOLENCEAFFECTING
AFFECTINGCHILDREN
CHILDREN ITALIAN REPORT
Figure 1. Prevalence of violence, retrospectively, among women 19 to 60 years of age
Source: Vite in Bilico (2006)
b) The national survey on child maltreatment carried out by, the Italian Network of Agencies against
Child Abuse (CISMAI) and Terre des Hommes Italy (2015) with the support of the Children’s
Ombudsman of Italy (National Authority for Children and Adolescents) provides administrative data
from a total of 2,4 million children (25% of the total Italian child population) in 231 municipalities
throughout Italy. Percentages below represent those children who reported violence and were treated
through available social services –children taken care of by social services due to maltreatment.
Figure 2. Types of abuse reported by children taken care of by social services in 231 municipalities
Source: National Survey on Child Maltreatment (2015)
4
Moreover, the 2015 ISTAT survey on violence against women (Istat, 2015) sampled 24,761 women aged
17-70, and found that 10.6% of Italian women have experienced sexual violence before the age of 16.
Different studies show that the great majority of perpetrators of child abuse are family members and
well known trusted people such as teachers, neighbours and family friends (the National Survey Vite in
Bilico by Bianchi and Moretti, 2006; the analysis of case sentences involving children by the Department
of Juvenile Justice, 2012; the analysis of the status of implementation of law 269/98 by the Italian
National Childhood and Adolescence Documentation and Analysis Centre for the year 2001 and 2002;
the qualitative study by Zomero 2002).
2. Drivers
We provide here below a summary of the most relevant drivers emerging from a systematic literature
review, secondary data analysis of the research Vite in bilico (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006) and evaluated
interventions mapping. By using the concept of ‘drivers’ we refer to the wider context that may lead to
violence and the idea that there are many community and society-level factors that may contribute to
causing or preventing violence against children. Taken together the analysis indicates that there are
multiple factors at play; these are preliminary hypotheses that will need further exploration with applied
field research on social norms.
The main themes on the drivers of violence emerging from the research at the individual level focused
mainly on risk factors for victimization including previous experiences of violence, psychological distress
and other health problems and lack of education and skills for protection. The drivers at the
interpersonal level that were identified in the research focused mainly on relationships within families
and schools including parental relationships, parenting skills, family stress, school stressors and
parenting and family norms around communication. At the institutional and community level, the main
drivers of violence identified through the research focused on family isolation and institutional factors
related to school governance. At the structural level, inequalities based on socio-economic status and
migration emerged as potential drivers as well as efficient and embedded structures linked with
organized crime and the perpetuation of commercial sexual exploitation.
These overarching themes revealed several specific findings, which emerged from the synthesis of the
systematic review and secondary analysis data on the drivers of violence affecting children. They are
presented here by typology of violence, places of violence and relationships.
Sexual Violence
 Psychological manipulation within unequal power relations of children trusting older figures
 Witnessing violence and previous experiences of (sexual) abuse
 Absence of family for child migrants
 Invisibility of trafficking victims
Physical Violence
 Quality of the couple relationship, lack of emotional support, parental anger, and impulsiveness
 Stressors at the household levels such as the combination of low income, health problems and
problematic children (premature and/or in poor health conditions) (see also the section
“violence in the home”)
 Witnessing violence and previous experiences of abuse
5
Violence in the home

 Families characterized by social isolation, family norms around silence and blame, humiliation
within family, witnessing domestic violence (See also the section “emotional violence”)
 Parental stress linked to separation issues
 Sources of fragility in family functioning such as physical disability and psychological ill-being,
financial poverty (see also the section “physical violence”)
Violence in the school
 Lower education levels, as determined by grade attainment and poor social skills development
are risk factors for children to develop abusive behaviors
 Teachers’ previous experiences of violence in school when they were children and teachers’
unfair behaviour
 Quality of the relationship with teachers and parents (children who received an authoritarian
education are more likely involved in bullying)
 Social environment: children who live in deprived areas are more likely victims of bullying
Violence in the Community (including on-line)
 Demand for sex workers and child pornographic material; existence of efficient organizations
 Social ambitions linked to relationships with sex traffickers influencing girls’ decisions to engage
with the sex market and emotional attachment to trafficking agents
 Parents supervision of children’s internet use, limited knowledge of computer skills
 Lack of awareness by children of the risks of on-line behaviors
Parents – children relationship
 Psychological distress affecting parenting skills
 Parents difficulty in recognizing risk behaviors and effective strategies to fight bullying
Mothers – children relationship
 Stress and (mental) health, medical interventions and persistent post traumatic stress disorders
(PTSD) symptoms as risk factors for emotional violence and neglect
 Mother’s socioeconomic (in)dependence
 Weak attachment bonds between children and mothers
Fathers – children relationship
 Italian fathers appear to believe in the positive value of physical punishment more often than
Italian mothers (See also the section “physical violence”)
6 6
Age and gender

 Younger children and adolescents (ages 7-14 years) appear more vulnerable to sexual violence
(see section on age and gender in the report)
 Bullying is most prevalent among young adolescents (11 for boys and 13 girls) and appears to
decrease with age
 Girls are significantly more likely to be sexually abused than boys, while boys are more likely to
be physically punished
 Girls are more heavily caught up in unequal power relations
 Perpetrators of sexual violence (adults and children) are almost exclusively male.
Ethnicity
 Mobility of migrants within a condition of social marginalization
 Families of foreign nationalities may have weaker social networks
3. Prevention Interventions’ Mapping

In Italy the welfare system for children and families is embedded in municipalities and health units
which ensure services for the prevention and treatment of violence against children. In addition to basic
services, a series of projects and interventions are carried out through public and private funding by
associations on their own or in partnership with the public sector. The report provides a mapping of the
latter type of interventions and takes into consideration:
 Public bodies carrying out projects at national level (e.g. national Ministries such as the Ministry
of Labour and Social Policies; the Ministry for Education; the Ministry for Health; the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs; the Postal and Communication Police)
 Public bodies or associations carrying out projects at local level through public funds (notably,
we included projects included in the reports on the state of implementation of law 269/98;
projects funded through the law 285/97 which provides funding to 15 cities for different
typologies of projects/interventions including violence prevention; project funded through the
public notice of the Department of Equal Opportunities specifically dedicated to the prevention
of violence against children);
 The most relevant associations/NGOs working in the field of protection and promotion of
children’s rights
 Some EU funded projects
The mapping of interventions focused on prevention of violence against children cannot be considered
as exhaustive. It does, however, represent a significant overview of the violence prevention
interventionsin the public and private sectors.
In total, 90 interventions were reviewed many of which included multiple types of intervention. As
regards the typology of interventions, the most common one was that of awareness-raising about
violence against children (48 interventions) followed by violence prevention interventions in schools
addressed to children and/or teachers (44), parenting programs and support (22), home visitation (14),
training addressed to professionals working with children (13).
7
Definitions
What is violence against children?
Here we provide a glossary of terms used in the report juxtaposed next to national definitions as
interpreted by the law and or related children’s policies.
Violence Against The UN defines violence against children in line with article 19 of the CRC: “all
Children forms of physical or mental violence, injury and abuse, neglect or negligent
treatment, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse.”
In Italy, on a regulatory level, there is no specific definition of ‘violence against

children’, but the different violent behaviors (physical and psychological, injury
National definition and abuse, negligence, maltreatment or exploitation, including sexual abuse)
are punishable under the provisions of the Penal Code.
Generally, the crimes set forth by the Italian Criminal Code relate to individuals
and therefore also apply in cases where the victim is minor. In cases such as:
incest, violation of the family care obligations, maltreatment against family and
relatives, instigation or assisted suicide, female genital mutilation, purchase or
sale of slaves, kidnapping, sexual violence and stalking, the crimes are
aggravated because of the age of the victim.
Physical abuse That which results in actual or potential physical harm from an interaction or
lack of an interaction, which is reasonably within the control of a parent or
person in a position of responsibility, power or trust. There may be single or
repeated incidents.
National definition Physical abuse of a child is punishable by the Italian Criminal Code through a set
of provisions:
 Abuse of means of correcting (art. 571),
 Maltreatment against family and relatives (art. 572),
 Infanticide in terms of material and moral neglect (art. 578),
 Instigation or assisted suicide (art. 580),
 Beatings (art. 581),
 Injuries (art. 582 e 583),
 Practice of mutilation of the female genitals (art. 583 bis),
 Domestic violence (art. 610).
8
Physical abuse The Italian Criminal Code contains the following definitions:
National definition  Personal injury (art. 582): that which results in an illness of the body or
the mind.
 Genital Mutilation (art. 583 bis): clitoridectomy, excision and infibulation

and any other practice that which causes similar effects.
The document ‘National survey on abuse of children and adolescents in Italy’
contains the following definition:
 Physical abuse: presence of physical injury due to physical aggression,
maltreatment, physical punishment or serious attacks to the child’s
physical integrity and life.
On the website of the Observatory for the Fight against Pedophilia and Child
Pornography, we can read instead that:
 Hitting, beating, kicking, shaking, biting, strangling, scalding, suffocating
and cutting are some of the actions committed by those who use
physical strength against a child.
 Generally, physical harassment results in noticeable bodily bruising like:
bites, burns, scratches, wounds, fracture and difficulties in sitting, doing
physical/play activities and walking.
Sexual Abuse Child sexual abuse is the involvement of a child in sexual activity that he or she
does not fully comprehend, is unable to give informed consent to, or for which
the child is not developmentally prepared and cannot give consent, or that
violate the laws or social taboos of society. Child sexual abuse is evidenced by
this activity between a child and an adult or another child who by age or
development is in a relationship of responsibility, trust or power, the activity
being intended to gratify or satisfy the needs of the other person.
The Italian Criminal Code contains the following definitions:
National definition  Sexual violence (art. 609 bis): constraint to perform or endure sexual
acts, with violence or threats or by abuse of authority
 Corruption of minors (art. 609 quinquies): perform sexual acts in the
presence of a child under the age of 14 in order to force he or she to
attend the scene or to involve him or she in the sexual acts. It can also
be about showing the child under the age of 14 pornographic materials
in order to incite he or she to perform or endure sexual acts.
 Enticement of children (art. 609 udecies): any act intended to retain the
confidence of a child by means of artifices, blandishments or threats also
via the use of the Internet or other networks and means of
communication.
Child pornography (art. 600 ter):
 Any visual representation, by any means, of a child under the age of 18
engaged in explicit sexual conduct, whether real or simulated
9
Sexual Abuse  Any representation of the sexual organs of a child under the age of 18 for
National definition sexual purposes
 Virtual Images (600 quater.1): images which have been obtained by
means of graphic elaboration techniques that are not entirely or partly
associated with real situations, but whose quality of representation
renders fictitious situations realistic.
Sexual abuse:
 Involvement of a child in sexual acts, with or without physical contact, in
which the child cannot freely provide his consent due to the child’s and
the abuser’s superiority
 Sexual exploitation of a child or adolescent
 Child prostitution
 All the different forms of child pornography.
Emotional abuse Emotional abuse involves the failure to provide a developmentally appropriate,
supportive environment, including the availability of a primary attachment
figure, so that the child can develop a stable and full range of emotional and
social competencies commensurate with her or his personal potentials and in
the context of the society in which the child dwells. There may also be acts
towards the child that cause or have a high probability of causing harm to the
child’s health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development. These
acts must be reasonably within the control of the parent or person in a
relationship of responsibility, trust or power. Acts include restriction of
movement, patterns of belittling, denigrating, scapegoating, threatening,
scaring, discriminating, ridiculing or other non-physical forms of hostile or
rejecting treatment.
National definition In Italy, on a regulatory level there is no specific definition of emotional abuse or
witnessing violence to the damage of minors. The case law, prompted by
international documents, recognizes the latter within the crime of maltreatment
(art.572) or domestic violence (art. 610). The crime of personal injuries (art. 582)
also punishes ‘behaviors’ that cause an illness of the body or the mind; therefore
this rule could be in some cases be regarded as applying to cases of ‘emotional
abuse’.
The Criminal Code contains the following definitions that characterize a behavior
potentially attributable to the concept of ‘emotional abuse’:
 Breach of the obligations of family care (art. 570): abandoning the home,
evading the obligation of assistance relating to parental responsibility,
waste the money and assets of the child, depriving a child of his/her
legitimate livelihood.
10
Persecution acts (art. 612 bis):

Emotional abuse
 Threatening and/or harassing such as to cause a severe state of anxiety
National definition and fear persisting over a prolonged period.
 Giving rise to a well-founded fear for the personal safety or for a next of
kin.
 Forcing the victim to alter their habits and lifestyle.
contains the following definitions:
 Emotional abuse: emotional relationship characterized by repeated and
continuous psychological pressure, emotional blackmail, indifference,
refusal, denigration and disparagement, which damages or inhibits the
development of the child’s fundamental cognitive-emotional capacities,
such as intelligence, attention, perception and memory.
 Physical and psychogical negligence: serious and/or continuous failure to
provide care toward the child, or failure to provide proper education in
areas that are of importance for the child, which result in significant
damage for the health or for the development and/or results in an
impaired growth.
 Inappropriate child care practices: failure to provide appropriate care
according to the age, the development and the physical and/or psychic
needs of the child, (hypocure, in case of carelessness; hypercure, in case
of excessive care).
The CISMAI (Italian Coordination of the Services against child maltreatment and
abuse) gives the following definitions:
 Witnessing violence: ‘Minors witnessing domestic violence’ is defined as
a child having experience of any kind of ill-treatment (actions of physical,
verbal, psychological, sexual and economic violence) committed on key
figures, or other adults or children affectively significant to the child. The
child may experience it directly (when it happens in his/her perceptual
field) or indirectly
(when the child is aware of the violence) and/or perceiving the effects.
This definition includes violence by minors on other minors and/or
family members as well as maltreatment and abandoning of pets.
The Observatory for the fight against pedophilia and child pornography define:
 Witnessing domestic violence is a form of domestic violence that is to
force a child to watch (hence the term ‘witnessing’) scenes of
aggression, verbal, physical or sexual abuse between people who are for
him a point of reference or of people affectively significant to the child,
whether adult or minor. The witnessed violence, insofar as emotional
abuse, involves emotional, cognitive, physical and relational effects.
Although there is no linear correlation between witnessing violence and
the occurrence of clinical outcomes, harmful consequences caused by
abuse and violence, occur very often, even in cases where the child does
not immediately manifest symptoms.
11
Neglect The document ‘National survey on abuse of children and adolescents in Italy’
National definition
 Physical and/or emotional neglect: serious and/or continuous failure to
provide care toward the child, or failure to provide proper education in
areas that are of importance for the child, which result in significant
damage for the health or for the development and/or results in an
impaired growth.
Family Family is defined differently around the world and can refer to mother/father
and extended family children or it can even extend to the community. Thus
national setting is important to help contextualize the setting within which
perpetration of violence take place and prevention strategies are to target.
National definition The Italian Constitution, in Title II of Part I devoted to ethical and social
relationship, (art. 29) defines the family as a natural society founded on
marriage. Marriage is based on the moral and legal equality of the spouses
within the limits laid down by law to guarantee the unity of the family.
Law 76/2016 regulates civil unions and domestic partnerships.
Even those that constitute a de facto family outside of wedlock, have the same
obligations and responsibilities towards their children: the rules of family law. In
-
recent years, those rules have been reformulated and implemented, aimed at
developing a new conception of the relationship between parents and children,
in which the ‘parental responsibility’ is no longer a right but a real duty, a
responsibility, geared to promoting the development of the personality of the
child. Regardless of being born within a marriage, the child has the same rights
toward his parents.
Regarding the issue of violence against children, civil law provides a series of
measures that the Juvenile Court may adopt when parents perform detrimental
acts to their children (art. 330 to 333 c.c.). At the same time, the public
authorities may remove, in case of emergency, a child who is under risk (art.
403. Intervention by the public authorities in favor of children.)
Drivers of Violence The concept of ‘drivers’ is being adopted more frequently in the international
child protection research field than the terms ‘risk and protective factors’ or
‘vulnerabilities and resilience’. This is in part due to the recognition that there
are many community and society-level factors that may contribute to causing or
preventing violence against children and also in part due to the language not
wanting to be interpreted as something inherent only to a child or family that
causes violence but understanding the wider context and that particular risk and
protective factors often interact creating ‘drivers’ of violence.
12
1. Introduction - The Multi-Country Study

The Multi-Country Study on the Drivers of Violence Affecting Children, is a four-year action-research
project to be carried out by the UNICEF Office of Research – Innocenti with the Istituto degli Innocenti in
Italy and with UNICEF Country Offices in Peru, Vietnam and Zimbabwe in collaboration with the
University of Edinburgh as the academic partner. The study seeks to increase understanding of what
drives violence affecting children and how best to address it.
Violence-related vulnerability evolves in complex socioeconomic and cultural contexts. This research
analyses how structural, institutional, community and individual factors interact to affect violence in
children’s lives and identifies causal pathways to better inform national strategies for prevention. It
places age and gender at its center focusing on girls and boys at different stages of the life course, from
the very young to older adolescents.
A cornerstone of this study is to connect disparate pieces of quality research and effectively translate
the synthesis of these findings it into evidence that can inform more meaningful interventions to protect
children. Outcomes occur at all stages—and therefore findings can be used to inform child protection
planning, practice and policy on a continual basis in a positive and reinforcing feedback loop.
The study employs two different frameworks, which taken together are likely to help explain how
violence manifests both throughout different levels of society and throughout the span of childhood
from infancy to 18 years of age.
A recent UNICEF synthesis of child protection evaluations suggest that effective programmes most often
used an ‘ecological’ framework to understand the effects and intersections of the macro or structural
level (socio-economic and political), the interpersonal level (children’s relationships with their parents,
peers and community members) and the needs of vulnerable and marginalized children at the individual
level.3 Critical and yet missing from this framework is the institutional level. Ideally, a comprehensive
response system includes health, criminal justice, and social service institutions addressing the needs of
victims and formulating and implementing prevention strategies.
The success of violence prevention efforts depends to a substantial degree on the ability of the informal
and formal sectors to work together through community and state-enforced institutions. The role
communities play in upholding (or eliminating) norms around violence is important and must be studied
to explain how change occurs. Proposed here is a general framework to guide the work across cultures
and settings. The model (see Figure 1) pays attention to the holistic development of children and will be
elaborated as the research unfolds.
3
Protecting Children From Violence: A synthesis of evaluation findings, Summary, Evaluation Office, June 2012.
13
Figure 3. The socio-ecological framework
Using a socio-ecological perspective, the multi-country study begins with a focus on the systemic and
contextual factors that render children vulnerable to violence. The ensuing multi-level analysis builds a
framework for directing interventions. It demonstrates how critical protective and/or risk factors for
interpersonal violence interact at the household, community, institutional and national levels, shedding
light on what is needed to reduce violence. In doing this, the research explores the interaction of
family/group and community level characteristics with children.
The second framework employed in this study captures how children share common developmental
milestones, but are far from homogenous and face diverse challenges. The research looks at children
along the lifecycle, acknowledging differences by age and gender.4 While it is understood that
definitions of childhood may vary regionally, nationally and even locally—the biological and
physiological changes that accompany a child’s general development are fairly consistent worldwide.
For this study, we employ a now accepted and comprehensive model of adolescent development (see
Figure 4.) that attends to different theories and research findings on the impact of environment, neuro-
psychological functioning and information processing.
4
The life cycle approach is adapted from a PAHO approach found in Chong, E. Hallman, K. and Brady, M. 2006. Investing When
it Counts: Generating the evidence based for politics and programmes for very young adolescents. The Population Council and
UNFPA, New York, NY.
14
Figure 4. The stages of adolescence (PAHO classification)
Age and gender are both extremely significant meta-factors, the implications of which will differ in
different contexts. This approach acknowledges that opportunities and risk factors that are in turn
dependent on not only differing political economies, as noted above but also on children’s evolving
capacities and they move through childhood. In the end, interventions must address all of these
complexities.
The study consists of three inter-related stages: 1) Grounding the Programme, 2) Applied Research and
Intervention Development and 3) Interventions Testing. Each is a logical component with a distinct set
of objectives, activities and milestones that feed the main outcomes and outputs of the study. Each is
intended to feed back into both country programming nationally and emerging global evidence base on
violence prevention.
In this national report for Italy, we provide the results of Stage 1—Grounding the Programme.
15
2. The Political Economy of Italy—Issues unique to Italy

Italy today: General characteristics of the population
On 1 January 2015 Italy had a population of 60,795,612, of which 48.5% male and 51.5% female. The
North is the area with the most residents, with a percentage of 45.7; 19.9% of the population lived in
the Centre and 34.4% in the South. There were 10,096,165 minors under 18 – corresponding to 16.6% of
the overall population, which is one of the lowest at European level – of which 51.5% male and 48.5%
female.
Until the end of 2014 the ageing trend continued. In fact, on 1 January 2015, the ratio of people older
than 65 to people younger than 15 increased to 157.7%, while in 1991 it was equal to 96.6%. When
comparing global statistics, Italy is one of the European states where the population is ageing most
rapidly. This trend affects all Italian regions, but it is stronger in the North and in the Centre.
Figure 5. Ratio of people older than 65 to people younger than 15. Years 1991, 1997-2014
Source: Istat, 2015
In 2014 there were 509,000 new born, 5,000 less than in 2013. This is the lowest level since the Italian
unification in 1860. The average age of giving birth has risen to 31.5 years. In Italy, the average number
of children per woman dropped from 1.4 in 1990 to 1.27 (largely below the replacement rate) in 2002;
in 2014 it rose slightly to 1.39, due in part to immigrant women (1.97 children for woman). At an
international level, Italy is still one of the least prolific countries in the world. The fertility rate began to
fall in the late 1970s, not only because of the higher number of women who do not have children at all,
but also because they now begin to have children later.
16
Figure 6. Total fertility rate, year 1970-2014

3,00
2,50 1970; 2,42
2,00
1980; 1,68
2010; 1,46
1,50
1990; 1,40
2014; 1,39
2000; 1,26
1,00
0,50
0,00
Source: Istat, 2015

As regards foreign population5, on 1 January 2014 there were 4,922,085 registered foreign residents.
Migration flows continue to grow, but also more illegal immigrants have become legal residents. The
incidence of the foreign population on the overall population is now equal to 8.1%.
Figure 7. Percentage of foreign population (date of reference: 1 January)
9,0
8,0 8,1
7,5 7,4
7,0 7,0 7,0 6,8
6,5
6,0 5,8
5,0 5,0
4,6
4,0 4,1
3,5
3,0
2,7
2,3
2,0
1,0
0,4 0,6
0,0
Source: Istat, 2015
5
Registered foreign residents includes all those who do not have Italian citizenships (including other EU nationals) that are
regularly registered as residents.
17
The foreign population is mainly concentrated in the Northwest (34.6% of foreigners) and in the
Northeast (25.5%), even if in the last period Southern Regions, especially Sicily, have hosted a growing
number of migrants and asylum seekers arriving by boat from the Southern coast of the Mediterranean.
The analysis of age groups highlights that the foreign population is generally younger. More than half of
all immigrants are aged 18-43 (51.9%) and more than one in five are under age (22.0%).
Italy has constantly attracted migration flows since the 1970s, however, only in the last decade has
children’s ethnic minority status been recorded in official statistics. The most interesting statistic is not
only the total number of foreign pupils now attending Italian schools, but the rate at which their
presence is growing every year. In the last 14 years the presence of foreign pupils has increased (from
196,414 in 2001 to 802,844 units in 2014). This is due to two main factors: 1) foreign children who were
born in Italy begin to attend primary and secondary schools; 2) older children and adolescents who have
reunited with their families now begin to attend high school. The Ministry of Education has approved
specific policies aimed not only at the integration of foreign students but also at the promotion of
intercultural education and antiracism. In particular, in 2014 the Ministry of Education has approved the
guidelines for intercultural education which in turn refers to the document “The Italian way to school
intercultural integration of foreign students” drafted in 2007 by the National Observatory for the
integration of foreign students and for intercultural education. The document refers both to the actions
on integration specifically directed at foreign students and their families (e.g. integration into the school,
learning of Italian as a second language, the promotion of multilingualism, the relationship with foreign
families) as well as actions for intercultural education addressed to all school actors (e.g. actions relating
to discrimination and prejudice , the promotion of an intercultural perspective in the curricula).
In this framework, it is important to mention the phenomenon of unaccompanied foreign children.
According to the Ministry of Labour and Social Policy, at the date of 30th April 2016 there were 11,648
unaccompanied foreign children in Italy which corresponds to a rise of 41% in relation to the same date
in 2015. Most of them are male adolescents (56% are 17 years old, while only 7.3% are under 15). Male
children is 95% of the total. The most represented nationalities are Egypt (20.9%) and Albania (12.5%)
followed by countries of Central Africa (Gambia, Eritrea, Nigeria and Somalia).
Unaccompanied foreign children identified at reception centers are typically assigned to group housing
with about 5-10 children, and enrolled in vocational schools. However, some of them leave in order to
look for a job or to join relatives in other European countries. For this reason, it is feared that some may
become vulnerable to involvement with criminal organisations and are at risk of sexual and other forms
of exploitation. At the date of 30th April 2016, 5,099 unaccompanied foreign children were irretraceable
and most of them were Somali (23.5%), Egyptian (23.3%) and Eritreans (21.1%).
Important reforms in the system of reception of unaccompanied foreign children have recently been
approved and others are under discussion. In 2014 the government established a plan to address the
influx of migrants, with specific attention to unaccompanied foreign children. The number of specialized
reception centres will be increased and the information systems for tracking children will be improved
(Ministry of Labour & Social Policy, 2015). Moreover, there is a bill in Parliament n. 1658 on
unaccompanied foreign children that contains important reforms in the reception system including: the
reception of unaccompanied foreign children in the reception system of asylum seekers (this specific
point has already been implemented); the identification of the child must take place within 5 days; a
specific information system to trace minors; the promotion of family foster care through the creation of
list of people properly trained; the appointment of appropriately trained guardians; specific measures
18
for children victims of trafficking; measures of support and integration when the minor reaches 18
years; the creation of a specific fund.
Families and children
The Italian family has undergone a radical process of change, concerning both its structure and the
relations among its members: different relationships between men and women due to the improved
condition of women; lower number of marriages; growing instability of the marriage tie and increased
social acceptance of couples living together without being married; diffusion of homosexual couples and
families with homosexual parents. As a consequence, there is now a broader variety of family models all
over Italy. In particular, live-in partners (7% of the overall number of couples) and reconstituted families
(6%) – i.e., formed after the breaking off of the previous marriage of at least one of the two partners –
represent an emerging phenomenon, even if not at the same levels as in other Western countries. The
structure and the type of families vary considerably across the nation: in the North and in the Centre the
share of couples having only one child is much higher than in the South. In particular, it is in the South
that the percentage of singles is lowest and that the percentage of couples having children is highest,
whereas in the Northwest there is the highest share of singles, of single-parent families and of couples
without children.
The increased presence of foreigners over the years has also favoured the formation of ‘mixed’ couples,
in which one spouse is Italian and the other is a foreigner. In fact, the percentage of marriages with at
least one foreign spouse increased from just 4.8% in 1995 to 12% in 2013.
Furthermore, marriages now tend to be shorter and the rate of separation or divorce has increased
sharply in the past 20 years. Since 1995, separations have risen by 68% and divorces by 87%. The
instability of marriage likely has a significant impact on minors, given that most of the couples that
separate or divorce have children. In 2012, 87,717 minors were involved in cases of separations or
divorces.
Besides the increased instability of family ties, minors are now experiencing growing isolation, due to
the fact that more and more children have no siblings and that, as a consequence, even the number of
cousins is decreasing.
Briefly, the youngest generations are influenced by the following demographic and social developments:
 lower birth rate;
 on average, both men and women get married at an older age;
 couples now have children later;
 smaller average family size;
 higher number of couples having no children;
 lower number of couples having children;
 higher number of single-parent families;
 weakening of relations with relatives;
 increase in separations and divorces;
 slight yet significant increase in the number of children born from unmarried couples;
 growing tendency of young people to remain with their families well beyond the average age at
which people get married;
 growing number of so-called “second generation” of migrants.
19
In the medium-long term, the structural and cultural changes occurring in the Italian families have a
great influence on the society overall, which can be summarized in the following main points:
a) Generational imbalance. The progressive reduction in cohorts of newborns means that children
are now more likely to grow up without siblings and cousins, i.e. without horizontal family ties.
On the other hand, the vertical ties (with grandparents and great-grandparents) are more easily
interrupted, due to separations or divorces, or more onerous because of the longer life
expectancy. They are characterised by a growing age difference between parents and children.
b) Fragmentation of the social fabric. The weakening of primary family ties implies further
isolation of families and the emergence of renewed individualism in the anonymous
metropolitan areas.
c) Growing number of immigrant children. The growing presence of migrants and in particular of
so-called ‘second generation’ of migrants leads first of all to the creation of a multicultural
society. Secondly, it contributes to reduce the ageing of the Italian population. Thirdly, it has an
important impact on the school system that has to take into consideration the specific linguistic,
cultural and religious needs of these children.
Socioeconomic conditions
We provide here some data about socio-economic conditions in Italy. The socio-ecological model
diagram, used in this study, emphasises the importance of the structural level on the other levels
indicated.
Low productivity growth characterizes Italy’s macroeconomic imbalances with very high level of public
debt and the weak external competitiveness. Italy’s real GDP has fallen to the early 2000s levels, while
the euro area GDP is more than 10% higher. (Istat data)
Social and regional disparities are growing wider. According to Istat data, poverty and social exclusion
have greatly increased, and the social protection system is not able to respond effectively to the needs
of the most vulnerable people due to its fragmentation. The southern regions have suffered the most
severe situations due to their long-standing structural weaknesses.
The unemployment rate has reached historically high levels: in 2014 it increased to 12.8%. Between
2008 and 2013, there has been a strong increase of people at risk of poverty and social exclusion (+14.7
percentage points) for a total of 2,227,000 people. Youth unemployment has almost doubled over the
past decade to reach almost 43% in third quarter of 2014. The proportion of young people aged
between 15 and 24 not in employment, education or training rose from 16.2% in 2007 to 22.2% in 2013
(32.9% for those aged 25-29) and is now the highest in the EU. Only 54.6% of those aged 15-34 who
graduated from the first and second stages of tertiary education within the previous three years were
employed, against the EU average of 78.6%. This may have potentially severe consequences on Italy’s
human capital accumulation.
In 2013, 12.6% of Italian families are in condition of relative poverty (3,000,230 people), 7.9% of Italian
families are in condition of absolute poverty (2,028,000 people). Children remained the age group at
highest risk of poverty and social exclusion and the presence of children remained a discriminating
factor in Italian households, with higher poverty and social exclusion in households with children.
Among households with children, the in-work at risk of poverty rate was particularly high for single
parent households (24.7%, among the highest in the EU). It is particularly severe also the situation of
20
couples with children: 7.5% of couples with one child are in a condition of absolute poverty; 10.9% with
two children; and 21.3% if children are three or more. In 2013, 1,434,000 children are poor in absolute
terms, corresponding to about 14% of the minor population (they were 1,058,000 in 2012). Structural
inequalities between the south and the other regional areas in terms of poverty and social exclusion
indicators remained significant.
Social expenditure in Italy is largely oriented towards the elderly and dominated by pension
expenditure, which represented 16.6% of GDP in 2012, the second highest share in the EU. Italy spends
1.4% of its GDP on activities to support the family and the birth rate compared to the EU average is 2.2%
of GDP. Following the financial crisis, the national budget for social programs fell drastically--from 1.6
billion Euros in 2007 to 43.7 million in 2012 and then rose to 297 million Euros in 2014. According to
Istat data, regional differences in the allocation of funds are glaring. In 2012, average expenditure was
242€ per inhabitant in the Autonomous Province of Trento in the North but only 20€ in the southern
Region of Calabria. In general, spending on services for families and children in southern provinces is
only a third of that in the North. Some positive initiatives to address poverty and social exclusion have
been recently experimented. They include the launch of the pilot scheme on the support for active
inclusion, combining cash benefits with compulsory activation and social services programmes. Progress
in improving the effectiveness of family support schemes and quality services favouring low-income
households with children has been implemented. The government is also currently prioritising
expenditure on school education after several years of cuts. The government held a public consultation
on a reform of the school system, to be financed by EUR 1 billion in 2015 and EUR 3 billion from 2016
through a fund created by the 2015 Stability Law.
Women’s position and gender equality in Italy
The general condition of women6 in Italy has seen significant improvements since the end of the
second world war. However there are still some significant problematic areas, including employment
rates, political representation, gender stereotypes and violence against women as recognized by
international and European organizations. According to the European Gender Equality index7, Italy is
ranked below the EU average (40.9% against the EU average of 54%). At legislative level the right to
equality on the basis of sex is established in the Italian constitution and through a series of legislative
measures included in the National Code for Equal Opportunities (legislative decree 198/2006) as well as
the enactment of international conventions and EU directives.
The legislative reforms have been prompted also by important women’s and feminist movements that
were very active during the 1970s. Their mobilization led to the approval of important laws including the
law on divorce (1970), followed by the reform of family law (1975) and the law on abortion (1978).
During the 1980s and 1990s the women’s movement lost its strengths while in the mid 1990s forces
advocating traditional roles of women and the family prevailed. However in the last years this eventually
led to the resurgence of women’s movement also through the creation of new organizations protesting
6
For a more in depth analysis see Rosselli (2014), The Policy on Gender Equality in Italy, Directorate General for Internal
Policies. Policy Department C: Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs Gender Equality
7
The Gender Equality Index is formed by combining gender indicators in six core domains: work, money, knowledge, time,
power, health and two satellite domains (Intersecting inequalities and violence). The index has been developed by the
European Index for Gender Equality (http://eige.europa.eu/content/activities/gender-equality-index)
21
in particular against violence against women and the stereotyped role of women portrayed in the
media. Some important new laws were passed including the so-called law against feminicide (Law
119/2013).
Notwithstanding increasingly good records in the education sphere (in 2011, women who have a
tertiary degree were 59% whereas men are 41%) the economic position of women is still a
disadvantaged one. The female employment rate in 2014 is 53.2% while the male employment rate is
76.7%. Female employment rates are especially low in Southern Italy. Moreover, there is a gender pay
gap8 of 6.9% according to Eurostat data of 2012 which is however significantly lower than the EU
average of 16%.
As regards welfare measures: “The family – in particular, the work of women inside the family - has
traditionally been the main provider of social protection and care services for the Italians, according to
what has been defined the ‘Mediterranean model of welfare state’ (Rosselli, 2014: 26)”. This has led to
a situation characterized by both a low fertility rate (1.43 in 2012 with the EU-28 average at 1.58) and a
low activity rate (52.6% in 2013 with the corresponding EU-28 average at 66.1%). Against this historical
trend, some important measures for the conciliation of family and working life are active including
compulsory maternity leave – one of the most generous in the EU at 5 months. Currently reforms are
under discussion to strengthen paternity leave. Child care services for 0-3 years cover 21% of the 0-3
population (Centro nazionale, 2013) still largely below the EU average (28%) and there is a wide regional
variability. (Southern regions have fewer available places). The care of elderly people is largely carried
out through private arrangements between families and domestic workers, the majority of whom are
migrant women, especially in the case of live-in domestic workers.
As regards the political level, women - who gained the right to vote in 1946 - are under-represented:
they represent 31% in the Italian Parliament where there are no obligatory quotas. The latter are
instead present at local level thanks to a recent law. Italy has never had a woman Prime Minister nor
President of the Republic. In the public administration, women represented 48.5% in 2012, however
their percentage drops between 31% and 41% as regards managerial positions.
According to the UN Special Rapporteur on violence against women who visited Italy in 2012, gender
stereotypes continue to be frequent in the country. She also added that: “Women carry a heavy burden
in terms of household care, while the contribution of men thereto is amongst the lowest in the world.
With regards to their representation in the media, in 2006, 53% of women appearing on television did
not speak; while 46% were associated with issues such as sex, fashion and beauty and only 2% issues of
social commitment and professionalism.”9
The UN Special Rapporteur also stated that violence against women still represents a significant
problem notwithstanding the fact that “the legal framework largely provides for sufficient protection for
8
The gender pay gap is the difference in the pay between men and women calculated on the basis of the difference in the
average hourly wage.
9
Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences on her mission to Italy (15–26
January 2012) (A/HRC/20/16/Add.2), p. 6
22
violence against women” and “the vast amount of expertise regarding the provision of legal, social,
psychological and economic assistance to women victims”.10
A national survey conducted by Istat in 2014 estimated that 31.5% of women between the ages of 16
and 70 had experienced physical or sexual violence during their lifetime (20.2% suffered physical
violence, 21% sexual violence and 5.4% more severe forms of sexual violence such as rapes and
attempted rapes). Partners or former partners commit the most serious forms violence (62.7% of rapes
are committed by a current or ex-partner). Data about violence suffered by foreign women are similar
to those of Italian women%.
It is interesting to note that in comparison with the previous survey carried out by Istat in 2006 there
have been some improvements. Physical or sexual violence have decreased from 13.3% to 11.3%.
According to Istat this is due to better information and awareness on the part of women in a social
climate of greater condemnation of violence. Women also seem to be more aware of the seriousness of
violence. More often they consider violence they suffered as an offense (from 14.3% to 29.6% for
violence by partners) and more women report it to the police (from 6.7% to 11.8%). More often they
talk about it with someone (from 67.8% to 75.9%) and they seek help from specialized services and anti-
violence centers (from 2.4% to 4.9%).
The same situation applies to the case of violence by non-partners. However there are also negative
trends. Violence is more serious: there is an increase of violence causing injuries (from 26.3% to 40.2%
as regards partner violence) and the number of women who feared for their life (from 18.8% to 34.5%).
Even violence by non-partners is more serious. This data is in line with that about feminicide. In 2013
Eures found that 179 women were killed (one every 2 days) with an increase of 14% compared to 2012.
This is the highest number of feminicides ever registered in Italy. One out of three women were killed
after choosing to leave their partners.
The most significant finding however is the increase of matricides (23 mothers accounting for the 18.9%
of family feminicides) partly as a result of the continuing crisis, for economic reasons or for aggravation
of relations after cohabitation imposed by necessity. In 7 out of 10 cases, the feminicides were
committed within the family context, a figure which has remained constant in the period between 2000
and 2013 (70.5%). According to Eures, the institutional response was inadequate given that in 2013
more than half of future victims (51.9%) had reported or denounced the violence. Whereas for 10 years,
half of feminicides took place in the North of Italy, in 2013 there has been an increase of 27% in the
South. Concerning the causes, in the majority of cases, feminicides appear to be the consequence of the
women’s decision to leave their partner, while around 20% are due to conflict between partners and
16% to economic reasons (mostly matricides).
In relation to the issue of violence against women it is important to underline the commitment of the
government with the approval of the ‘Extraordinary plan against sexual and gender violence ‘ recently
approved ( May 2015 ) under Article 5 of the law against feminicide, as well as the first National Plan of
Action against Trafficking approved on the 26th february 2016.
10
Report of the Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences on her mission to Italy (15–26
January 2012) (A/HRC/20/16/Add.2), p. 17
23
3. The Child Protection System
The obligations and tasks of promoting the rights of children derives directly from the Italian
Constitution. Article 2 imposes mandatory obligations to the State to guarantee the effective
recognition of the inalienable rights of every person, be it adult or minor. Article 30 requires the state to
provide for the fulfilment of the tasks inherent in the concept of parental authority in the case of
incapacity of the parents.
The setting up of a child protection system originated from the following main steps:
The Reform of the Family Code (1975) brought in a new definition of the family and familial roles,
modifying the rights and duties of each member of the family, especially equal rights for the husband
and wife as a couple and as parents.
The approval of specific provisions regarding violence against children also in order to implement the
CRC ratified in 1989 (see the Policy timeline section).
The launch of specific policies for developing a safer and more child-centred social environment. This
included: planning initiatives that encouraged family responsibility and good parenting; creating services
for children and their families; providing financial support and encouraging initiatives that assist the
father and mother to share responsibility for looking after and caring for their children.
At the national level the competencies on childhood and adolescence are divided among several
Ministries (Ministry for Social Solidarity, Ministry for Family Policies, Ministry for Youth Policies and
Sports, Ministry for Equal Opportunities, Ministry of Labour and Social Policies, Ministry of the Interior,
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Education, Ministry for Economic
Development and Ministry of Health).
The following bodies, set up by law 451/97, ensure coordination among these Ministries through their
designated tasks:
Parliamentary Committee on childhood: formulating observations, proposals and comments about the
current Italian legislation, according to the principles of CRC; requesting information, data and
documentation to public administrations and bodies dealing with childhood matters; promoting an
exchange of information and contacts between the different agencies, associations, NGOs and others
involved in children’s rights domain, at national and international level
National Observatory on childhood and adolescence: drafting the two-years National Action Plan; the
two-years Report on children’s condition; the five-years Report to UN CRC Committee
National Childhood and Adolescence Documentation and Analysis Centre: supporting the National
Observatory in its tasks; drafting reports on the state of implementation of specific laws on children;
carrying out research, surveys and monitoring on different issues relating to children’s rights, ensuring a
documentation and database system on the condition of children in Italy, carrying out training initiatives
aimed at professionals working with children. The main tool to monitor actions for the prevention and
24
fight against child abuse and sexual exploitation is the periodical Report to Parliament on the implementation
of the Law no. 269/1998, as established in art. 17 of the Law n. 269/1998.
Moreover there are coordination bodies that specifically concern violence against children:
 The National Centre for the Fight against Child Pornography on the Web, within the Ministry of the
Interior - Postal and Communication Police Service;
 The Observatory for the Fight against Pedophilia and Child Pornography: this body has been set up
in accordance with the law n. 38/2006 and it is set up within the Presidency of the Council of
Ministers, Department for Equal Opportunities. The Observatory has the task to draft the National
plan to prevent and combat the abuse and sexual exploitation of children as well as studies and
initiatives on the subject.
Recently a new plan has been approved that acts on several interconnected levels. First, through an accurate
identification of the specific characteristics, at a phenomenological level, related to the abuse and sexual
exploitation of minors in Italy. Secondly, through the implementation of the existing regulatory provisions
with particular reference to the forms of abuse and sexual exploitation of children related to the use of new
technologies (sexting, grooming, cyber-bullying) and to those phenomena that are still difficult to identify
and combat effectively (sex tourism, abuse within the family or in places not yet specifically regulated, such
as sports and recreational activities and volunteering). Thirdly, through interventions aimed at building a
multidisciplinary and complex system to provide adequate protection of children victim of sexual abuse or
exploitation, both during the judiciary process, and outside of it, by creating effective support instruments at
a legal, psychological and social level. And finally, by creating a system of coordinated interventions of
prevention of the sexual abuse and exploitation, through the diffusion of greater awareness and training.
These interventions are to be implemented at every level in each different context. They will directly or
indirectly involve children and adolescents as well as all those who are in contact with children (for family
reasons, educational, recreational, professional, medical, etc.), aiming to develop a real cultural change of
the child protection system, in the civil society.
In order to adequately pursue these objectives, the Plan has four strands of work (Prevention - Fight-
Protection- Monitoring), which represent the strategic areas of intervention to be implemented in
coordination among the different agencies concerned. In order to achieve the objectives above, several
relevant entities were involved: governmental departments, regions, local authorities, trade associations (for
tourism, for the IT sector, for the media, etc.), child protection associations and bodies, cultural, sports and
recreational associations and other actors of civil society.
Also the National Observatory for Children and Adolescents has recently drafted a new National Plan of
Action a requested by the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child. It has 4 main areas of action:
1. Lines of action to combat poverty of children and families
2. Socio-educational services for early childhood
3. Strategies and actions for the education and social integration
4. Parenting support , integrated system for out of home children
The innovative aspect of this action plan is the strong integration of central government, local regions and
authorities at both a political and technical level - also through the establishment of a scientific Coordination,
composed of members of the Observatory representing the Regions - the Anci (National Association of Italian
Municipalities) and bodies not belonging to the public government, under the coordination of the Ministry of
Labour and Social Policy, in collaboration with the Department for Family Policies.
25
Other important policy documents concerning violence against children include:

 The Guidelines for training on the topic of child abuse and maltreatment, approved in 2001 by the
then Coordination Committee for the protection of minors from sexual abuse and exploitation (art.
17, Law no. 269/1998) and by the National Observatory on childhood and adolescence. This text
includes the guidelines for the training of professionals dealing with violence against children in the
social, legal, medical and educational sectors. The training guidelines identify five different levels
which have been taken into consideration by many regional and local institutions in the planning of
training activities for professionals in this sector.
 The Action proposals for the prevention and fight against maltreatment approved by National
Coordination Committee for the protection of minors from maltreatment, sexual abuse and
exploitation in 1998. This text describes strategies to combat violence against children which can be
adopted by the public administration in collaboration with the other bodies and institutions
involved, with NGOs, the third sector and civil society in general.
As regards the general functioning of the child protection system, this is based on 4 phases:
1. Prevention
2. Detection
3. Reporting to judicial authority
4. Protection
1. Prevention is based on a series of social and health interventions addressed to reduce the risk factors,
such as limited parenting abilities, at risk pregnancies, families with problems of alcohol, drug abuse,
mental illness, socio-cultural problems etc through intervention by the social services.
2. As regards detection all those who are public employees (such as teachers, doctors, nurses, police etc)
are obliged to report a case of child abuse or suspected child abuse that they encounter during their
work. All other citizens are not obliged to, but can report the case to the judicial authorities. The
identification of a situation of abuse can occur in two different situations: a) in the contexts of daily life
(early childhood services, schools, associations, health units, hospitals etc) b) in those settings where the
institutions meet with children who are already signaled for a request of help. (such as social services,
police, child psychiatry, residential services etc).
3. When a situation of prejudice has been identified and social services could not find a consensual solution
with the family, the judicial authority is involved (juvenile tribunal).
4. The involvement of the judicial authority has the aim to put the child in a condition of safety. The juvenile
tribunal will decide whether the child can remain with his/her family (that will be monitored and
supported) or needs to be removed (foster family or residential service). The protection function has to
be carried out by the municipality through its social services and in agreement with the Juvenile tribunal.
This is a particularly sensitive and complex task which involves also other local actors, including the local
health units (in particular there are specialized units within each local health unit) on the basis of
operational protocols.
The protection intervention carried out by the social services and the local health units is evaluated by the
Juvenile tribunal. This needs to establish whether the child can re-enter the family (in case he/she had been
removed) or not and which further interventions are required in order to minimize the trauma for the child
26
and support the parents. In case of criminal proceedings, attention will be paid to the protection of the child
and the necessary support during the proceedings.
Among the services and government initiatives it is important to recall the toll-free emergency phone
number for minors (114). Finally, new specialized services have been created for the treatment of
abused children. Since more than 15 years the State Police manages the website
www.bambiniscomparsi.it, – through the Operation Central Service of the Central Anti-Crime
Directorate – that is currently under revision and that is part of the Global Missing Children Network
http://internationalmissingchild.org. Also the European number 116000 dedicated to missing children
has been assigned to the Ministry of the Interior and it is managed through “SOS – Il Telefono Azzurro
ONLUS” based on an agreement. Moreover, also in Italy the “Child Alert” service is active, namely a
European emergency mechanism handled by the Service for International Cooperation of the Central
Directorate of the Criminal Police. Their effectiveness has been enhanced by sharing expertise and
experience in order to identify new tools and methods of working, as for example in the experience of
the Italian Coordination of Services against Child Abuse (CISMAI).
Concerning the specific issue of female genital mutilations (FGM), important legislative and policy
measures have been introduced in the recent period:
1. first of all, the law n. 7/2006 prohibits the practice of FGM and includes measures of prevention.
2. The Ministry of the Interior manages the “Free-toll number for female genital mutilations” (as in
the law n. 7 of 9th January 2006) through the Operational Central Service of the Anti-Crime
Central Directorate of the State Police since its activation on 9th November 2009.
3. A Plan of action and agreement between the Presidency of the Council of Ministers and
Conference State-Regions which includes different typologies of action:
 Innovative projects aimed at the prevention of FGM and based on the formation of
networks between public and private actors
 Training courses addressed to all those who may be involved in prevention projects (health
professionals, cultural mediators, professionals working in migration centres, police, social
workers, associations etc)
 Information and awareness raising initiatives (brochures, campaigns, meetings).
Funds allocated for these actions are 3 millions euro. The agreement includes specific indicators of the
results of the activities undertaken by the Regions.
Moreover, the first National Plan of Action against Trafficking was approved on 26th February 2016. It is
founded on three pillars: a coordination mechanism, a single program of assistance and compensation
to victims, cooperation with international bodies and other countries. The Plan aims to respond to a
need for coordination of actions already in place and also introduces new measures such as
compensation to the victims. It also includes training actions for professionals.
Finally, to sum up the key changes in the last ten years in Italy as regards preventing violence against
children are the following:
 Child abuse is a public matter.
 The several forms of violence against children are nowadays penal crimes.
 The State’s duty is to guarantee children’s needs are met and their rights are respected.
 All workers in the public sector must report any case of child abuse or a child in need to Juvenile
Court and/or the police.
27
4. Services and response

In Italy the welfare system for children and families is based on the role of local municipalities and
health units which ensure services for the prevention of violence against children, as well as for the
treatment of the consequences of violence. Basic health services have to respect the minimum levels of
healthcare (LEA) that have been approved in 2001. The essential levels of care (LEA) are the services that
the National Health Service has to provide to all citizens, free of charge or on payment of a fee.
Concerning the collection of data on child abuse, the Department for Equal Opportunities has promoted
the creation of a central database that includes data from four official sources: Department for Equal
Opportunities, Ministry of the Interior, Ministry of Justice and Istat. The database is currently being
implemented.
We provide here some data resulting from the research by CISMAI -Terre des Hommes with the support
of the National Ombudsman on children assisted by social services of Italian municipalities. The
important and complex care and protection activities carried out by professionals in Italy are addressed
to all the population groups in situations of need, through the activation of interventions. At 31.12.2013,
in Italy, about 5% of children are assisted by social services (about 458,000 minors).
Figure 8. Maltreatment (physical, emotional and sexual) among minors assisted by Social Services by
geographical area
Source: CISMAI and Terre des Hommes ItaIy (2015)
For about 1 out of 5 of the 458,000 estimated children assisted by social service (corresponding to
91,000 children, which is about just under 10% of the total child population) an intervention has been
28
activated as a result of experiencing an abuse (sexual abuse, physical and psychological abuse,
witnessed violence, disease treatment and neglect material and emotional). In addition to measures of
prevalence, the study provides information on the major types of intervention and care protection put
in place by the social services in favor of abused minors.
Figure 9. Types of services accessed by abused children (interventions per 100 abused children)
38,4
40
35
27,9
30
25
19,3
17,9
20
14,4
15
10,2
10 7,6
Source: CISMAI and Terre des Hommes (2015)
The intervention mostly implemented is related to the economic assistance to the household (28% of
cases), followed by the removal of the child from his/her family of origin with placement in a residential
community (19%). If we add to this item the share of those who are placed in foster care (14%), the
share of temporary placement out of family rises to 34% approximately. The item "other" which is
numerically significant (38%), covers a wide variety of types of intervention, linked to the methods of
intervention by the social services of each municipality. Just to name a few we can mention the daytime
educational activities, territorial education, support to parenting, access to family counseling, etc.
29
5.Policy Timeline
30
6. Evidence on Violence Affecting Children: Methodology

The following section reports evidence on violence affecting children in Italy.
This report is the result of a literature review on studies collecting data on physical, emotional and
sexual abuse11 affecting children in the country. It also provides in-depthanalysis of data collected in the
2006 national sample survey of Vite in Bilico, the most detailed research carried out at national level to
this date, which is a retrospective study on women between 19 and 60 years of age (n=2320)
investigating the experiences of violence when they were minors.
Studies have been selected according to the following criteria:
 Primary research studies on violence (physical, sexual and emotional) affecting children in Italy
 Peer-reviewed and non peer-reviewed journal articles, research reports and other ‘grey’
literature
 Published in the last 15 years (34 in the last 10 years)
The total number of studies collected was 237, out this body of literature 67 studies met the inclusion
criteria. The analysis builds upon first of all the results of broader studies carried out at national level
such as Vite in Bilico (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006), the national investigation (sample size n = 231
municipalities covering 4.2 million children) on child maltreatment in Italy from CISMAI and Terre des
Hommes, 2015 and the most recent sample survey (sample size n = 24,761) on Violence against women
by ISTAT, 2015. At the same time, smaller-scale studies were also included that focused on specific
topics of interests, relating, for instance, to drivers of particular types of violence. This is also due to the
fact that there is a well acknowledged lack of data on this subject (See the report “CAN surveillance in
ITALY: current policies and practices”, Istituto degli innocenti, 2013 and the report by CISMAI and Terre
des Hommes, 2015)
A detailed list of the included studies with information on the methodology (such as objectives, sample
and study design) is available in the Appendix B. The University of Edinburgh also developed a quality
assessment tool, which allowed for evaluation of the main studies cited in the report by looking at a
series of criteria such as the clarity of the objectives, sample size and study design .
Importantly, a secondary analysis has been performed on data from the Vite in Bilico (Bianchi and
Moretti, 2006) survey. Through the calculation of odds ratios12 we were able to identify potential drivers
of violence relating to specific variables at play, specifically within family relations. In addition, cross tabs
have been used to identify more variables of interest.
11
In this literature review, the area of neglect is included in the section about emotional abuse. Researchers also
wish to acknowledge the fact that female genital mutilations did not emerge in the search based on the above
stated criteria (physical, emotional and sexual violence) but could be usefully addressed in a further research as
this is a relevant issue in Italy.
12
An adds ratio is a measure of association between two variables.
31
7. Types of violence
This section will focus on different types of violence grouped under sexual, physical and emotional
abuse, which also includes material and emotional neglect. For each category, we provide descriptive
data on prevalence and relevant trends emerging from research. Moreover, we highlight factors that
seem to drive the occurrence of violence. Emotional abuse appears to be the most widespread typology
of violence in Italy (CISMAI and Terre des hommes, 2015), however, sexual violence also emerges as a
significant issue in the country affecting, it seems, 1 out of 4 female children (Bianchi and Moretti,
2006).
Child Sexual Abuse

Bianchi and Moretti (2006), CISMAI and Terre des Hommes (2015) and ISTAT (2015), all report
interesting data on the prevalence of sexual abuse in Italy. The graphs below show the prevalence rates
of violence among children and give an indication of the extent to which sexual abuse is widespread
compared to other types of violence.
Figure 10. Women according to the experiences lived when they were minors
Both
No experiences
maltreatment
of sexual abuse
and sexual
and
abuse
maltreatment
18%
26%
Sexual abuse
6%
Maltreatment
50%
Source: Bianchi and Moretti13, 2006
13
In the report Vite in Bilico sexual abuse is indicated by: exhibitionism; verbal harassment; exposure to child
pornography; touching and acts of masturbation; attempted penetration; penetration. Maltreatment, on the other
hand, includes physical abuse identified by behaviors such as recurring physical punishment; beatings with objects,
32
This graph shows that almost 1 out of 4 women experienced some form of sexual abuse, when they
were minors, and the same percentage had no experiences of sexual abuse or maltreatment.
Descriptive
According to the most recent Istat report on violence against women, 10.6% of Italian women have
experienced sexual violence before the age of 16, while 0.8% have been victims of serious types of
sexual abuse such as rape. (Istat, 2015). Pellai et al. carried out a local study among high school
students (n =2,839) using a voluntary cluster sample design in Milan. All students registered at their last
year of high school, who wished to, were able to participate. In this study, they found that sexual abuse,
including light forms of abuse, concerned 14.6% of the total sample: 12.3% were victims of light abuse
and 2.3% were victims of serious abuse (Pellai et al, 2004). Bianchi and Moretti found that 5.9% of the
female population was subjected to sexual abuse during childhood, while a combination of multiple
forms of physical, sexual and psychological abuse concerned 18% of the population (Bianchi and
Moretti, 2006).
In the most recent national survey on child maltreatment carried out by Cismai and Terres des Hommes
(2015), which covered a population of 2.4 million children (25% of the total Italian child population) in
231 municipalities, it emerges that 4.2 out of 100 maltreated children have suffered sexual abuse. This
is a slightly smaller percentage compared to what the team found in a previous survey, with a smaller
sample, in 2013: 6.1% victims of sexual abuse among child victims of maltreatment taken care of by 25
municipalities (Bollini, et. al 2013).
According to Bianchi and Moretti (2006) 64% of perpetrators of child abuse are family members and
well known trusted people such as teachers, neighbors and family friends. Pellai et al. (2004) also found
that perpetrators of forced sexual intercourse are well known by victims 84% of the times. According to
Pellai’s research (n = 2, 839) perpetrators belong to the child’s family in 10.6% of the cases, extended
family 33.7%, and education settings 4.8%. The following pie graph illustrates the results of ISTAT’s most
recent survey on violence against women.
hair pulling or violent jerks; beatings with trauma. Psychological abuse identified as: criticizing or devaluing ironies.
Material neglect: medical assistance was not sought in case of illness; inadequate clothing for the season, no
supervision on eating. Emotional neglect: parents’ lack of support and attention concerning children’s school
activities; no accompanying during falling asleep; no play time between parent and child; entrusting children to
outsiders or very old people. Witnessing Violence. (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006)
33
Figure 11. Perpetrators of sexual violence against women before age 16

unknown people;
family members and
20,2
kin; 19,5
family friends; 11,4

others; 9,7
school peers; 8,0
acquaintances; 23,8
friends; 7,4
Source: Istat, 2015
Crisma et al (2004), writing on the Italian results of the larger study on Counseling and Support Services
for Young People Aged 12–16 Years Who Have Experienced Sexual Abuse, show that a high proportion
of the 41 cases analysed in the study report that adolescents who experienced sexual abuse were
reluctant to seek help from professionals. Moreover, it was reported by participants that those who did
seek the services of professionals were in the receipt of poor help. The results were consistent with that
of investigations conducted in other countries engaging larger samples. The study reports that all
abusers identified by participants were male, abuse perpetrated by a family member lasted over a year
and the majority of reported abuse was ‘severe’. Further, some participants reported that they were in
doubt if their experience constituted violence as in a few cases physical violence was not present or that
subtle strategies were employed by the perpetrator. Most adolescents participating in the study said
they experienced negative consequences following the abuse, for example, shame or guilt, difficulty at
work and school, difficulty in relationships, depression or attempted suicide. Over two-thirds of those
interviewed in the study did not look to their parents for help. Barriers to family support identified in the
study include pathological, disrupted or unstable family relations, the desire to protect family members
or the perception that parents were non-protective or insensitive.
Telefono Azzurro (2013) found that between 2006 and 2013, 34% of help requests (n = about 12,000)
received by the 114 helpline concern abuse and violence, with 3.9% are specific cases victims of sexual
abuse. The analysis of help requests among victims of sexual abuse received by the 114 helpline reveals
an increase in the number of cases of sexual abuse reported to the helpline: from 13.4% in 2009 to
22.3% in 2012 (Telefono Azzurro, 2013).
The survey Vite in Bilico found that the majority of cases of sexual abuse occurred once (49.6%); more
than one time, 39.9%; often, 5.1% (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006). Evidence indicates that the closer the
relationship between perpetrator and victim, the longer the duration of the abuse (Bianchi and
Moretti, 2006). This may be because when there is a close relationship between the victim and the
perpetrator, victims may harbor feelings of guilt and responsibility for the abuse, this, in turn, makes it
34
harder for victims to disclose or report the abuse. (Dipartimento Giustizia Minorile, 2012; Bianchi and
Moretti, 2006).
According to a qualitative small study (n = 29 including 20 social workers) Save the Children Italia (2013)
and the investigation mandated by the House of Representatives (Camera dei Deputati, 2012), which
entailed a series of hearings of representatives of the CRC group for Italy and other NGO’s involved in
assisting prostitution child victims, as well as the analysis of ministers and government documents,
show that children are affected by the phenomenon of indoor sexual exploitation14.
For the area of trafficking for sexual exploitation, see the section about violence in the community.
Figure 12. Adults reported or arrested by the police for violations against children (pornography,
‘corruption’ of minors and sexual act), 2006-2013
Source: Minister of Interior, 2013
As regards sexual acts with a minor and corruption of minors, data indicate a stability in the phenomena
in the period from 2006-2013. Concerning child pornography data register an increase around the year
2009.
14
Save the children Italia highlights the high number of sex ads published on local newspapers offering sexual
encounters in apartments. NGO workers reported that, within the same month, they were able to approach 231
girls through answering sex adds, but were able to count less than half ( 100 ) on the streets (Save the Children,
2013)
35
Romito et al (2011), in their study on pornography and its effects on violence and victimisation, found
that almost all of the male adolescents in the study sample (n=303, 12th grade and 18 to 25 year olds),
and two thirds of female adolescents interviewed for the study had ever watched pornography. At the
time of interview, 42% of the male sample and 32% of the female sample were watching pornographic
depictions of violence against women, including rape, torture, degradation, and murder. Of the sample,
33% of males and 26% of females watched videos of women apparently enjoying the violence they were
subject to and in the survey, a minority also watched pornography which depicted women torturing
men, sex with animals and sadomasochism.
Drivers
This review examined 15 studies focused on sexual abuse. Among these studies, four main themes
emerged on the drivers of child sexual abuse: unequal power relations, previous experiences of abuse,
family structure and the invisibility of certain types of violence and victims.
 Psychological manipulation within unequal power relations of trust. Evidence shows that most
frequent types of sexual violence are forms of light abuse that do not involve physical contact.
The survey Vite in Bilico found that 64% of women sexually abused during childhood suffered no
physical contact but rather abuse such as exhibitionism, verbal violence and exposure to child
pornography. 34.4% were subjected to touching, masturbation and attempted penetration.
1.6% were subjected to sexual intercourse (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006). Victims of sexual abuse
are often tricked with deception 10.2% (games, growth control) or through promises and gifts
7.7%. Only in 2.6% of the cases women were abused with violence (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006).
 Witnessing violence. Children who witness fathers being violent with their mothers are more
likely to perpetrate violence15 against their partners (Istat, 2015; Dipartimento Giustizia). ISTAT
found that the probability for people to perpetrate intimate partner violence increases from
5.2% to 22% if they have witnessed their father being violent with their mothers (Istat, 2015).
 Previous experiences of abuse. The probability for people to perpetrate intimate partner
violence increases from 5.2 to 35.9% if they have been physically abused by mothers. (ISTAT,
2015) Previous experience of sexual abuse are also seen to increase minors’ vulnerability to
sexual exploitation as referred by professionals working with children involved in the sex market
(Camera dei Deputati, 2012; Save the Children Italia, 2013)
 Absence of family for migrant children. The Parliamentary Commission on Childhood and
Adolescence stresses the potential link between the presence of unaccompanied minors in
migrating flows across Europe and the phenomenon of sexual exploitation (Camera dei
Deputati, 2012; Save the Children Italia, 2013) (See violence in the community). For instance,
the Ministry of Labour and Social Policies identified that 43.5% (5,099) of the 11,648
unaccompanied foreign children present in the reception centres, at the date of 30th April
2016, were irretraceable. According to Europol, out of the 10,000 unaccompanied foreign
15 In the Study, ISTAT does not specify what type of violence, however, the investigation looks at physical and sexual violence,
therefore the driver seems to relate to both types of violence. (ISTAT, 2015)
36
children who have disappeared after their arrival in Europe, 5,000 arrived in Italy. While some
may have reached their families in other European countries, it is feared that others are
involved in the phenomenon of sexual exploitation through criminal organisations.
 Invisibility of trafficking victims (Camera dei Deputati, 2012; Save the Children Italia, 2013).
Several factors contribute to the invisibility of trafficking victims: mobility, false documents and
the existence of exploitative indoor circuits of exploitation.
Child Physical Abuse

Descriptive
According to the survey Vite in Bilico, 11% of the female population experienced physical abuse at least
some times in their life (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006). In the most recent national survey on child
maltreatment, Cismai and Terres des Hommes (2015) found that 6.9 out 100 (n = 251 municipalities,
about 2.4 million children) maltreated children have suffered physical abuse, a slightly higher
percentage than what had emerged in 2013 (4.8% , n = 48.280)
According to the analysis of requests received by the 114 helpline, 34% of emergency calls concern
abuse and violence and 11.9% are about children victims of physical abuse. Telefono Azzurro (2013) has
also remarked an increase in the number of referrals of physical abuse over time: from 5.2% in 2006 to
17.1% in 2012.
In a small, local, qualitative study with 20 young adults who had experienced violence during childhood,
Zomero (2002) found that physical maltreatment experienced by respondents included: attempted
homicide, hitting with the belt, being forced to sit on someone’s knees for hours with one’s arms lifted
up, hair pulling, fighting, objects’ throwing, slapping, punching and kicking.
With regards to bullying, Telefono Azzurro and Eurispes (2011) carried out a survey among children (n =
1496) and parents ( n = 1266) and found that about 3% of children have suffered from physical violence
(hitting) from peers. (see also the section on violence in the school and outside the school)
Concerning the duration of physical abuse, the study Vite in Bilico (n = 2320) found that 18% of physical
maltreatment victims suffer repeated episodes of violence (Bianchi and Moretti 2006).
A multi-country study of mothers and children (using a sample of 336) aged 6 to 17 years examining the
use of physical discipline and normative attitudes towards it, the authors found that both mothers and
children in Italy recalled more normative use of physical discipline than counterparts in other
countries (including China, India, the Philippines and Thailand) (Lansford et al, 2005). A survey of 1,417
parents in Italy was conducted in 2008-2009 as part of the “Parenting across Cultures project”. In Italy,
the parents of 12% of girls and 23% of boys aged 7-10 said they had beaten their children severely in the
past month. (Lansford et al., 2010)
37
Drivers
A total of 16 studies in this review included information on the drivers of physical abuse. From these
studies a number of themes emerge including: the quality of the relationship between parents, stressors
at the family level, gender bias concerning the educational value of corporal punishment, and, similarly
to sexual abuse, witnessing violence and previous experience of violence.
 Quality of the couple relationship. From a clinical study comparing parents (n = 59) at high risk
of maltreating their children (as measured by the Abuse Scale of Child Abuse Potential inventory
Form VI – CAPI) and parents ( n =59) at low risk of maltreating their child, it emerges that
parents who perceive their couple relationship as weak or not supportive have a higher risk of
physically maltreating their child (Miragoli, Di Blasio, 2012). Moreover, the lack of emotional
support, together with parental anger, and impulsivity also emerged as drivers of corporal
punishment in a study on parents’ (n = 123) educational strategies carried out in the North of
the country, especially concerning mother’s enactment of physical violence on children (Arace,
Scarzello & Occelli, 2013).
 The combination of low income, health problems and problematic children (premature and/or
in poor health conditions). In a study conducted on 2,388 families in Tuscany, researchers found
that stressors experienced by parents represent a risk for minor forms of physical punishment
as defined by the Physical Aggression Scale of Wolfner and Gelles (1993) (Bardi and Borgognini-
Tarli, 2001).
 Italian fathers appear to believe physical punishment to be more adequate for educating sons
than daughters. In their study on parenting and educational styles, Arace et al., note how Italian
fathers seem to generally uphold a more authoritative and traditional parenting model
compared to Italian mothers. Such model seem to influence their belief in the value of corporal
punishment (Arace et al 2013) (See also the section on violence fathers & children). However, a
multi-country study conducted by Lansford et al (2010; sample of 1417) examining ethnic and
cultural differences in the use of corporal punishment in China, Columbia, Italy, Jordan, Kenya,
the Philippines, Sweden, Thailand and the United States, appeared to show different results.
Mothers emerged as using corporal punishment more often than fathers. Moreover the study
showed that male children were corporally punished more often than female children. Gender
differences in corporal punishment have been reported to be dependent on the family’s cultural
context (Lansford et al, 2010). Figures from Italy showed that even though corporal punishment
was reportedly high, Italian parents were second to Swedish parents in their belief that it was
necessary to use corporal punishment to raise children (ibid).
 Witnessing violence. As previously mentioned in the section on sexual abuse, children who
witness fathers being violent with their mothers are more likely to perpetrate violence16 against
their partners (Istat, 2015; Dipartimento Giustizia). (See section on sexual abuse)
In the Study, ISTAT does not specify what type of violence, however, the investigation looks at physical
16
and sexual violence, therefore the driver seems to relate to both types of violence. (ISTAT, 2015)
38
 Previous experiences of abuse. Again similarly to sexual abuse, the probability for people to
perpetrate intimate partner violence – including physical violence - increases from 5.2 to 35.9%
if they have been physically abused by mothers. (ISTAT, 2015)
Child Emotional Abuse

Descriptive
Evidence suggests that physical and psychological neglect are common types of maltreatment.17
CISMAI and Terre des Homme (2015) found that 47.1 out 100 maltreated children taken care of by social
services have suffered physical and/or psychological neglect. The same study also states that 13.7 out
100 maltreated children have suffered emotional abuse and that 19.4 out of 100 maltreated children
have witnessed domestic violence (see the section about drivers of violence in the family).
Figure 13. Abuse types suffered by children assisted by Social Services in Italy
47,1
50
45
40
35
30
25 19,4
20 13,7
15
8,4 6,9
10 4,2
5 1,2
0
Source: CISMAI and Terre des Hommes, 2015
17
We include in this section data about neglect which include an emotional/psychological component, but
sometimes also a physical one.
39
The graph shows the distribution of the different typologies of maltreatment and abuse of children
assisted by social services on the national territory. About 1 out 2 children is victim of physical and/or
psychological neglect. Emotional abuse concerns 13.7% of children assisted by social services.
Bianchi and Moretti (2006) found that emotional abuse (defined as criticism and/or devaluing ironies)
concerned 13.4% of the female population (n=2320). Telefono Azzurro (2013), looking at help requests
concerning abuse and violence received by the 114 helpline, found that 7.4% children (n = 11.876) are
subjected to psychological maltreatment and 5.5% to pathology of care. Similarly to physical abuse,
Telefono Azzurro (2013) marks an increase in the number of referrals of psychological maltreatment
over time: from 8.3% in 2006 to 12.9% in 2012. In addition, emergency calls concerning cases of neglect
and parental inadequacy have also increased from 5.7% in 2006 to 10.4% in 2012 for neglect; and from
6.3% in 2006 to 10.2% in 2012 from parental inadequacy (Telefono Azzurro, 2013).
A small, local qualitative study on young adults victims child abuse (n = 18) found that emotional
violence endured by respondents included: being humiliated, insulted, devalued or belittled (see page
about drivers in violence in the home). All cases of physical abuse also included psychological abuse.
Moreover, respondents recalled witnessing the following types of emotional violence between parents:
devaluation, denigration and abandonment (see the section about drivers on violence in the home).
There were also cases of economic violence concerning separated couples where fathers would not
provide financial support for the child (Zomero, 2002).
Drivers
15 studies in this review were found to provide information on the drivers of emotional abuse, which
include material and psychological neglect. Vite in Bilico and Di Blasio’s work on risk and protective
factors, in particular, shed light on major trends such as: parental stress, conflictual relationships among
parents, social isolation and socio-economic hardship.
 Parental stress linked to separation issues and to being a single parent. Studies show that in
families where maltreatment - including emotional abuse and neglect – occurs, there is often a
tense relationship in the parental couple, and that the stress of being a single parent correlates
with the risk for violence (Telefono Azzurro, 2013; Baker and Verrocchio, 2013; Zomero, 2002).
 A conflictual relationship and lack of affection in the couple. Di Blasio (2005) found that this is
a risk factor for abusive mothers.
 Families characterized by social isolation or conflict (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006) – see section
about Violence in the home for further information.
 Deprived socio-economic conditions (Caso et al., 2011; Bianchi and Moretti, 2006).
40
Polyvictimisation
Descriptive
Polyvictimisation is common and witnessing violence often indicates risks for other types of abuse to
occur (see the section about drivers on violence in the home and sexual abuse). 64% of sexually abused
women were also exposed to domestic conflicts when they were children; 48% of them witnessed
episodes of verbal violence against another family member (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006). According to
the survey Vite in Bilico, 49.6% of women had experienced episodes of maltreatment18 during childhood
and 18.1% experienced a combination of sexual abuse and maltreatment.
It is interesting to note that out of 100 women who were sexually abused at least once in their life time,
75% were also maltreated (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006). At the same time, out of 100 maltreated women,
only 26% also report being sexually abused (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006). Zomero’s (2002) qualitative
study also indicates that victims of child abuse often experience multiple types of violence including
economic violence, which is intertwined with neglect.
Concerning sexual exploitation, children affected by the phenomenon are often victims of physical
and psychological violence (Save the Children Italia, 2013; Carchedi, 2004;Camera dei deputati, 2012).
Frequent forms of violence experienced by minors involved in sexual exploitation are hitting, punching,
emotional harm, controlling, scaring, threatening, hostile treatment and forced sex (Save the Children,
2013).
18
Here maltreatment includes: neglect, assisted violence, physical and emotional abuse.
41
8. Places
Violence Affecting Children: In the Home
Descriptive
The review found a high prevalence of sexual abuse within the family environment. Records from the
Department of Justice indicates that, in 2012, 48% of child victims know their perpetrator from their
social environment and 33% are victims of sexual violence by someone in their family (Dipartimento
Giustizia Minorile, 2012) According to Pellai et al. (2004), perpetrators belong to the child’s family in
10.6% of the cases (n= 2839) (See the section on sexual abuse).
With regards to sexual exploitation, adult family members may be already involved in the sex industry
themselves, and children join their activities. Families where sexual exploitation takes place are often
characterized by the presence of domestic violence and alcohol abuse (Carchedi, 2004; Save the
Children, 2013; Camera dei Deputati, 2012). At times families are being threatened by traffickers or
organizations external to their kin (Carchedi, 2004).
Concerning maltreatment and psychological violence, the analysis of the data provided by Vite in bilico
shows that difficult family relationships raise the likelihood of the occurrence of maltreatment and
psychological violence, also severe ones.
Drivers
This section is particularly robust given the secondary analysis completed by IDI on Vite in bilico. Several
important trends within family settings appear to be strong risk factors for violence.
 Families characterized by social isolation. The condition of having weak contacts with extended
families and social networks, or hostile break ups with other family members, as well as, scarce
opportunities to seek help in times of hardship (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006; Caso et al 2011).
Female respondents who reported growing up in a family that did not socialize with others were
five times more likely to report having experienced severe maltreatment than female
respondents who reported that their family socialized with others (Odds Ratio 5.40, χ²= 25.95,
significance 1%) ( Secondary analysis on Vite in bilico data).
 Family norms around silence and blame. Female respondents who reported growing up in an
atmosphere at home that included secretive and accusatory family communication were twice
as likely to report having experienced sexual abuse and 6.5 times more likely to have reported
experiencing any maltreatment (neglect, physical or emotional abuse) than those who did not
report these characteristics of family communication (OR 6.51, χ² = 101.74, sig. 1% ) (Bianchi and
Moretti, 2006). Furthermore, those who experienced secretive and accusatory family
communication were also more likely to report experiencing severe maltreatment (OR 8.18,
χ²=34.53, sig. 1%) (Secondary analysis on Vite in bilico data).
42
 Humiliation within family. Female respondents who reported being humiliated within their
family environment as they were growing up were 14 times more likely to experience severe
maltreatment than female respondents who report never experiencing maltreatment or
reported moderate maltreatment (OR 14.19, χ² = 87.56, sig. 1%) (Secondary analysis on Vite in
bilico data).
 Family fights. Female respondents who reported witnessing family fights as they were growing
up were 7 times more likely to experience maltreatment than female respondents who report
never witnessing family fights (OR 7.62, χ² = 312.48, sig. 1%) . (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006).
Furthermore, the more frequent the family fights, the higher the likelihood, 10 times, of
experiencing severe maltreatment (OR 10.19, χ² = 43.20, sig. 1%) (Secondary analysis on Vite in
bilico data).
 Parental stress linked to separation issues. Studies show that in families where maltreatment,
including emotional abuse and neglect, takes place there is often a tense relationship in the
parental couple, and that the stress of being a single parent correlates with the risk for violence
(Telefono Azzurro, 2013; Baker and Verrocchi, 2013; Zomero, 2002). For instance, when
investigating the family composition of child victims of violence, Di Blasio looked at a sample of
children (n = 55, 117 questionnaires filled out by different social service offices) who had been
referred to multiple services multiple times (2003) who found that 45.5% of families were made
up by biological parents, of which 27% were single parents versus 15% in the global sample.
Prevalence of sexual abuse also appeared to be higher among children living with single parents
and separated/divorced parents, compared to children living with both parents (Pellai et al,
2004). Moreover, in the analysis of official figures on child victims and perpetrators of sexual
crimes, the Department of Justice (2012) highlights that children involved in processes of
juvenile justice are characterized by a condition of loneliness and vulnerability while growing up
in families, who, increasingly often, are breaking apart.
 Sources of fragility in family functioning such as physical disability and psychological ill-being,
financial poverty (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006) Through the analysis of data collected with the
Vite in Bilico survey, researchers noticed that no single variables seemed to drive maltreatment
by itself, however the presence and overlap of stressors at the family level, linked with mental
and physical health of family members as well as to economic difficulties, lead to further risks
for violence, which is something we find again in different studies (Bianchi and Moretti 2006;
Bardi and Borgognini-Tarli, 2001, Caso et al 2011)
 Witnessing domestic violence. Bianchi and Moretti (2006) found that 64% of sexually abused
women were also exposed to domestic conflicts and that 48% of them witnessed episodes of
verbal violence against another family member. In mothers’ opinions, children develop
relational problems with peers as a consequence of witnessing violence (Caso et al, 2011).
Domestic violence can also represent a risk factor for sexual exploitation as reported by the
studies investigating the phenomenon (Carchedi, 2004; Save the Children 2013; Camera dei
Deputati, 2012).
43
Violence Affecting Children: In Schools and outside Schools

Descriptive
There is an increasing number of studies on violence affecting children in schools and bullying seems to
be a relevant issue in Italy calling for attention. Evidence from national statistics collected by the
Regional World Health Organization for Europe for the HBSC study Italy (n = about 59,000) suggests
that about 10% of students aged 11,13 and 15 years experience bullying at school. This data is similar
to the percentage found by Menesini and Nocentini local study on students (n = about 1,000) in
Tuscany (Menesini and Nocentini, 2008; HBSC, 2010). Menesini and Nocentini’ longitudinal study (2008)
found that between 22 and 28% students had encountered light and sporadic episodes of bullying. They
also found that so called full-time bullies are 7.2% of the population while temporary bullies make up
37.3% of the population (Menesini and Nocentini, 2008). In a smaller scale study (n = 208 teachers, 43
parents) conducted in the South of Italy, Di Vita, et al. (2009) found that 65% of teachers report the
occurrence of sporadic episodes of violence at school. (see also the section on relationship ).
Data collected from a sample of 1,059 8 to 15 year olds showed that half of all students had involvement
in either bullying or victimisation (Baldry, 2003). This cross-sectional study, conducted in and around the
city and province of Rome, indicates that both victimisation and bullying is widespread in the primary
and lower secondary schools surveyed and revealed gender differences for bullying. For example boys
reported bullying others significantly more often than girls for all types of bullying especially in the case
of physical bullying and name calling. Gender differences emerged also with reference to indirect
bullying, but only in the case of spreading rumors with boys more involved than girls. A qualitative study
by Gini (2008a) mirrored these results in an urban context in northern Italy, finding that 14 to 16 year
old males were more likely to be overtly victimised than their female peers (sample size, n=409).
However, there was no difference between genders in relational victimisation, which is predominantly
considered to be a female experience (ibid). A mixed methods study sampling a younger population of 6
to 10 year old children (n=113) found associations between typically masculine traits – such as
independence, self-affirmation, risk-taking, social dominance and aggressiveness – and active bullying
behaviour, regardless of sex (Gini and Pozzoli, 2006).
If we consider bullying not only in schools but also in other environments, a recent study by Istat (2014)
on “Offensive and violent behaviours among early teens: bullying” found out that among early teens
(aged 11-17 years) 19.8% has been victim of bullying several times a month and 9.1% of these victims
have suffered actions of bullying on a weekly basis. If we consider the time period of one year, over 50%
has suffered from offensive, disrespectful and/or violent episodes during the preceding 12 months.
44
Offensive, disrespectful and/or violent acts have been repeatedly suffered more by the adolescents
aged 11-13 years (22.5%) than by those aged 14-17 years (17.9%); more by females (20.9%) than by
males (18.8%). Also in relation to cyber bullying victims were more present among females (7.1% related
to females aged 11-17 years vs. 4.6% related to males).
The victims of assiduous bullying accounted for 23% of the adolescents aged 11-17 years in Northern
Italy. Including also actions that have occurred sporadically (sometimes during a year) the bullied
adolescents living in the North were over 57%.
The most common bullying acts consist of offenses by nicknames, swear words or insults (12.1%),
derision for physical appearance and/or way of speaking (6.3%), defamation (5.1%), exclusion because
of their views (4.7%).
Among the adolescents aged 11-17 years, 16.9% have been a bullying direct victim, in a face to face
relationship between the victim and the bully; 10.8% have been a bullying indirect victim, without
physical contact. Among girls the difference between the direct bullying and the indirect one was
minimum (respectively 16.7% and 14%). On the contrary, among males, the direct forms (17%) were
more than double than the indirect ones (7.7%).
Bullying victims were more frequent among those living in households with less than four members
(12.2% every day or nearly) than among those living in households with more than four members (7.8%
every day or nearly). Among the young people aged 11-17, 23.6% of those who rarely meet their friends
have been repeatedly bullied, compared to 18% corresponding to those who meet their friends every
day.
To defend themselves from bullies, 65% of young people aged 11-17 (60.4% males and 69.9% females)
considered appropriate to ask for help to parents; 41% considered appropriate to ask for help to
teachers (37.4% males and 44.8% females).
45
Teachers generally appear as unprepared to respond to violence in the classroom or to detecting

maltreatment at home. Di Vita et al. found that 46% of teachers feels unprepared to deal with bullying
especially since they do not feel there are appropriate tools at their disposal to respond to the
phenomenon. More specifically, 37% of teachers complained about the lack of structures to have after
school meetings and deal with the issue (Di Vita et al, 2009). In a qualitative study on the experience of
maltreatment and abuse, Zomero (2002) found that schools did not act as protective factors in the
experience of her participants, who reported a lack of awareness/intervention by teachers. They had
been dismissive of students’ stories or tended to take the side of (violent) parents. However extra-
curricular activities such as playing chess or writing were reported as protective, therapeutic factors for
children who had experienced abuse.
Several studies explored individual characteristics associated with bullying behaviour, particularly
around moral competence, or the ability to logically judge moral issues. Bullies consistently displayed
normal or higher than average moral competence (Gini et al. 2011; Gini, 2006; Caravita, et al. 2012).
Results from a mixed methods study by Gini et al (2011) indicate that while bullies are able to assess the
moral permissibility of actions, there is a gap in applying this knowledge to behaviour. Using a sample of
719 9 to 13 year olds, this cross-sectional study found that bullying behaviour was associated with a lack
of empathy, a lack of guilt and moral disengagement, or self-justification of behaviours that violate
social norms (Gini et al, 2011). Moral disengagement was also positively correlated with aggressive
behaviour in qualitative research by Gini (2006) in a sample of 204 8 to 11 year olds. Pozzoli et al (2012)
found that moral disengagement was already present in children at a young age in their study sampling
663 8 to 10 year olds. However, when studying two age groups from 9 to 11 (n=235) and 12 to 15
(n=305) in a mixed methods study, Caravita et al (2012) found the association between moral
disengagement and bullying only manifested in early adolescents. In this quantitative study, social status
influenced the relationship between individual characteristics, in this case, morality, and social
behaviour: high social status, or popularity, was positively correlated with bullying behaviour,
particularly among boys (ibid). Using a similar sample (children aged 9-10, n=133 and aged 11-14,
n=236) in a mixed methods study, Caravita et al (2014) also found that self-justification processes
among early adolescents were susceptible to change under peer influence.
There is further research exploring the convergence between individual traits and social behaviour,
and the resultant interaction with bullying behaviour. A mixed methods study by Pozzoli and Gini (2010),
which sampled 462 seventh and eighth grade students in a mid-sized city in northern Italy, examined the
interaction between individual characteristics and peer pressure. While students who displayed
problem-solving coping strategies and personal responsibility were more likely to assist a bullied peer,
they could be deterred from intervening if they perceived peer pressure not to do so (ibid). This finding
aligns with other research that indicates the strong influence of social groups among adolescents (ibid).
Similarly, in their mixed methods study, Jones et al (2012) reported that among their sample of 128 10
to 13 year olds, identification in a social group affected the response to bullying: if a child felt strongly
included within a group, one of whom was victimised, they were more likely to feel anger toward the
bullying and in turn were more likely to tell a teacher about the incident. In another quantitative study
on bystander behaviour in bullying, Baldry (2005) found that in a sample of 594 12 to 16 year olds, the
most common reaction to bullying was to support the victim and discouraging the bully. The study
showed that there were differences in behaviour across gender in that girls were more likely to support
the victim than boys but boys were found to be more likely to either encourage the bully or ignore the
incident altogether.
46
Gini (2008b) reported similar results with a sample of 246 9 to 12 year olds living in a mid-sized town in
northern Italy in a mixed methods study. While girls supported victims slightly more than boys, the type
of bullying affected results: boys were less likely to support victims of physical bullying, whereas girls
were less likely to support victims of indirect bullying (ibid). Younger children also displayed greater
support for victims of bullying when compared to pre-adolescent children (ibid).
The school environment emerged as a significant factor when examining perceptions of bullies and
their victims. In the same study by Gini (2008b), a stronger sense of community within the school
predicted the likelihood of supporting the victim. Conversely, in a school environment where students
perceived a negative relationship with teachers, children were more likely to blame victims of bullying
(ibid).
Bacchini et al (2009) conducted a cross-sectional study in Ercolano, near Naples, an area with high
unemployment and a history of mob culture, to explore bullying among fifth year high school students.
The authors found that in a sample of 734, the role of the ‘bully’ was associated with the way in which
respondents perceived the level of danger and probability of violent situations in their relationships
with teachers and classmates and in their local neighbourhoods.
The study reports that ‘pure bullies’ and ‘bully victims’ were most likely to experience dangerous and
violent situations in their local community so therefore had more of a negative perception of their
relationships, particularly with teachers. Lenzi et al (2014) also found that negative perceptions of
teacher relationships were positively correlated with bullying behaviour. In a mixed methods study with
a sample of 662 11 to 13 year old students, both girls and boys were more likely to display bullying
behaviours if they believed their teacher treated them unfairly (ibid). Similarly, in another mixed
methods study using a nationally representative sample of 11-, 13- and 15- year old students (n=4386),
Nation et al (2008) found that teacher-student relationships in which the child felt disempowered
predicted bullying behaviour.
While the teacher-student relationship was an important predictor of bullying behaviour among
younger students, the parent-child relationship became a more significant factor in predicting bullying
behaviour as children aged into adolescence (Nation et al, 2008). Children who did not participate in
decision-making with their parents were more likely to engage in bullying behaviour (ibid). The Baldry
(2003) study discussed earlier explored the influence of the home environment, examining links
between domestic violence and bullying in schools (sample size, n=1059, aged 8-15). Among the sample,
17.4% of 8 to 15 years olds reported that they had been exposed to inter-parental violence with a larger
prevalence of father to mother violence (ibid). Exposure to inter-parental violence was associated with
bullying behaviours: bullies were almost two times more likely to have been exposed to domestic
violence (ibid). This pattern is even more pronounced among girl bullies, who were over three times
more likely to have been exposed to domestic violence than girls who were not exposed (ibid).
Among the suggested policies to tackle bullying are anti bullying interventions carried out in schools and
continued promotion of national awareness of anti bullying campaigns (Vieno et al, 2015). The
introduction of these measures showed a marked reduction in reported figures for bullying decrease
between 2006 and 2010 (sample of 13,174; ibid).
Another typology of bullying on which a few research have been recently carried out concern
homophobic bullying, namely acts on bullying based on actual or perceived sexual orientation.
47
Adolescents may be a target of this type of bullying because of their appearance, behaviour, physical
traits or because they have friends or family who are lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, or possibly just
because they are seen as being different. Therefore homophobic bullying may be addressed both to
homosexual and heterosexual adolescents and often homophobic verbal insults are used just to
generically offend a person.
A research by Prati (2010) of 3,600 students of secondary schools from Northern-Centre Italy found out
that about 80% of students hear the use of homophobic vulgar terms to offend peers and that more
than 40% has assisted to acts of bullying towards people not showing traditional gender characteristics.
Only a minority of students report homophobic bullying (14% in the secondary school of first degree and
3% only in the secondary school of second degree).
Homophobic bullying is carried out mainly in small groups or by single individuals, generally boys and of
Italian nationality. Homophobic bullying has serious effects to the point that the victims may wish to
leave school or in extreme cases to commit suicide.
Another research by Mauceri (2015) based on a total sample of 920 students in 10 Roman schools
identified as the main influencing factor the acritical adherence to the heterosexist norm of the
dominant culture which leads to judge homosexual behaviours as unnatural and therefore to stigmatize.
The group of pairs emerges as having a very significant impact as 59.7% of adolescents who have
frequently assisted in their group of pairs to acts of homophobic bullying develops a very hostile attitude
towards homosexuals, while 25% develops a medium-high negative attitude.
The research also analyzes the influence of ideological affiliations and shows that adherence to a right
wing political-ideological orientation predisposes to homophobic prejudice in that it is founded on the
preservation of a social order based on traditional cultural models. On the contrary a progressive
orientation predisposes to have a more favourable attitudes towards homosexuality. The study also
discusses the role of the religious and political attitudes of parents, showing a greater importance of
the father one’s. At the same time the investigation shows that the intensity of the hostility toward gay
people tends to increase when the religious experience is regarded as fundamental by both parents.
Concerning family models of education, homophobic prejudice is positively correlated with
authoritarianism, namely education based on a strong submission to parental authority.
The research also highlights an important gender difference as for adolescent boys, unlike for girls, the
construction of their masculinity is based on a clear distancing from homosexuality. The fear of being
judged as homosexual often drives them to implement themselves homophobic behavior in an attempt
to prove their masculinity. An inverse association between socio-cultural capital and prejudice also
emerged, however in the case of the difference between high school and technical schools an
hypothesis turned up (but needs more research to be confirmed) it is the teaching of some humanistic
subjects, such as philosophy, that makes the difference.
Finally, regarding the effectiveness of prevention interventions, dialogue on homosexuality tends to
produce a more open attitude towards homosexuals provided that it happens in a symmetrical situation
of power and students are allowed to express freely their views, also the negative ones.
48
Figure 15. Children (ages 11-13-15) who experienced bullying at school within the last two months
according to the frequency of the event, 2010
1,6 1,1 0,9

100% 0,6
2,3 1,7
4,2
95%
9,0
90% 10,6
93,9
85%
87,3
84,8
80%
75%
11 years old 13 years old 15 years old
Never 1-2 times in the last two months

2-3 times in the last month once a week
more than once a week
Source: HBSC Italia, 2010
Drivers
The major drivers emerging from research are: poor education and social skills; teachers’ unfair
behavior and previous experience of violence; the quality of relationships with peers, parents and
teachers. Also the family size and presence of siblings as well as the social environment appear as
relevant elements.
 Poor education and social skills development are risk factors for children to develop abusive
behaviors. An investigation of the Department of Juvenile Justice found that 71% of child
offenders attend school till the first level of high school (age 11- 14); 15% stopped going to
school after primary education and 73% were not working or involved in any sort of training
(Dipartimento Giustizia Minorile, 2012). Similarly scholars investigating bullying found that
children who frequently bully also have poor academic performance. (Menesini and Nocentini,
2008).
 Violence in schools, can be triggered by teachers’ unfair behaviour. A study by Vieno et al.
(2011) of 6,744 students in 348 classrooms throughout Italy found that after adjusting for age,
gender, and psychosocial confounding factors, bullying was more common in schools where
students felt that teachers treated them unfairly and the administration was seen as overly
strict. (Vieno et al, 2015; Lenzi, 2014) Also Gini (2008b), found that in a school environment
where students perceived a negative relationship with teachers, children were more likely to
blame victims of bullying while a stronger sense of community within the school predicted the
likelihood of supporting the victim.
49
 While the teacher-student relationship was an important predictor of bullying behaviour among
younger students, the parent-child relationship became a more significant factor in predicting
bullying behaviour as children aged into adolescence (Nation et al, 2008).
 The quality of relationships matter. Nation et al. (2008) explored the link between bullying and
relationships with peers, teachers and parents. Strikingly, students who said their teachers
discouraged them from expressing themselves were more likely to be bullied and to perpetrate
bullying. Children who said their parents made decisions by fiat, without consulting them, were
also more likely to be involved in bullying, as victims and perpetrators. (also in the study by
Nation et al., 2008) These findings suggest that when children aren’t given the change to
develop healthier communication skills, they may tend to express themselves through
gratuitous violence instead, or submit to the will of others as a coping mechanism. Differences
in decision-making among peers seemed to have little influence on bullying or victimization,
although bullies tended to be more socially competent, and victims less so. The authors suggest
that these findings may indicate that anti-bullying interventions should work with families as
well as schools. Also the study by Mauceri (2015) on homophobic bullying shows that
homophobic prejudice is positively correlated with authoritarianism, namely education based
on a strong submission to parental authority.
 Different studies (Pozzoli and Gini, 2010, Jones et al, 2012) showed the influence of peers also in
relation to the response to bullying.
 Family size and presence of siblings. The Istat survey (2014) found out that early teens are more
likely to be victims of bullying (12.2% every day or nearly) if they live in households with less
than four members, compared to early teens who live in households with more than four
members (7.8% every day or nearly).
 Social environment. The highest percentage (49.7%) of adolescents who were never victims of
bullying is to be found among those who live in areas that are not deprived in comparison with
adolescents who live in deprived areas (44.6%) where there is also the highest percentage of
victims (23.3%) of frequent acts of offensive and violent behaviours. (at least one a month)
(Istat, 2014)
 Concerning homophobic bullying the research by Mauceri (2015) identified the following most
important drivers: conservatorism (political, religious and gender); parents’ religious attitudes
(more important than that of the father); education based on authoritarian values; need to
affirm their masculinity for adolescent boys.
50
Violence Affecting Children: In the Community

Descriptive
With regards to trafficking aimed at sexual exploitation, the collection of data is a very complex task
because of the illegal and hidden dimension of the phenomenon. A research carried out in 2009 on the
basis of the experience of some of the most relevant associations working on the street to support the
victims of sexual exploitation (Caritas italiana, Gruppo Abele, CNCA, On the road) estimated that in 2009
there were about 24,700 women victims of trafficking out of each 8 to 10% are minors. (Castelli, 2014)
The association Ecpat draws similar conclusions that child prostitution in Italy amounts to 2,500 each
year (75% female, 25% male).
According to the Department of Equal Opportunities, 22,669 victims of trafficking19 (of which 1,215 were
children) received services from social integration projects (ex-art 18 of law 286/98)20 between 2000 and
2013. Concerning disaggregation by gender of adolescents included in the reintegration programmes
there is a great variation by nationality. For instance data relating to 2013 show that for some
nationalities there is an overwhelming majority of girls (e.g. Nigeria, Romania, Albania, China) while for
others there a is great majority of boys (e.g. Egypt, Morocco, Ghana, Senegal). However, when we look
at the typology of exploitation, we see that a majority of female corresponds to the typology of sexual
exploitation whereas a majority of boys corresponds to other forms of exploitation. Therefore we can
conclude that girls are much more exposed to sexual exploitation than boys.
Furthermore projects carried out under art. 13 of the law against trafficking (law 228/2003) included a
total of 208 children from 2006 to 2012. However, it is crucial to remark that these numbers can be
misleading in terms of providing information on the scope and scale of the problem as they are likely to
severely underestimate the problem.
Boys and girls who engage in prostitution seem to have different experiences. Girls are more often
caught up in exploitative criminal organizations while boys are more likely to be independent and
engaged in a range of criminal activities, resorting to prostitution when they fail to raise money by other
crimes, such as stealing (Carchedi, 2004; Camera dei Deputati, 2012).
19
There are no disaggregated data that correlates age, gender and the typology of exploitation, but overall data
shows that the main purpose of child trafficking refers to sexual exploitation, although there are significant
variations by nationality.
20
Passed in 1998, the Italian Law on Immigration outlines provisions granted to immigrant populations. Article 18
is specifically aimed at trafficked people through the establishment of social assistance and integration programs.
51
Drivers
Because of its geographical position, Italy is one of the most important countries for human trafficking in
Europe. How this affects children is less understood. The following associations appear to be important:
 Demand for sex workers and child pornographic material. Official sources mark a growth in the
child pornography business and sex market, which involves minor workers as well (Save the
Children 2013; Camera dei Deputati 2012; Carchedi 2004). According to the statistics of the
international observatory against child abuse and sexual exploitation, Italy is the sixth top
country in terms of demand for online child pornography (Verrecchia et al., 2011).
 Existence of efficient organizations. Criminal organizations are efficient in safeguarding their
work facilitating the mobility of child victims, taking charge of logistics while performing strict
control over girls (Save the Children 2013; Camera dei Deputati 2012). Exploiters force girls to
declare being over 18 years of age, moreover they make them move often within the same city
or across different regions, sometimes spending time in open sites, such as the street, or in flats.
In addition, exploiters exercise control over these girls in various ways: patrolling with their car
when girls are on the streets, as well as, psychologically and physically threatening them. (Save
the Children, 2013)
 Social ambitions linked to relationships with sex traffickers influence girls decisions to engage
with the sex market. Often victims and trafficking agents or managers come from the same
social structure in home countries. They may share similar dreams and ambitions and have the
same customs (Carchedi et al., 2004). With regards to Nigerian women, who represent one of
the most prevalent groups being trafficked to Italy together with Romanians, Moroccans,
Egyptians and Chinese in recent years, researchers have noted that according to Ibo culture
younger people are subjected to the authority of the elders, girls wish to pay off debts and fear
voodoo practices enacted by controlling agents (Save the Children, 2013). Moreover it is
reported that trafficking recruiters have a notion of contributing to local development and
poverty alleviation.
 Emotional attachment to trafficking agents , therefore acts as a powerful hook motivating girls
to keep prostituting (Save the Children Italia, 2013), at times, in fact, girls may be in an
emotional relationship with traffickers or other men that may encourage, if not force, them to
prostitute.
 Unaccompanied foreign children who escape registration or escape from the reception
structures where they are hosted, may become vulnerable to sexual exploitation from
traffickers
 Compulsive consumerism seems to drive adolescents to prostitute themselves. From the
investigation on child prostitution mandated by the Parliamentary Commission on Childhood
and Adolescence, which included a series of hearings with key stakeholders and organizations
working to fight sexual exploitation, it emerges that in bigger cities teenagers use prostitution as
a way to satisfy secondary needs such as the purchase of goods (Camera dei Deputati, 2012)
52
Information, Communication and Technologies
The number of cyberbullying crimes that are reported to the police have doubled in the last period
(from 154 in 2013 to 345 in 2014) as well as the number of the juvenile authors of crime (from 28 in
2013 to 60 in 2014). The author and victim of crime often know each other because they meet at school
or in sport or recreational activities.
In 2014 there have been 238 adolescents between 14 and 17 years of age that reported to the police
crimes of cyberbullying, 75 children between 10 and 13 years and 32 below the age of 9.
With regards to risks for violence in online communities, online chats seem to be the most dangerous
sites for children to fall victim of grooming; however mobile phones and social networks can also expose
children to the risk. It is interesting to note that victims of this kind of abuse belong to families that do
not have a problematic profile (Rangone, 2012).
In 2014, 501 people have been reported to the police for crimes related to pedo-pornography, 49 have
been subjected to measures restricting their freedom and 249 minors have been identified as victims of
grooming.
As regards the websites with pedo-pornographic materials at the date of 31st December 2014 the black
list included 1,746 websites (data of the Postal Police, Ministry of Interior). However these refer to
foreign websites that are provided to the Italian Internet providers.
Drivers
For this section on the drivers of violence through information and communication technologies we rely
on two main important data sources: reports from the world observatory against pedophilia ( OS. MO.
CO. P) and the international study on teenagers strategies for avoiding online sexual violence (n = 120)
across five different countries in Europe, including Italy, carried out by Ainsaar et al. in 2012. Thematic
areas of interest concern parents and children computer and social skills, parents supervision of
children’s use of the internet, the gap between children’s motivation for communicating online and
their knowledge about the risks they are exposing themselves to.
 Parents supervision of children’s internet use (Meter Onlus, 2015; Ainsaar et al., 2012)
influence the exposure to risk. Adolescent respondent to a cross country analysis of strategies
against violence online ( Ainsaar et al, 2012 : n =120 teenagers) agreed that free internet
communication should be allowed only from a certain age onwards and that younger children
ought be supervised by adults. However, respondents also highlighted the generational gap with
older adults – including parents – as a major obstacle to preventive actions (Ainsaar et al 2012).
53
 Limited knowledge of computer and social skills. In a cross-country analysis of strategies

against violence online, researchers found that adolescents endorse protective strategies when
communicating via the internet such as adopting specific technical computer settings that
guarantee access only to people who have been identified and accepted. Adolescents found
that a key strategy of safe and successful communication is the ability of knowing when to stop
(Ainsaar et al., 2012). When communication becomes inappropriate and insincere, indeed, a
good strategy – according to the respondents of Ainsaar’s study – is to block the conversation
online or stop responding.
 Children are often unaware of the risks of online behaviors, which may be connected to sexual
experimentation, rather than problematic backgrounds (Ainsaar et al., 2012). Adolescents from
different European countries report to appreciate the freedom and opportunities of exploring
(sexual) life on the internet, which provides a space to play with identity and social interaction.
Moreover, discussing sexual issues on the internet is easier than in real life, this makes the
internet an appealing experiment place (Ainsaar et al., 2012).
54
9. Relationships
Parents and Children
In this section we address different types of relationships—parental, including mothers with children
and fathers with children, as well as siblings and other family members. Additionally, we consider
children’s relationships to their partners and peers. The family as a unit, no matter what configuration,
is an important anchor for most children worldwide. All children have the need for and the right to
parenting. Parenting means providing the ongoing care and support a child needs in order to survive and
thrive. If children are to develop to their full potential, ongoing parental care and support through
parenting is crucial. However, parents worldwide have to face multiple challenges and often do not
have the skills, knowledge or resources to raise children to their full potential. Positive social support
(family or friends) plays an important role in a child’s ability to make healthy choices. Social support
means being able to access people that a child can rely upon if needed. The support of family, including
siblings and friends (from the wider social support network) has long been seen to have a positive
emotional effect on children. In Italy, there is little data on these important relationships and how they
may or may not be associated with violence affecting children.
In an eight country study with a sample of 2,356 examining child maltreatment in the family, with a
focus on European countries, the mother or the father of the child was identified most frequently as the
perpetrator of harm..
Drivers
 Psychological distress affecting parenting skills. Miragoli and Di Blasio’s work on parents (n =
118) at high and low risk of maltreating their children (according to Child Abuse Potential
Inventory Form VI – CAPI) shows that parents at high risk of maltreating their children have
difficulties with regards to internalizing symptoms: depression, feeling of loneliness and with
regards to building gratifying relationships with the child within and outside the family (Miragoli
and Di Blasio, 2012). They also display problematic relational attitudes to the extent that they
seem to be unable to maintaining relationships of solidarity with others and perceive their
relationship with their partner as less satisfying and helpful than parents with low risk of
maltreatment (Miragoli and Di Blasio, 2012).
 Parents difficulty in recognizing risk behaviors and effective strategies to fight bullying.
Telefono Azzurro and Eurispes’ sample survey (2012) found that 43% of parents (n = 1266) do
not really know how to handle bullying and show a tendency to minimize the problem; some
parents think facing an adversity such as bullying is part of growing up. From the same survey,
however, it emerged that 32.3% of children feel the need to receive guidance from their parents
about how to go about incidents of bullying; although 21.9% declared to want to solve the
55
problem independently and 16.6% would actually be against seeking parents’ involvement when
handling a bullying incident Di Vita et al. note that parents also seems to be poorly equipped in
detecting behaviours which are seen to be symptomatic of children likely to perpetrate bullying,
such as hyperactivity, or becoming victims of bullying, as passiveness. (Di Vita et al., 2009).
 Supporting relationship between the parents is a powerful protecting factor against

maltreatment. Evidence shows that partners supporting relationship impacts the quality of the
care parents are able to provide to their offspring, harmony and support between parents, in
fact, bears a positive influence on parental stress and the emotional state of the parents
affecting their children (Miragoli and Di Blasio, 2012).
Mothers and Children
Drivers
 Pregnancies emerge as delicate time during which violence may set off. Some women identify
the starting point of domestic violence in the transitioning period towards parenthood.
Children’s birth can also be a destabilizing factors triggering fathers’ jealousy (Caso et al., 2011).
 Stress and (mental) health (Miragoli and Di Blasio 2012; Caso et al., 2011; Zomero, 2002;
Bianchi and Moretti, 2006). Miragoli and Di Blasio (2012) found that mothers at high risk of
maltreating their children show higher levels of distress and feelings of loneliness compared to
fathers at high risk of maltreating their child. Unpredictable mood swings, excessive jealousy,
aggressiveness and nervousness are risk factors for maltreatment among mothers (Caso et al.,
2011).
 Women’s strength in terms of resistance and socio-economic independence are important

protective resources. In case of domestic violence the following emerge as protective factors:
support of social network and friends; intervention of the Police or health personnel; women’s
professional and economic autonomy. Mothers’ desire to protect their children is a strong
motivation to report violence and seek help (Caso et al., 2011).
 Positive attachment bonds between children and mothers are also powerful protective
factors. In a study investigating which individual dimensions (attachment bonds, intellectual
level, internalizing or externalizing problems, coping strategies) favor resilience in maltreated
compared with non-maltreated children, as well as the link of such dimensions with the positive
or negative outcome of the family psychological treatment, on 110 subjects (composed of 52
maltreated children of low social class and 58 non-maltreated children of low and middle social
56
class), Di Blasio, et al (2005) found that attachment bonds of the secure type prove to be the
variable, which alone is able to explain positive outcomes of family therapy.
 Medical intervention (prematurity, caesarean section) and persistent PTSD symptoms affect
the mother-child relationship (Caffo et al., 1982; Ionio and Di Blasio, 2014). Mothers with PTSD
symptoms are more likely to enact intrusive behaviours with their children and be anxious about
their relationship with the child. Such behaviour, in turn affects the response of the children,
who display negative engagement, disorganization and withdrawal (Ionio and Di Blasio, 2014).
Therefore early mother-child interactions are affected in a way that puts a strain on the
attachment and positive relation between the two.
Fathers and Children
Drivers
 Physical maltreatment of children is more frequent among fathers than mothers. Bardi and
Borgonini-Tali (2001) found that for fathers, both minor and severe violence were significantly
associated with father’s educational levels, higher educational levels being associated with
higher rates of minor violence, and lower educational levels having higher rates of severe
violence.
 Italian fathers appear to believe in the positive value of physical punishment more often than
Italian mothers (Arace, et al., 2013). As mentioned in the section on physical abuse, Arace et al
indicate that Italian fathers seem to uphold a more authoritative and traditional parenting
model compared to italian mothers. Such model seem to influence their belief in the value of
corporal punishment (Arace et al 2013)
 In the multi-country study cited above a need for fathers to be the target of prevention
strategies and that further collection of data on harm towards children should be a research
priority for all European countries (May-Chahal, 2006).
57
Siblings and other Family Members
According to the survey Vite in bilico the percentage of cases of sexual violence is higher in families
without siblings (8.6% vs 5.9%). This could indicate that siblings may play a protective role however
there is no available national data to support this hypothesis.
Figure 16. Girls’ experiences during childhood according to the presence or absence of siblings.
100% 18,4 16,4 18,1
80%
50,0 46,8 49,6
60%
40% 8,6
5,5 5,9
20% 26,1 28,2 26,4
0%
Yes No Total
Sexual Abuse and maltreatment
Only maltreatment
Only sexual abuse
No experiences of abuse or maltreatment
Source: Vite in Bilico, 2006
On the contrary Pellai, et al. local study among high school students (n =2,839) (2004) found that the
prevalence of sexual abuse is higher among children with siblings compared to single children. It is
interesting to note that in a study examining a group of children who were referred to multiple services
multiple times, Di Blasio, et al. (2003) found that 39% of these children had a sibling who had also been
referred to the services. In 30% of the cases they had 2 siblings already known by services.
Drivers
From the analysis of the literature it emerges that there is contrasting data on drivers relating to the
presence or absence of siblings concerning violence affecting children.
 However, a qualitative study investigating young adults experiences of violence during

childhood shows that the opportunity to talk to siblings and non abusive parents about episodes
of abuse acts as a strong factor facilitating victims path towards recovery. Being listened to and
58
believed by siblings and non abusive parents appear to be a strong factor fostering children’s
resilience (Zomero, 2002). From Zomero’s interviews with young adults victims of abuse during
childhood, it emerges that when family members, including grandparents, siblings and non
abusive parents are present and available to children, victims gain the important chance of
sharing the story of their experience with someone who believes them (Zomero, 2002). This
process of narrating the episode of violence allows for the cognitive restructuring of events and
the acknowledgment of one’s feelings and emotions.
Partners and Peers
National statistics show that in 2010, about 36% of students (n=59,000) (age 11-13-15) reported having taken
part in episodes of violence against peers at least once in the previous year (HBSC-Italy, 2010). In a longitudinal
study, researchers found that between 22 and 28% of students (n = about 1000) had been subjected to bullying,
10% of whom to a very serious extent (Menesini and Nocentini, 2008). According to the national (n = 1.496
children and 1266 parents) investigation of Telefono Azzurro and Eurispes (2011), dissemination of false and
mean information about a person is the most frequent type of bullying affecting 25% of the child population.
Concerning different types of bullying this investigation found that 22.8% of children declared being victim of
repetitive provocations and teasing; 21.6% victim of offences while 10.4% suffered episodes of being isolated
and excluded. 10.4% is the percentage of victims who reported having their objects damaged by a bully; 7.6%
experienced having food or objects stolen, 5.2% threats; and 3.1% experienced having money stolen (Telefono
Azzurro and Eurispes, 2011). (see also the section on bullying)
According to the literature, other anti-social behaviors also call for attention. Menesini and Nocentini (2007)
found that physical aggression outside the school was significantly more prevalent than bullying. Making a
distinction among different types of aggressive behaviors they found that while bullying concerned 7.1% of
their sample; relational aggressive behaviour involved 57.3% of respondents and physical aggression 44.8%.
These types of behavior seemed to naturally decrease (see section on age and gender) as children grow up with
the exception of serious systematic behaviors that seemed to worsen (Menesini and Nocentini, 2007; 2008).
With regards to child offenders and other anti-social behaviors, data from the Department of Justice (2012)
indicates that 51% of child offenders commits crimes with other peers, as a group. In 75% of the cases, no adult
was present. Fourty eight (48)% of the crimes analysed in these records concerned adolescent victims, 20%
younger victims. In general, juvenile crimes are most often committed in groups towards people of more or
less the same age (Dipartimento Giustizia Minorile, 2012). Taking in consideration the number of referrals being
monitored by the Telefono Azzurro 114 Helpline, the number of children and teenagers perpetrators of sexual
violence increased from 6.4% in 2008 and 14.6% in 2012 (Telefono Azzurro, 2013).
Finally in relation to dating violence among minors there is a lack of data and analysis on the subject.
59
10. Across Childhood/Key Transitions
Age/Gender Nexus
Age and Gender: Worldwide, research shows that children share common developmental milestones, but
are far from homogenous and face diverse challenges. The research looks at children along the lifecycle and
recognizes change as a critical factor in children’s lives.
Age and gender are both extremely significant meta-factors, the implications of which will differ in different
contexts. This approach acknowledges that opportunities and risk factors that are in turn dependent on not
only differing political economies, as noted above but also on children’s evolving capacities and they move
through childhood. In the end, interventions must address all of these complexities.
Childhood
In their analysis of website containing child pornographic material, Telefono Arcobaleno found that 40%
of the victims are under 5 years of age (Verrecchia et al., 2011).
Preadolescence
In general, evidence shows that most cases of sexual violence concern younger children, often under
the age of 10. According to the National Centre on Childhood and Adolescence, 60.3% of abuse
concerned children under the age of 10 (Centro nazionale di documentazione e analisi per l’infanzia e
l’adolescenza, 2001). The same percentage is recorded in the analysis of referrals to the Telefono
Azzurro 114 helpline, where children under the age of 10 are involved in 60% of the cases (Telefono
Azzurro, 2013). In Vite in Bilico, researchers found that sexual abuse would generally start when children
are between 7 and 10 years old, 44.5% of cases (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006).
60
Figure 17. Adult women who reported experiencing child sexual abuse by age at first episode
Source: Vite in bilico, 2006
A little less than one woman in two claimed they had experienced the first episode of sexual abuse
between 7 and 10 years, and 8 women out of 10 between 7 and 14 years.
Figure 18.Adult women who reported experiencing child sexual abuse by severity of abuse and age at
first episode
Source: Vite in bilico, 2006
61
This graph shows that the age group 7-10 years comprises the highest share (38% ) of cases of very
severe abuse21 .
Early and Middle Adolescence

The second most common age group for onset of child sexual abuse according to the national Vite in
Bilico study is between 11 and 14 (32.1%) (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006). The analysis of official records
shows that children between 11 and 14 years of age constitute 40% average prevalence of victims of
sexual crimes (Ministero Pari Opportunità, 2006).
As previously noted (see section about violence in school and outside schools), bullying decreases with
age (Menesini and Nocentini, 2007).
Figure 19. Children (11,13 and 15 years of age) who experienced bullying at school within the last two
months by gender, 2010
25 21%
20
14%
15 11%
9% 8%
10
4%
5
0
11 years old 13 years old 15 years old
Male Female
Source: HBSC, 2010
21
The Light, moderate / severe and very severe scale depends on the intensity of the abuse suffered as well as the
frequency of the episodes of violence, for more details on the definition (Bianchi and Moretti, 2006).
62
Middle and Late Adolescence

With regards to sexual exploitation following migration trajectories, evidence shows that migrant
minors involved in this type of activity are typically between 16 and 18 years of age. There were fewer
groups of respondents who were 14-16 years old (Save the Children, 2013). Among the victims of sexual
abuse, the number of adolescents victims of sexual abuse has increased from 13.4% to 22.3% between
2009 and 2012 (Telefono Azzurro, 2013). In 2001, 73.1% of child victims of sexual abuse are female. If
we consider the age category 15-17 the percentage increases to 78.6% (Centro Nazionale di
Documentazione e Analisi per l’infanzia e l’Adolescenza, 2002). According to Vite in Bilico, among other
studies, older age seems to be a protective factor (see graph Abused women according to age at first
episode and severity of sexual abuse) concerning severe types of sexual abuse.
Focus on gender
Concerning the data disaggregated by gender on the different typologies of violence, the first
fundamental element is the limited availability of data. The largest surveys on violence against children
focus only on girls (Vite in Bilico and Istat surveys), while other surveys do not distinguish by gender.
There are, however, some studies on specific typologies of violence (e.g. bullying) as well as the survey
by Cismai and Terres des Hommes that disaggregate data by gender.
The most evident emerging trends are that girls are much more likely to be victims of sexual abuse. At
the same time boys are more likely to be physically abused including for corporal punishment.
Evidence about sexual violence comes from juvenile justice data that indicates a much higher
percentage of female victims, 75% versus 25% males and a reverse trend for offenders, 99% male, 1%
female (Dipartimento Giustizia Minorile, 2012). Data also shows a constant pattern through time.
Official records on the number of girl victims of sexual crimes, for instance, show a constant percentage
from 2001 and 2006 of more than 70% (Dipartimento pari opportunità, 2006). In 2002, 75.8% of child
victims of sexual violence is female; in 2003 90.4% is female; in 2004 83.6% (Bianchi et al., 2006).
Gender is a constant variable through age and ethnicity (Centro Nazionale di Documentazione e Analisi
per l’infanzia e l’Adolescenza, 2001). Other studies confirm this trend. For instance Pellai et al found that
girls are 2.4 times more likely to be subjected to light forms of sexual abuse than boys and 4.2 times
more likely to be subjected to serious types of sexual abuse than boys (Pellai et al, 2004).
Also data from the Department of Equal Opportunities on reintegration projects for children victims of
trafficking shows that girls are much more likely to be victims of sexual exploitation while boys are more
likely to be victims of other kinds of exploitation. Evidence suggests that girls are more heavily caught
up in unequal power relations with exploitative organizations and people compared to boys, who are
less likely to be tied to sexual exploitation managers and organizations (Carchedi, 2004). Young boys also
appear to engage in prostitution activities more consciously and autonomously compared to girls
involved in sexual exploitation (Carchedi, 2004; Commissione parlamentare per l’infanzia e
l’adolescenza, 2012). Often times, in fact, girls are tied to specific people (traffickers/older women) who
deceive and coerce them into sexual exploitation while boys may voluntarily resort to prostitution when
not performing well on other tasks such as stealing (Carchedi, 2004; Commissione parlamentare per
l’infanzia e l’adolescenza, 2012).
63
Concerning the watching of pornography and its effects on violence and victimization, Romito et al
(2011), found that male adolescents are more exposed to pornography than girls as almost all of the
male adolescents in the study sample (n=303, 12th grade and 18 to 25 year olds), had watched
pornography in comparison with two thirds of female adolescents.
Boys and girls seem to be equally taken care of by social services due to maltreatment. In the national
survey on children taken care by social services, it emerges that out of 1,000 girls taken care of by social
services 212 are victims of maltreatment; while out of 1,000 boys taken care of by social services, 193
are victims of maltreatment. (Cismai and Terres des hommes, 2015)
When looking at bullying, boys and girls seem to differ in both drivers and typologies of behaviors they
are most likely to be subjected to. In the male population, bullying correlates with physical aggressive
behavior, while for girls it correlates with relational aggressive behavior (Menesini and Nocentini, 2007).
Telefono Azzurro and Eurispes (2011) found that boys are more likely to suffer objects’ damaging
episode (13.7% compared to 8.7% of girls) as well as threats (7% as opposed to 4.2% girls) and hitting
(4.1% and 2.5% girls). With regards to the spreading of false and mean information, victims are more
often girls 28% as opposed to boys 20.8%. According to this study, girls are also more likely to become
victims of cyber bullying: 23.3% compared to 14.7% of the boys (Telefono Azzurro and Eurispes, 2011).
64
11. Ethnicity
From the literature review it emerges that in general there is a lack of disaggregated data by ethnicity.
From the survey by Cismai and Terres des Hommes it emerges that the percentage of foreign children
assisted by social services due to maltreatment is double than the one of Italian children (about 1% of
Italian children and about 2% of foreign children).
The Istat survey on violence against women aged 16-70 years states that there are no significant
differences between Italian and foreign women, however it does not provide a specific indication about
minors.
Data disaggregated by ethnicity are provided in relation to sexual exploitation as trafficking for the
scope of sexual exploitation involves foreign children and adolescents who are trafficked from other
countries (Eastern Europe, Africa, Latin America and Asia) by criminal organizations or individuals. Child
prostitution also involves Italian children, as indicated in the report by the Parliamentary Commission on
Childhood and Adolescence, however its extent is difficult to ascertain.
According to the investigation carried out by the Parliamentary Commission on Childhood and
Adolescents (2012), foreign minors, both male and female affected by sexual exploitation come mostly
from Romania and Romanian Roma, but also from Northern Africa, Albania, Moldova, Nigeria and the
Balkans in general. Foreign female minors are estimated to represent about 7% of the people involved in
prostitution in the street (in some areas of Northern-Central Italy this percentage rises to 10-12%). In
recent years, Italian services have also engaged with an increasing number of victims from Morocco,
Egypt and China (Save the Children, 2013). Also a study from Unicri (2010) states that the most
represented nationality among children trafficked to Italy is Romanian, followed by Nigerian.
Data about the social reintegration projects financed by the Department of Equal Opportunities shows
that most represented nationalities concerning girls involved in trafficking for sexual exploitation are:
Nigeria, Romania, Albania, China. The majority of boys come from Egypt, Morocco, Ghana, Senegal,
however, they are involved in other forms of exploitation.
With regards to corporal punishment in a local study (n =123 parents) conducted in the North of the
country, no cultural differences were found in parental beliefs about physical discipline and frequency of
use of corporal punishment in the same study. (Arace et al., 2013). The same study also notes that in
migrant families the number of children seems to affect the use of corporal punishment (higher
prevalence of maltreatment in larger families) and that younger children are physically punished more
often than older children (Arace et al., 2013).
Drivers
 Mobility of migrants within a condition of social marginalization increases vulnerability for
sexual exploitation (Camera dei deputati, 2012). As already mentioned, the Parliamentary
Commission on Childhood and Adolescence mandated a study on child prostitution which
entailed a series of interviews and hearings with NGO’s active in the field and specific witnesses.
The investigation highlights the link between the phenomenon of migration in Italy at large and
the specificities of child prostitution within that. It is interesting to note that Italy is a way into
other European countries and that migrants move from one country to the other to avoid police
controls.
65
 Families of foreign nationalities may have weaker social networks. (See family social isolation in
violence in the home) Caso et al. (2011) interviewed 24 women victims of domestic violence
living in a shelter home and found that in multi-ethnic couples, partners can feel rejected by
their spouses’ families.
 Migrant women’s poor language skills hinder their capacity to report violence and protect their
children (Caso et al., 2011).
66
12. Violence Prevention Interventions: Findings from the Mapping

In Italy the welfare system for children and families is based on the role of local municipalities and
health units which ensure services for the prevention of violence against children, as well as for the
treatment of the consequences of violence. Basic health services have to respect the minimum levels of
healthcare (LEA) that have been approved in 2001. The essential levels of care (LEA) are the services that
the National Health Service has to provide to all citizens, free of charge or on payment of a fee.
Concerning projects and interventions for children, Law no. 285 of 28 August 1997 developed and
consolidated regional and local interventions, while law no. 328 of 8 November 2000, "General policy
law for the implementation of an integrated system of social services" reshaped the organization of
services of the local and regional governance. Law 328/2000 was part of a more general planning action
for redefining the responsibilities of regional governments, which became the exclusive authorities in
charge of social issues by means of the approval of Constitutional Law no. 3 of 18 October 2001.
As regards social services, the Inter-regional Nomenclator of services aims at providing a mapping tool
of the interventions and social services through the integration of the descriptions and definitions
provided by the various regions. The range of interventions and services provided in the Nomenclator
refers to the social interventions provided by the municipalities and individual members as provided by
law 328/2000.
The Nomenclator includes the following typology of services: Social secretariat, information and
counselling for access to the services network; Prevention and awareness, promotion and participation
initiatives; Social emergency services; Social service activities to support people, the family and social
network; Social integration services; Educational and welfare initiatives and services to support work
placement; Measures to promote home care service; Support services; Cash transfers; Transfers for
payment of fees; Transfers for activation of services; Additions to income; Day centres and daytime
activities; Centres with an educational-recreational function; Educational services for early childhood;
Socio-healthcare and activity centres; Residential housing; Residential care and social welfare centres
for health and social integration; Other centres and residential housing. Each typology has sub-
typologies of interventions.
In addition to this public basic services that normally run a permanent basis, a series of projects and
interventions with a definite timing are carried out by the voluntary sector. Such projects and
interventions may avail of public funding or they can be based on private funding that the associations
themselves avail of. They can be carried out by associations on their own or in partnership with the
public sector.
Sources identified for the mapping include:
 Public bodies carrying out projects at national level (e.g. national Ministries such as the Ministry
of Labour and Social Policies; the Ministry for Education; the Ministry for Health; the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs; the Postal and Communication Police )
 Public bodies or associations carrying out projects at local level through public funds (in
particular we took into consideration projects included in the reports on the state of
implementation of law 269/98; projects funded through the law 285/97 which provides funding
to 15 cities for different typologies of projects/interventions including violence prevention;
67
project funded through the public notice of the Department of Equal Opportunities specifically
dedicated to violence against children);
 The most relevant associations/NGOs working in the field of protection and promotion of
children’s rights
 Some EU funded projects
Given the overall Italian welfare system, as explained above, the following mapping of interventions
focused on prevention of violence against children cannot be considered as exhaustive. However, it
represents a significant overview of the interventions in this area both as regards actions carried out by
public bodies and associations.
In total we collected about 90 projects many of which included more than one intervention. As regards
the typology of interventions, the most common one was that of awareness-raising about violence
against children (48 interventions22) followed by violence prevention interventions in schools addressed
to children and/or teachers (44), parenting programmes and support (24), home visitation (14), training
addressed to professionals working with children (13).
The first typology is that of awareness raising, however if we consider that a significant part of these
interventions are carried out in schools, we can conclude that the typology of violence prevention and
education interventions in schools is the most common among the identified projects. Within this large
typology, interventions have focused on different topics and methodologies. Among the projects that
have specified the latter, the following methodologies have been used: peer education, on prevention of
gender violence and discrimination, life skills development, sexual/emotional education, dating violence
prevention, prevention of homophobic violence, child sexual abuse avoidance.
Interventions in schools generally aim on the one hand at increasing teachers’ capacity to recognise and
respond to abuse and maltreatment and on the other at working with children and adolescents on
sexual and emotional education, gender violence, bullying, the recognition of stereotypes and
prejudices and to recognize when relationships can become violent. They also increasingly focus on new
media education and on identifying the risks associated with Internet and social media.
Among the awareness-raising campaigns, the ‘white ribbon’ (fiocco bianco) campaign emerges as
particularly innovative in that it targets men and in particular boys in schools in order to prevent gender
violence.
Parenting programmes and home visitation also represent a frequent typology of interventions. These
are normally aimed at preventing minors’ ill-being through early interventions at the family level, early
detection of maltreatment or risk situations and at fostering good relationships and attachment
between children and parent(s). Most interventions target primarily mothers, but also aim at involving
fathers. Moreover, they support parents in approaching social services available in the territory. The
most significant project in this area is the national programme PIPPI (programme to prevent
22
As already specified, when considering these numbers we have to bear in mind each project may contain more
than one intervention, or typology of interventions.
68
institutionalization) that since 2011 included a large number of children and parents.23 An innovative
methodology in this field is based on the idea that a family with difficulties is helped by another family
that is available to provide a support mainly through friendly relations.
Among the projects that have focused on training of professionals working with children, the majority
of them have worked with educators and social workers, but also health professionals and police. In
some cases projects aimed at training multidisciplinary teams composed of health professionals, social
services and education practitioners with the objective of monitoring risk situation and provide an early
intervention.
As regards the specific topic (or sub-topic) addressed by the interventions, 17 have focused on bullying
prevention in all its forms including cyber-bullying. Moreover, a good number of projects (13) focus on
the prevention of violence through the use of Internet and deal with new forms of crimes, such as
grooming, cyber-bulling, sexting etc.
Other typologies of interventions include mentoring programmes (3) and helplines (3).
As regards the setting, the majority of interventions take place in schools and in the homes while some
also include the involvement of the social services and the local health units. Another important setting
is that of the website and social media. Some projects took place in associations and in one case in a
religious setting (church). In one case the project was carried out in prisons and addressed at authors of
violence in order to prevent the re-occurrence of the crime.
Concerning the target group most project target children and adolescents through school interventions,
as well as parents (or in particular, mothers/pregnant women in parenting programmes) and teachers
(and other school operators). Other professionals involved are those of the social, health and judiciary
sector. Some interventions, such as awareness campaigns, are addressed to the general public. One
intervention targeted authors of crime and one included religious figures (priests).
Projects generally address the needs of girls and boys alike. Some parenting programmes target in
particular mothers while the project “White Ribbon” specifically target boys. The ethnicity dimension is
not often specified in the projects. The typology of projects that take the ethnicity dimension more into
consideration is that of parenting programmes where mothers of foreign nationalities are included in
the sample or cultural mediation is part of the intervention. In one case the project is based on the
infant observation method which respects different child rearing styles.
Theories of change are explicitly indicated only in a minority of cases. Generally parenting programmes
refer to psychological theories and in particular theories of attachment. The PIPPI project is based on
Brofenbrenner’s (2005) ecological model on humans’ strengths and resilience. Other interventions refer
to the theories elaborated by different authors, e.g Stern (2006), Ammaniti (2002) and Korfmacher
(2008) which develop psychological and educational perspectives, paying attention to relational
dynamics, taking into consideration people’s lives trajectories; Winnicott and psychodynamic theory;
23
In the first edition of the programme 2011-2012 about 300 professionals have been involved (including social
workers, educators, psychologists and child psychiatrists); 122 children in 89 families in the target group;37
children in 35 families in the control group. During the second edition in 2013-2014 about 630 professionals have
been involved, 198 children in 144 families in the target group and 39 children in 34 families in the control group.
69
Esther Bick; Bowlby’s attachment theory; Stern’s emotional harmony; Tronick’s mutual regulation
model; Selma Fraiberg, Bertrand Cramer and Stern.
As regards education’s interventions, in one case the project is based on the idea that it is necessary to
act before gender stereotypes are formed in order to prevent gender violence, therefore the project
focuses on pre-adolescents. Other projects are based on education theories develop by their authors
(e.g. Veglia, 2004; Pellai et al., 2004) or emphasise the importance of developing teachers’ ability to
listen to children’s needs.
The work developed by the association Hansel e Gretel is based on the following methodology based on
5 key points: subjectivity describes adults’ capacity to listen, define and express their own needs
including that of being supported in the responsibility to raise children at the family or professional
level; emotional intelligence is the capacity to acknowledge and express in words feelings and emotions;
small groups, which are stable and continuous, favour participants feelings of care and reassurance,
which are crucial to counter anxiety and indifference; empathic understanding based on the countering
of dynamics of blame and guilt towards one’s own or other people’s doing; play in order to give people
the opportunity to elaborate experiences.
The project addressed to the authors of crime is based on the idea that self-awareness and the
acceptance of one’s suffering decreases the risk of objectifying other people which is the basis of violent
action.
Concerning the evaluation dimension, this was present in the majority of projects financed through the
funds of Based on the law 285/97 and the Public Notice of the Department of Equal Opportunities
The length of the projects may vary from a few months to one or two years (the majority of projects) to
projects that are active since several years (a significant number).
Normally projects have produced a wealth of materials that range from brochures, booklets, multimedia
materials, videos and cartoons, campaign posters in awareness raising interventions to manuals for
teachers and parents in school education projects to parenting training manuals and guidelines for
professionals in parenting programmes. Other advocacy materials include annual activity reports, press
releases, manifestos, agendas for action. Moreover, some projects have produced books and published
surveys and research. Most materials are available on-line.
Projects are mostly supported by public funding in particular thanks to national funds including the law
285/97, the Public Notice of the Department for Equal Opportunities, funds of specific Ministries, such
as the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (for the project PIPPI), the Ministry of Education, the
Ministry of Youth and the State Police. Also regional or municipal funding, including those provided by
local commission for Equal Opportunities, contribute greatly to the funding of projects. Some
associations are able to support the interventions through their own funding or through other private
contributions, such as those of foundations. Finally some of the larger projects are financed through EU
funding, mostly through the Daphne and Safer Internet Programmes.
70
13. Concluding remarks

The Multi-Country Study on the Drivers of Violence Affecting Children in Italy and other participating countries
puts forward two inter-related concepts. Firstly, understanding violence affecting children requires a holistic,
gender sensitive approach attuned to children’s evolving capacities as they age and grow. Acknowledging the
dynamic nature of age and the importance of gender differences sheds new light on both the significance of
power in children’s lives and the importance of critical relationships in determining a child’s risk and protective
factors. Secondly, recognizing and subsequently tackling historically entrenched norms and patterns of
behaviour are vital steps forward, combining both top-down (social policies and laws) and bottom-up
approaches (working with children, families, teachers, and communities).
Here below we list some of the major trends emerging from the literature review and our findings.
At the structural level inequalities based on socio-economic status, ethnic discrimination and migration status
emerged as potential drivers as well as efficient and embedded structures linked with organized crime and the
perpetuation of commercial sexual exploitation.
At the community level children who live in socially isolated families are five times more likely to experience
maltreatment (Bianchi & Moretti, 2006). Prevailing stereotypes of masculinity increase the risk of harsh
corporal punishment at home and bullying at school.
At interpersonal and individual level assisted violence, previous experiences of (sexual) abuse and conflictual
family environments are risk factors for violence and maltreatment. For example, Children who have witnessed
violence or have been abused in the past are far more likely to experience violence and perpetrate it in the
future. (Istat, 2015; Dipartimento Giustizia, 2012). Moreover, children who experience physical or sexual abuse
or neglect at home are at greater risk of both becoming bullies at school, and being bullying victims. Other risk
factors for victimization and bullying include parental psychological distress, parental health problems, low
parental education and skills and low parental income.
In relation to gender differences the most evident emerging trend is that girls are much more likely to be
victims of sexual abuse while the overwhelmingly majority of authors of sexual violence (both adults and
minors) are male. Teenage girls, in particular migrant or girls of foreign origin, are more likely to become
dependent on organizations and people involved in the sexual exploitation industry. At the same time boys are
more likely to be physically abused including for corporal punishment. Gender stereotypes leading to gender
inequality emerge early in life and are mediated both by family and the education system.
In relation to age the most vulnerable age is 7-12 years concerning bullying and sexual violence.
Based on this literature review, the most significant gaps in data collection emerged in the following areas:
a) lack of data, in particular lack of surveys on the prevalence of the phenomenon (most surveys are
retrospective) and very little data disaggregated by gender
b) little data by place where the violence took place
c) little data by ethnicity
Further recommendations about the development of the child protection system in relation to the prevention
and monitoring of violence against children can be found in the following documents authored by Unicef OoR
and University of Edinburgh: “Research to Policy Brief: Using Evidence to Inform Violence Prevention in Italy”
(2016) and “Understanding the Drivers of Violence Affecting Children in Italy” (2016).
71
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Appendix A: Methodology
The Multi-Country Study involves three separate components: 1) a literature review of academic papers
including a scoping of existing ‘grey literature’-- informally published written material (such as research
reports and research briefing papers) that may be difficult to locate through conventional literature
searches, 2) a mapping of the interventions landscape, particularly of evaluated prevention programs,
and 3) secondary analysis of existing datasets. These three components analyzed together, allow for the
identification of initial hypotheses around the drivers or determinants of violence, contributing to
theories of change around what triggers violence and development and testing of intervention
components. The results of this work have also been used to guide national discussions and make
suggestions for adjusting existing interventions and current policies.
Systematic Literature Review

A systematic review was conducted to identify studies reporting on the risk factors of child
maltreatment (emotional, physical and sexual abuse) in Italy. Key English databases were searched
(PubMed/Medline, PsycINFO (EBSCOhost), CINAHL-ebsco, ERIC, EmBase Social Work Abstracts and
SocIndex) and child protection experts and local databases in Italy were also accessed to identify
additional studies. The search employed a mix of both free text and controlled vocabulary of subject
heading and keyword searches to identify articles via the electronic databases. To provide the broadest
coverage of articles, the initial search term consisted of three components: population, type of
maltreatment and country name. An example of the keyword search is ‘child’ (child OR childhood OR
children OR adolescents) AND (‘maltreatment’ OR ‘sexual abuse’ OR ‘physical abuse’ OR ‘emotional
abuse’) AND (‘Italy’). These keyword searches were adapted by database and the results were saved in
Endnote and duplicates accounted for and removed.
Grey literature (e.g. informally published and in the native language) plays an important role in the
Multi-country Study because national perspectives on violence are often hidden, like the social norm
itself. Frequently, scholars and NGOS from the country sites have produced university level theses and
dissertations or qualitative evaluations that may help interpret from the native perspective how the
drivers of violence operationalize in particular cultural, historical, political and economic contexts. Grey
literature was searched primarily through the library at Instituto degli Innocenti – Italy’s largest library of
research and studies on childhood. The library database was searched using the following 22 headings
under the library catalogue:
1. online sexual abuse (violenza sessuale on line),

2. conventions (convenzioni),
3. abuse and violence at school and in children care services (violenza e maltrattamenti a scuola e
nei serivizi educative),
4. violence and abuse in multicultural contexts (violenza/maltrattemento in contesti multietnici),
5. domestic violence and divorce (violenza intrafamiliare nella separazione e divorzio),
6. child witness to violence (violenza intrafamiliare assistita),
7. prevention of domestic violence and protection of victims (prevenzione della violenza
intrafmiliare e tutela delle vittime),
77
8. care of abused and neglected children (presa in carico e interventi sulle vittime di violenza
intrafamiliare)
9. impact of domestic abuse and violence on adults (effetti del maltrattamento/violenza
intrafamiliare in età adulta)
10. impact of domestic violence and violence (effetti del maltrattamento/violenza intrafamiliare)
11. abusive parents (genitori maltrattanti)
12. domestic sexual violence (violenza sessuale intrafamiliare)
13. domestic violence (violenza intrafamiliare)
14. punishment (punizioni)
15. neglect (trascuratezza)
16. violence and abuse and adopted and out-family children (violenza/maltrattamento e minori
adotatti e fuori famiglia)
17. effects of violence and abuse on adults (effetti del maltrattamento/violenza in età adulta)
18. effects of violence and abuse (effetti del maltrattamento/violenza)
19. protection and prevention (prevenzione e tutela)
20. child abuse and violence (violenza e maltrattamento)
21. child pornography and sexual exploitation (pedopornografia e sfruttamento sessuale)
22. paedophilia (pedofilia)
Studies were included if: a) they were published in a scholarly peer-reviewed journal, b) they were
published through ‘grey literature’ channels, c) the study explored the drivers of violence against
children (emotional, sexual and physical abuse) before 18 years of age, whether the participants were
children or adults, d) they covered one or more aspects of drivers on different levels of the socio-
ecological model (socio-political, institutional, community, relationships and individual levels) and e) the
study explored risk and protective factors for either perpetration or victimisation. Studies were mostly
primary research studies with the exception of administrative data reports or policy reports that
included data not accessible elsewhere.
All abstracts were examined to determine whether they met the inclusion criteria developed for the
study and eligible papers examined in detail for key variables related to study design and findings (the
review protocol is available from the authors). Where additional information was needed, the study
authors were directly contacted. In addition, each article was reviewed for data quality based using a
newly developed quality assessment framework designed for the study, which assessed quality across
17 domains. This quality assessment tool was based on previous tools utilized in studies exploring
gender-based violence and child maltreatment and the guidelines for evaluating prevalence studies and
qualitative studies.
All studies are cited in Appendix B. Each study underwent a comprehensive data extraction process that
included collecting information across 54 variables in four main areas: summary information, study
information (including sample size, methods, etc), ethical considerations and findings.
78
Secondary Analysis
In addition to the systematic literature review and interventions mapping, a secondary analysis of the
existing national dataset, Vite in Bilico, a national household survey of women’s experiences as children,
was conducted. The data analysis focused on four potential drivers of violence affecting children: social
isolation, family structure, family norms around silence & blame, and family stress as including the
following variables:
Social Isolation
1. Family did not socialise outside the nuclear family
2. Family did not socialise regularly with other parents
3. Did not participate in associations or organisations
4. Not having anyone to go to when there are problems in the family
5. Not being able to go to family in case of need
6. Others?
Family Structure:
1. Small vs. Large family
2. Family composition
3. Civil status of parents
Family norms around silence & blame:

1. Tensions between family members tend to remain hidden and unspoken of
2. There have always been secrets in my family
3. When things went wrong we would accuse each other
Family Stress:
1. Memories of significant problems in the family
a) Problems with mother
b) Problems with father
c) Problems with siblings
2. Family financial difficulties
Secondary analyses included calculating bivariate odds ratios exploring the relationship between abuse
experiences and potential ‘drivers’ variables as well as exploring frequency, severity and type of
maltreatment. Analyses were conducted in SPSS version 19.0.
79
Appendix B: Included Studies
Type of Study and

Bibliographic Information Summary
Sample Size
Ainsaar, M. et al., Focus group discussions The aim of this paper is to analyse the most
Adolescents’ strategies for with 120 young people in successful sexual violence avoidance
avoiding online sexual 19 focus groups strategies on Internet, as expressed by
violence, in adolescents. Paper gives an overview
«Maltrattamento e abuso about main practices that children consider
all’infanzia», vol. 14, n. 3 effective in avoiding sexual violence
(nov. 2012), p. 53-71 related harm.
Bacchini, D., Esposito, G. Cross-sectional study in The study showed that bullying role is
and Affuso, G., 2009. Social Ercolano, near Naples, an significantly associated with the way
Experience and School area with high subjects perceive their exposure to
Bullying in Journal of unemployment and a dangerous and violent situations within the
Community & Applied Social history of mob culture, neighbourhood, their relationship with
Psychology, 19: 17–32 with a sample of 734 of classmates and their relationship with
7th, 10th and 13th grade teachers. Pure bullies and bully victims are
students. especially likely to experience dangerous
and violent situations in the
neighbourhood where they live and have a
more negative perception of their
relationship with teachers; for pure victims
and bully victims, a significant association
is obtained with negative perceptions of
relationships with classmates.
Baker, A. J. L. & Verrocchio, Survey of 257 The study explored childhood exposure to
M. C. 2013. Italian College undergraduate psychology parental alienation, psychological
Student-Reported Childhood students in Chieti, Italy maltreatment, and measures of current
Exposure to Parental functioning among undergraduate
Alienation: Correlates With students.
Well-Being. Journal of
Divorce & Remarriage, 54,
609-628.
80
Type of Study and

Sample Size
Baldry, A., 2003. “Bullying in Cross-sectional study with The survey showed that half of all students
schools and exposure to a sample of 1059 Italian had involvement in either bullying or
domestic violence.” In Child elementary and middle victimization. It also revealed gender
Abuse & Neglect 27 (2003) school students in the city differences: for example boys often
713–732 and province of Rome. reported bullying in the form of ‘spreading
Participants completed a rumours’ and direct physical aggression
self-report anonymous with intent to harm. Exposure to
questionnaire measuring interparental physical violence and direct
bullying and victimization bullying were significantly associated
and exposure to especially for girls: girls exposed to father’s
interparental violence. violence against the mother and those
exposed to mother’s violence against the
father were among the most likely to bully
directly others compared with girls who
had not been exposed to any interparental
violence.
Baldry, A. (2005) “Bystander The study was conducted Results showed that though the most likely
Behaviour Among Italian with 594 students (51.9% reaction is supporting the victim by trying
Students”, in Pastoral Care boys and 48.1% girls), aged to discourage the bully, gender differences
in Education: An 12–16 years old, with a emerged, with girls more likely than boys
International Journal of mean age of 13.1 to support the victim and boys more likely
Personal, Social and (SD50.87). They were to encourage the bully or simply ignore.
Emotional Development, recruited from six different
23:2, 30-35 middle schools, two in each
of three different sites in
Italy: Northern Italy
(Vercelli), Central Italy
(Rome) and Southern Italy
(Catania).
Bardi, M. & Borgongnini- Survey of 2,388 families in The purpose of this paper was to
Tarli, S. M., 2001. A survey Tuscany, Italy investigate factors associated with
on parent-child conflict intrafamily violence toward children in
resolution: intrafamily Italy. Family structure and the
violence in Italy. Child Abuse characteristics of both caretakers and
& Neglect, 25, 839-853. children were explored. Their association
with the incidence of minor and severe
violence was analyzed to test the
hypothesis that child physical abuse is
related to a combination of different
factors involving the family as a whole.
81
Type of Study and

Sample Size
Bianchi, D., Ciccotti, E., Qualitative study This study looks at social representations
Ricciotti, R., Misurare i on child abuse of professionals working
maltrattamenti: un with abuse (policemen, social workers,
contributo alla psychologists, doctors). The qualitative
comprensione della violenza, analysis looks at professional’s views of
in «Famiglia oggi», a. 28, n. child victims, perpetrators and abusive
1 (genn. 2006), p. 49-60. dynamics.
Bianchi, D., Moretti, E. (a National retrospective This retrospective study investigates the
cura di), Vite in bilico: quantitative survey of prevalence of previous cases of child abuse
indagine retrospettiva su 2,320 women among the Italian female population
maltrattamenti e abusi in between 19 and 60 years of age. Through
età infantile, Firenze, the use of variables such as ‘adverse
Istituto degli Innocenti, 2006 childhood experience’; the study looks at
the relationship between different types of
abuse and maltreatment as well as risk
factors and consequences of abuse.
Bollini, A., Giannotta, F., Administrative data for the A qualitative study on risk and protective
Angeli, A. (a cura di), time period 2012-2013 was factors in young child victims. The research
Maltrattamento sui collected from 31 aims to better understand what is the
bambini: quante le vittime in municipalities. This report number of child abuse and maltreatment
Italia?: Prima Indagine includes data on 4,963,626 victims being assisted by social services in
nazionale quali–quantitativa people of whom 758,932 Italy?
sul maltrattamento a danno (15.28%) are minors.
di bambini, 2013.
Camera dei Deputati, Administrative data and This investigation explores child
Indagine conoscitiva sulla documentary analysis from prostitution by looking at 1) national and
prostituzione minorile, 2012 government documents. international legislation on child
Input from representatives prostitution 2) nature and drivers of child
of the CRC group for Italy prostitution 3) typologies of child
and other NGO’s involved prostitution and characteristics of the
in assisting prostitution phenomenon and 4) child trafficking for
child victims. sexual exploitation purposes.
Caffo, E., Guardli, G. P., Surveys with 33 expectant The purpose of this study is to examine the
Magnani, G. & Tassi, R. mothers at three time mother-child relationship and risk factors
1982. Prevention of child points (during pregnancy which may lead to child abuse and neglect.
abuse and neglect through and two points after
early diagnosis of serious childbirth) in Modena
disturbances in the mother-
child relationship in Italy.
Child Abuse & Neglect, 6,
453-463.
82
Type of Study and

Sample Size
Caravita, S., Gini, G., Pozzoli, Mixed methods study with The study found the association between
T. 2012 “Main and two age groups from 9 to 11 moral disengagement and bullying only
Moderated Effects of Moral (n=235) and 12 to 15 manifested in early adolescents. It also found
Cognition and Status on (n=305). that social status influenced the relationship
Bullying and Defending” in between individual characteristics, in this
Aggressive Behavior, Volume case, morality, and social behaviour: high
38, pages 456–468 social status, or popularity, was positively
correlated with bullying behaviour,
particularly among boys.
Caravita, S, Sijtsema J., Mixed method study with a The study found that self-justification
Rambaran A., Gini, G. 2014. sample of children aged 9-10, processes among early adolescents were
“Peer Influences on Moral n=133 and aged 11-14, susceptible to change under peer influence.
Disengagement in Late n=236. Gender, bullying, and perceived popularity did
Childhood and Early not moderate the friends’ influence on moral
Adolescence” in J Youth disengagement over time. Results indicate
Adolescence 43:193–207 that self-justification processes change over
time already in late childhood, but only in
early adolescence this change is likely to be
dependent upon peers’ moral
disengagement.
Carchedi, F., Piccoli schiavi Qualitative interviews with This qualitative study looks into the dynamics
senza frontiere: il traffico dei 70 social workers in Italy of sexual exploitation of women and minors in
minori stranieri in Italia, Roma, Italy. Data was collected in Italy and Albania as
Ediesse, 2004. to look into drivers and characteristics of the
trafficking phenomenon.
Caso, L., Vitale, F., Boni, M., Qualitative interviews with A qualitative study on risk and protective
La violenza assistita 24 women (16 live in shelters factors in young child victims witnessing
intrafamiliare: uno studio in the Lombardia region) family violence. The research aims at knowing
qualitativo sui fattori di rischio who are victims of domestic the domestic violence phenomenon through
e di protezione nei minori violence and live in shelters. the study of the risk and protective factors of
vittime, in «Maltrattamento e The study also collected the child witnesses.
abuso all’infanzia», vol. 13, n. information about their 45
1 (mar. 2011), p. 87-109. children.
Centro nazionale di Administrative data from the The investigation focuses on victims, crime
documentazione e analisi per Ministry of Interior about referrals and reporting. It also goes deeper
l’infanzia e l’adolescenza, sexual violence against into variables such as the type of relationship
Uscire dal silenzio: lo stato di children for the years 2000- between victims and perpetrators, victim age
attuazione della legge 269/98, 2001 also includes data from group. As data is gathered from offices of
Firenze, Istituto degli a study of 90 prosecutors different regions, researchers can comment
Innocenti, 2002 involved in trials of sexual on the geographic distribution of crime
exploitation reporting.
83
Type of Study and

Sample Size
Centro nazionale di Survey of 43 centres and This study aimed to explore the characteristics
documentazione e analisi per services working on of violence and sexual exploitation against
l’infanzia e l’adolescenza, Le maltreatment covering 702 children in Italy. The document illustrates
violenze sessuali sui bambini: child victims of sexual abuse further findings on the type of sexual abuse
lo stato di attuazione della reported, age of victims and details on the
legge 269/98, Firenze, Istituto perpetrators for cases seen by service
degli Innocenti, 2001 providers.
CISMAI, Bocconi e Terre des Secondary analysis of data to The study looks at costs of public spending
Hommes, Studio nazionale estimate the cost of child generated by maltreatment in Italy. The study
Tagliare sui Bambini è davvero maltreatment in Italy. seeks to estimate costs for the prevalence of
un risparmio?: Spesa pubblica: the phenomenon among the italian
impatto della mancata population (using the findings from a previous
prevenzione della violenza sui study of CISMAI on the prevalence of
bambini, 2013 maltreatment in Italy). It also takes into
consideration costs related to the incidence of
the phenomenon. Costs are divided into direct
costs and indirect costs, looking at different
services such as mental care for victims or loss
of productivity in the society. The study finds
that for the year 2011, it is possible to
estimate an expenditure of 338,616,294 euro
for direct costs and 12,717,513 euro for
indirect costs. That leads to a total estimate of
over 13 billion Euro public spending on
maltreatment.
Crisma M., Bascelli E., Paci D., Qualitative study on A high proportion of the 36 adolescents who
Romito P., 2004. Adolescents disclosure of sexual abuse experienced sexual abuse in Italy were
who experienced sexual part of a European Daphne reluctant to seek help from professionals.
abuse: fears, needs and project: “Counseling and Moreover, those who did seek the services of
impediments to disclosure. In Support Services for Young professionals were in the receipt of poor help.
Child Abuse & Neglect 28 People Aged 12–16 Years All abusers identified by participants were
1035–1048 Who Have Experienced male, abuse perpetrated by a family member
Sexual Abuse" lasted over a year and the majority of
reported abuse was ‘severe’. Barriers to family
support identified in the study include
pathological, disrupted or unstable family
relations, the desire to protect family
members or the perception that parents were
non-protective or insensitive
84
Type of Study and

Sample Size
Di Blasio, P. Milani, L. , Survey of service providers This research analyses the characteristics of
Acquistapace V., Bambini con about 55 children referred children who are victims of violence and who
molti problemi: violenza multiple times (total of 117 have been referred to various services more
all’infanzia e intervento dei referrals) equal to 11.2% of than one time. The aim is to understand
servizi. In <<Maltrattamento e the total sample of referrals whether the reasons for multiple referrals are
Abuso all’Infanzia>>, vol. 5, n. received during 2000 by the constituted by the organisation of the
1, luglio 2003 Services of the same area network of services, by the characteristics of
(Varese and Province). the children and/or by the seriousness of the
victimisation.
Di Blasio, P. et al., Children’s Clinical case-control study of The purpose of this study was to analyse
resilience, protective and risk 52 maltreated children of which individual dimensions (attachment
factors in therapy with low social class and 58 non- bonds, intellectual level, internalising or
abusing families, in maltreated children of low externalising problems, coping strategies)
«Maltrattamento e abuso and middle social class. favour the resilience in maltreated compared
all’infanzia», vol. 7, n. 3 (dic. with non-maltreated children. A further
2005), p. 89-104. purpose is to verify whether these individual
dimensions are connected with the positive or
negative outcome of the family psychological
treatment.
Di Blasio, P., Camisasca, E., Clinical case-control study This research forms part of the group of
Procaccia, R., Fattori di with 118 children of whom studies which analyses which individual and
mediazione dell’esperienza 60 were victims of confirmed relational factors perform a mediational role
traumatica nei bambini abuse and 58 were non- in reducing or amplifying the negative impact
maltrattati, in abused and an unspecified of abuse on psychological adjustment.. The
«Maltrattamento e abuso number of caregivers. psychological dimension analysed in both
all’infanzia», vol. 9, n. 2 groups were: attachment bonds, intellectual
(giugno 2007), p. 33-59. level, coping strategies and internalizing and
externalizing behaviours.
Dipartimento Giustizia Administrative data from 29 Taking into account a broader need to
Minorile Direzione Generale Juvenile Justice Social understand changing patterns of the
per l’attuazione dei Services Offices for Minors in phenomenon of sexual violence affecting
provvedimenti giudiziari Italy minors as it is managed by the Juvenile Justice
Ufficio I - III Minori vittime e Systems, this research explores data on
minori autori di reati a sfondo children victims of sexual abuse that is
sessuale, Attività svolte dagli available in the records of the Ministry of
Uffici di Servizio Sociale per i Justice. The article also discusses pyscho-
Minorenni Rilevazione anno social factors driving children to enact abusive
2012 behaviors on other minors.
85
MULTI-COUNTRY
COUNTRY STUDY ON THE DRIVERS OF VIOLENCE AFFECTING CHILDREN ITALIAN REPORT
Type of Study and

Sample Size
Di Vita A.; Garraffo, V.;
Survey of 208 teachers This study looks at teachers and parents
Fincontati G.; Romano A., La
perception of risk behaviours in their children
prevenzione del bullismo:
or students.
un’indagine comparativa degli
indicatori di rischio a Palermo,
Psicologia di Comunità , n2
2009, pag 83- 93
Gini G., 2006. “Social Qualitative research with The study found that moral disengagement
Cognition and Moral Cognition sample of 204 of 8–11-year- was positively correlated with aggressive
in Bullying: What’s Wrong?” in olds children behavior.
Aggressive Behavior, Volume
32, pages 528–539
Gini G., 2008b. “Italian Sample size of 409 of 14 to 14 to 16 year old males were more likely to be
Elementary and Middle School 16 year old males. overtly victimised than their female peers.
Students’ Blaming the Victim However, there was no difference between
of Bullying and Perception of genders in relational victimisation, which is
School Moral Atmosphere” in predominantly considered to be a female
The Elementary School Journal experience.
Volume 108, Number 4
Gini G. and Pozzoli T., 2006. Mixed methods study The study found associations between
“The Role of Masculinity in sampling a population of 6 to typically masculine traits – such as
Children’s Bullying” in Sex 10 year old children (n=113) independence, self-affirmation, risk-taking,
Roles. 54:585–588 social dominance and aggressiveness – and
active bullying behaviour, regardless of sex.
Gini et al., 2011 “Bullies have Cross-sectional study with a The study found that bullying behaviour was
enhanced moral competence sample of 719 children aged associated with a lack of empathy, a lack of
to judge relative to victims, but 9 to 13 guilt and moral disengagement, or self-
lack moral compassion” in justification of behaviours that violate social
Personality and Individual norms.
Differences 50 (2011) 603–
608
Health Behaviour in School- Nationally representative Explores a range of health variables and
Aged Children (HBSC) World sample of 59,000 students behaviours among school-aged children and
Health Organization includes questions on bullying experiences.
Collaborative Cross-National
Survey, Italia, 2010
86
Type of Study and

Sample Size
Ionio, C. & DI Blasio, P., 2014. Survey of 19 pregnant The aim of this exploratory work is to
Post-traumatic stress women who attended the investigate whether postpartum stress
symptoms after childbirth and four phases of the research, symptoms may affect mother–child
early mother–child from the seventh month of relationships. The underlying hypothesis is
interactions: an exploratory pregnancy. that the persistence of postpartum stress
study. Journal of Reproductive symptoms may have a negative outcome on
& Infant Psychology, 32, 163- the mother’s tuning with the child.
181
Jones, S., Bombieri L., Sample of Italian The study showed that identification in a
Livingstone a., and Manstead schoolchildren, 10–13 years social group affected the response to bullying:
A., 2012. The influence of old (N = 128, 65 males). The if a child felt strongly included within a group,
norms and social identities on study focused on how one of whom was victimised, they were more
children’s responses to children’s peer group likely to feel anger toward the bullying and in
bullying in British. Journal of membership affects their turn were more likely to tell a teacher about
Educational Psychology, 82, group-based emotions in the incident.
241–256 response to an intergroup
bullying incident
Lansford et al., 2010. Corporal Multi-country study with a Gender differences in corporal punishment
Punishment of Children in Nine sample of 1417 examining have been reported to be dependent on the
Countries as a Function of ethnic and cultural family’s cultural context (Lansford et al, 2010).
Child Gender and Parent differences in the use of Figures from Italy showed that even though
Gender. In International corporal punishment in corporal punishment was reportedly high,
Journal of Pediatrics , p. 1-12 China, Columbia, Italy, Italian parents were second to Swedish
Jordan, Kenya, the parents in their belief that it was necessary to
Philippines, Sweden, use corporal punishment to raise children
Thailand and the United
States.
Lansford et al., 2005.”Physical Qualitative study with 336 The study showed that there was a large
Discipline and Children’s mother – child dyads amount of variance in parents’ belief that the
Adjustment: Cultural (children’s ages ranged from use of corporal punishment is necessary to
Normativeness as a 6 to 17 years; mothers’ ages raise a child. The results of the study showed
Moderator”. In Child ranged from 20 to 59 years) that mothers used corporal punishment more
Development, in China, India, Italy, Kenya, often than fathers and that male children
November/December 2005, the Philippines, and Thailand were corporally punished more often than
Volume 76, Number 6, Pages to examine whether female children.
1234 – 1246 normativeness of physical
discipline moderates the link
between mothers’ use of
physical discipline and
children’s adjustment.
87
Type of Study and

Sample Size
Laneve, C. and Pagano, R., Il Mixed methods (qualitative This study explores the relationship between
Bullismo nella scuola, una and quantitative) study with juvenile deviance, maladjustment at school
ricerca nella provincia ionica. 429 students and 111 and distress correlating with bullying. The
Pensa Multimedia, 2010 teachers anaysis of students’ and teachers’
perceptions, experiences and beahvioural
strategies concerning different kinds of
psychological suffering, academic
maladjustement and distress show how these
can represent both drivers and consequences
of bullying.
Lenzi, et al., 2014. “Perceived Mixed methods

Mixed methods study
study with
with aa Students, both girls and boys were more likely
Teacher Unfairness, sample of
sample of 662
662 11
11 to
to 13
13 year
year to display bullying behaviours if they believed
Instrumental Goals, and old students (mean age ==
old students (mean age their teacher treated them unfairly
Bullying Behavior in Early 12.55, SD
12.55, SD == 0.99;
0.99; 50.6%
50.6%
Adolescence” in Journal of males).
males).
Interpersonal Violence 2014,
Vol. 29(10) 1834 –1849
Mauceri, S., Omofobia come Mixed methods (quantitative The aim of the research was to identify
costruzione sociale. Processi and qualitative) study with a contextual, relational and individual factors
generativi del pregiudizio in total sample of 920 students that activate homophobic prejudice during
età adolescenziale, in 10 Roman schools (five adolescence. The research identifies the
FrancoAngeli, 2015 academic and five technical acritical adhesion to heterosexist norms of the
high schools), including in dominant culture as the main driver. It also
each of them one section of discusses the role of parents’ religious and
the 5-year scholastic cycle. political attitudes as well as the typology
May-Chahal, et al., 2006. Eight European country The study found out that the mother or the
“Child maltreatment in the study (including Italy) with a father of the child was identified most
family: a European sample of 2356 examining frequently as the perpetrator of harm. In just
perspective” in European child maltreatment in the over 10% of the cases reviewed in the study,
Journal of Social Work, 9:1, 3- family the father substitute was also identified as the
20 perpetrator and one of the most commonly
cited actions of violence was that of absent
parenting.
88
Type of Study and

Sample Size
McCloskey, L., Treviso, M., Survey of 82 battered Italian women who contacted the telephone
Scionti, T. & Pozzo, G., 2002. A women with children who hotline for wife abuse in Rome were
Comparative Study of Battered sought counselling in Italy interviewed about relationship violence, social
Women and Their Children in and in the U.S. support and extended family, potential risk
Italy and the United States. factors for their partners’ violence (drinking,
Journal of Family Violence, 17, unemployment), their own, and their
53-74. children’s mental health.
Menesini, E. Nocentini, A., Le Longitudinal three-year The study explores bullying trajectories in
traiettorie del Bullismo in survey of 1,300 secondary adolescence. Moving from a developmental
Adolescenza, Età Evolutiva, high school students contextual approach, the study investigates
n90 giugno 2008, p. 78-103 the following aims: 1) the relationship
between seriousness and diffusion of bullying
2) the relation between bullying and other
types of aggression; 3) the interaction
between individual and social influences on
bullying; 4) the longitudinal nature of the
phenomenon and the possible relations with
school and psycho-social problems.
Menesini, E. Nocentini, A., Sub-sample of 875 This paper explores longitudinal analysis and
Fonzi, A. Analisi Longitudinale adolescents involved in gender differences in adolescent aggressive
e Differenze di genere nei longitudinal three-year study behaviour. The study aims at describing the
Comportamenti aggressivi in extent of bullying, relational and physical
Adolescenza. Età Evolutiva . N aggression outside school, their continuity in
87 giugno 2007. p.78 -85 the period considered and the level of
association in the same sample.
Meter onlus, Rapporto Monitoring data covering Report on the activities of Meter ONLUS a
annuale 2015 9,872 websites across Italy non-profit monitoring websites containing
pedopornographic material. The report also
gives data on the usage of pornographic
material in order to identify sexual
exploitation and abuse victims.
Miano, P. et al., Le Qualitative study with 87 This qualitative study looks at different
rappresentazioni sociali professionals working with professionals working with abuse and
dell’abuso: i protagonisti e i abuse victims. explores their social representations on
contesti, in «Minori giustizia», abuse: views about victims, perpetrators and
2010, n. 4, p. 162-174 place where violence typically occurs.
89
MULTI-COUNTRY STUDYON
-COUNTRY STUDY ONTHE
THEDRIVERS
DRIVERSOF
OFVIOLENCE
VIOLENCEAFFECTING
AFFECTINGCHILDREN
Type of Study and

Sample Size
Ministero per le pari Administrative data from This article analyses data collected by the
opportunità, Relazione al 2002-2004/5 for the crimes ministry of Justice, Police Forces and the
parlamento sull’attività di specified by law 66/1996: Ministry of Interior on phenomena relating to
coordinamento di cui all’art. against sexual violence and laws against sexual exploitation and abuse of
17, comma 1, della legge 3 the crimes specified by minors in Italy.
agosto 1998, n. 269 "norme subsequent law 269/1998:
contro lo sfruttamento della against types of sexual
prostituzione, della exploitation including
pornografia, del turismo prostitution, pornography,
sessuale in danno di minori, and sex tourism involving
quali nuove forme di riduzione children.
in schiavitù", Roma, Presidenza
del Consiglio dei ministri, 2006.
Miragoli, S., Di Blasio, P., Clinical case-control study of This study explored potential physical abuse in
Propensione al maltrattamento 59 parents at high risk of preschool children by fathers and mothers. This
fisico in padri e madri di physical maltreatment and 59 study compared some psychological
bambini in età prescolare, in at low risk matched to age, characteristics (personal distress, parenting
«Maltrattamento e abuso status, education level, stress, parenting alliance and perception of
all’infanzia», vol. 14, n. 1 (mar. children age and gender. child adjustment) of preschool children father
2012), p. 57-75. and mothers at low/high risk of child physical
maltreatment (measured by Abuse Scale of
Child Abuse Potential Inventory Form VI - CAPI).
Nation, M., Vieno, A., Douglas Mixed methods study using a The study found out that while the teacher-
D., Santinello, M. , 2008. nationally representative student relationship was an important
Bullying in School and sample of 11-, 13- and 15- predictor of bullying behaviour among younger
Adolescent Sense of year old students (n=4386). students, the parent-child relationship became
Empowerment: An Analysis of a more significant factor in predicting bullying
Relationships with Parents, behaviour as children aged into adolescence.
Friends, and Teachers. In Children who did not participate in decision-
Journal of Community & making with their parents were more likely to
Applied Social Psychology, 18: engage in bullying behaviour.
211–232.
Pellai et al; Quanti sono i Survey of 3,000 students in Thispaper

This paperpresents
presentsthe
theresults
resultsofofaa
minori vittime di abuso secondary schools in Milan retrospectiveepidemiological
retrospective epidemiological study realized
sessuale? Risultati di uno during school year 2001-2002
- and was aimed
studio di prevalenza su un at determining the prevalence rate of
campione di 3000 studenti previous child sexual abuse in this sample
frequentanti le classi V delle population.
scuole superiori della città di
Milano, Abuso e
Maltrattamento all’ Infanzia,
vol3 2004
90
Type of Study and

Sample Size
Pozzoli, T, Gini, G, Vieno, A. A cross-sectional study from The study found that moral disengagement
2012, Individual and Class a sample of 663 elementary was already present in children at a young
Moral Disengagement in school children aged 8 to 10 age. Moreover, between-class variability of
Bullying Among Elementary years. pro-bullying behavior was positively related to
School Children in Aggressive minimizing one’s agentive role and
Behavior, Volume 38, pages blaming/dehumanizing the victim at the class
378–388 level. Conversely, class disregarding/distorting
the consequences was negatively associated
with between-class variation in the outcome
behavior.
and Gini,
Pozzoli, T and Gini, G.
G, 2010 A mixed methods study The study found out that while students who
Active Defending and Passive which sampled 462 seventh displayed problem-solving coping strategies
Bystanding Behavior in and eighth grade students in and personal responsibility were more likely
Bullying: The Role of Personal a mid-sized city in northern to assist a bullied peer, they could be deterred
Characteristics and Perceived Italy, examined the from intervening if they perceived peer
Peer Pressure In Child Psychol interaction between pressure not to do so.
38:815–827 individual characteristics and
peer pressure.
Rangone, G., Lombardi, S., Gli Mixed methods study The goal of the study was to explore more in-
operatori di fronte alle sfide exploring 29 cases of online depth using a mixed methods case study
della rete: una ricerca child sexual abuse referred to approach of online sexual abuse. Data was
sull’abuso sessuale online, in CISMAI centers conducted by collected on young victims’ age, gender,
«Maltrattamento e abuso Save the Children and psychological problems, how the sexual abuse
all’infanzia», vol. 14, n. 3 (nov. CISMAI. had been perpetrated, who the sexual
2012), p. 17-30. offenders were, how children, adolescents
and their parents had been taken care of by
professionals and with what outcomes. Based
on those outcomes, the authors suggest some
basic preconditions to prevent online child
sexual abuse and to help the young victims.
Romito P. and Beltramini L., Sample

Sample ofof 303
303 students
students Almostall
Almost allmale
malestudents
studentsand
and67%
67%of offemale
female
2011. Watching Pornography: (49.2% female) through
(49.2% female) through aa students had ever watched pornography;
students had ever watched pornography; 42% 42%
Gender Differences, Violence questionnaire
questionnaire and32%,
and 32%,respectively,
respectively,had
hadwatched
watchedviolence
violence
and Victimization. An againstwomen.
against women.Female
Femalestudents
studentsexposed
exposedto to
Exploratory Study in Italy. In family psychological violence and to sexual
family psychological violence and to sexual
Violence Against Women violencewere
violence weresignificantly
significantlymore
morelikely
likelytotowatch
watch
17(10) 1313 –1326 pornography,especially
pornography, especiallyviolent
violentpornography
pornography
thanthose
than thosewhowhohad
hadnot
notbeen
beenexposed.
exposed.No No
suchassociation
such associationwaswasfound
foundamong
amongmale
male
students.
students.
91
-COUNTRYSTUDY
MULTI-COUNTRY STUDYON
ONTHE
THEDRIVERS
DRIVERSOFOFVIOLENCE
VIOLENCEAFFECTING
AFFECTINGCHILDREN
Type of Study and

Sample Size
Save the Children Italia, I Qualitative study of 29 child This qualitative study focuses on the stories of
piccoli schiavi invisibili: dossier victims of sexual exploitation child victims of sexual exploitation in Italy.
tratta 2013, Roma, Save the
Children Italia, 2013
Save the Children Italia, I Online interviews with 1000 This study explores parents’ education
metodi educativi e il ricorso a parents representative of strategies, perception and use of physical
punizioni fisiche: vissuto e Italian population of parents punishment.
opinioni di genitori e figli, with children between 3 and
Milano, Ipsos, 2012. 16 years old and 250
interviews with children
representative of the Italian
population between 11 and
16 years old.
Telefono Azzurro and 114 Helpline data statistics for This report analyses data collected through
Emergenza Infanzia, I dati del the time period 2006 to the work of the 114 helpline dealing with
114 emergenza infanzia: 2013. The investigation emergencies concerning children.
analisi della casistica nel analyzes information on
periodo 2003-2013 approximately 12,000
emergency cases involving
children.
Telefono Azzurro and Survey of 1,496 children and This investigation looks at children’s and
Eurispes, Indagine conoscitiva 1,266 parents parent’s ideas, attitudes and behaviours with
sulla condizione dell’Infanzia, regards to bullying.
2011.
Verrecchia, F., La Rosa, M., Monitoring data covering This reports discusses data collected by
Corso, D. (a cura di), Report 71,806 websites in 37 Telefono Arcobaleno in 2011 through its
annuale: contrasto della countries in 2011 activity of online monitoring of
pedofilia online: anno 2011, pedopornographic material.
Telefono Arcobaleno, 2011
Vieno, A., Gini, G., Santinello, 6,744 students nested within This study examines the role of school
M., Lenzi, M. and Nation, M., 348 classes unfairness in predicting violent behavior
Violent behavior and among Italian early adolescents. Hierarchical
unfairness in school: Multilevel linear modeling was used to examine the
analysis of Italian schools. relations between individual (demographics,
Journal of Community psychosocial and relational characteristics,
Psychology, 39, 534-550. and perception of procedural and relational
school unfairness), and class characteristics
(mean school unfairness and socioeconomic
status) and students’ violent behavior.
92
Type of Study and

Sample Size
Vieno A, Lenzi M, Gini G, The survey reported is part of Findings yielded from this study over a period
Pozzoli T, Cavallo F, Santinello the larger population-based of 8 years suggest that both bullying and
M, 2015. Time Trends in cross-sectional (2002, 2006, victimization, mild and severe, are decreasing
Bullying Behavior in Italy. and 2010) ‘‘Health Behaviour in Italy. The reported decreases could be both
Journal of School Health, Vol. in School Aged Children’’ a consequence of ongoing efforts to address
85, No. 7 (HBSC) transnational study. school bullying and the increased awareness
The sample was comprised about the phenomenon. However, the
of 13,174 Italian middle and decrease observed could derive from changes
secondary school students in the forms of bullying behaviors and reflect
(11- to 15-year-olds; 50.3% an increase in other forms of bullying (eg,
girls). cyberbullying).
Zomero C., I maltrattamenti Interviews with 18 victims of This master thesis illustrates the result of a
sui minori una ricerca maltreatment or witnessing qualitative study conducted with victims of
qualitativa, tesi di laurea violence violence or witnessing violence in the family.
Metodologia della Ricerca The investigation explores physical and
Psicosociale, Università degli emotional consequences of violence as well as
Studi di Trieste, 2002 coping strategies enacted by children. The
response of different institutions and social
services is also explored.
93
ISBN 978-88-6374-047-2
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Multy-country study on the drivers of violence affecting children. Italian

Working Paper · January 2016

Erika Bernacchi Ayana Fabris

Reflexive solidarity View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

The Challenge The main outcome will be improved primary violence

The UNICEF Office of Research—Innocenti in collabora-

Istituto degli Innocenti - Piazza SS. Annunziata 12 - 50122 Firenze

© 2016 Istituto degli Innocenti, Firenze

1. Data on Violence affecting Children in Italy

Figure 1. Prevalence of violence, retrospectively, among women 19 to 60 years of age

Source: Vite in Bilico (2006)

Source: National Survey on Child Maltreatment (2015)

Violence in the home

Age and gender

3. Prevention Interventions’ Mapping

What is violence against children?

In Italy, on a regulatory level, there is no specific definition of ‘violence against

 Genital Mutilation (art. 583 bis): clitoridectomy, excision and infibulation

Persecution acts (art. 612 bis):

1. Introduction - The Multi-Country Study

Figure 3. The socio-ecological framework

Figure 4. The stages of adolescence (PAHO classification)

2. The Political Economy of Italy—Issues unique to Italy

Source: Istat, 2015

Figure 6. Total fertility rate, year 1970-2014

2,50 1970; 2,42

Source: Istat, 2015

Figure 7. Percentage of foreign population (date of reference: 1 January)

Source: Istat, 2015

3. The Child Protection System

Other important policy documents concerning violence against children include:

4. Services and response

Source: CISMAI and Terre des Hommes ItaIy (2015)

Source: CISMAI and Terre des Hommes (2015)

6. Evidence on Violence Affecting Children: Methodology

Child Sexual Abuse

Source: Bianchi and Moretti13, 2006

Figure 11. Perpetrators of sexual violence against women before age 16

family friends; 11,4

school peers; 8,0

Source: Istat, 2015

Source: Minister of Interior, 2013

Child Physical Abuse

Child Emotional Abuse

Source: CISMAI and Terre des Hommes, 2015

Violence Affecting Children: In the Home

Violence Affecting Children: In Schools and outside Schools

Teachers generally appear as unprepared to respond to violence in the classroom or to detecting

1,6 1,1 0,9

Never 1-2 times in the last two months

Violence Affecting Children: In the Community

Information, Communication and Technologies

 Limited knowledge of computer and social skills. In a cross-country analysis of strategies

Parents and Children

 Supporting relationship between the parents is a powerful protecting factor against

Mothers and Children

 Women’s strength in terms of resistance and socio-economic independence are important

Fathers and Children