International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 26 (2021) 100419

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science

Tasting ancient Greek modes: Does culinary arts education make

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The connection between taste perception, emotion and musical elements such as tempo, rhythm and pitch studies
Ancient Greek Modes run deep. However, the influence of musical structure on taste perception is yet a challenge for the food market
Musical structure and the literature. Present study is the first in this field that attempts cross-modal associations between ancient
Cross-model association
Greek modes (major structural part of many pieces of music), tastes, and the emotions evoked by these stimuli, as
Taste association
Emotion association
well as how gastronomy and culinary arts education influences these associations. Five hundred-ten students
listened to the sequence of the seven diatonic modes, Aeolian, Ionian, Locrian, Dorian, Lydian, Mixolydian, and
Phrygian, and associated them with basic tastes. Emotions evoked by tastes and emotions evoked by modes were
collected from the literature, and associations between modes, tastes and emotions were analyzed. The emotional
impacts of tastes were mostly in agreement with the emotional impacts of the associated modes. Overall data
linked Aeolian, Ionian, Lydian, and Mixolydian modes mainly with sweet tastes, Dorian with salty, and Locrian and
Phriygian with bitter tastes. However, taste association distribution differed significantly as a function of musical
mode and culinary background (p < 0.005). The connotations of tastes to modes were mostly influenced by
culinary education, especially for sweet and bitter tastes. Both culinary and non-culinary groups had an agree­
ment on the distribution of tastes within Dorian and Phrygian modes only. Taste associations between modes
were significantly different; however non-culinary group showed more variability in their selection of tastes
evoked by the modes (p < 0.005).

1. Introduction increases the attention. Similarly, commercials with and without music
have different effects on consumers attention and further purchasing
There are numerous papers have been written on the music and its behavior. The Brief Music in Mood Regulation Scale studies identified
effects on consumer perception of food. However, the majority of these seven different mood-regulating strategies as discharge, mental work,
studies cover the effects of songs and/or musical elements such as diversion, revival, entertainment, strong sensation, and solace. Discharge is
tempo, pitch, rhythm, loudness, and their combinations on food choices using music to ease sadness or anger, mental work is using music to
and/or perceptions, such as high pitch and sourness association (Crisinel clarify emotional preoccupations, diversion is neglecting negative
and Spence, 2009; Ozilgen, 2012; Reinoso-Carvalho et al, 2020a, 2020b; thoughts and feelings with the help of music, revival is relaxing and
Slocombe et al., 2016; Spence, 2012; Spence and Shankar, 2010; Spence gaining energy from the music, entertainment is creating a happy at­
and Youssef, 2015; Wang et al., 2015). Yet, the effects of musical mosphere to maintain and/or improve positive emotions and feelings
structure on consumer’ taste perception has been overlooked so far. with the help of music, strong sensation is stimulating and strengthening
Also, the multi-modal association between musical structure, taste, and intense emotional involvements with music, and solace is using music to
emotional responses is still mysterious. Furthermore, the effect of having search for a comfort or relief when feeling sad or troubled (Collier and
prior knowledge in food processing on responses to multi-sensory Hubbard, 2001; Grant, 2019; Van den Tol et al., 2020).
stimuli is also a challenge for the literature. Multisensory elements have been used as food marketing tools for
Music and sound stimuli activate emotions, feelings, motivations, decades to influence product perceptions of consumers; music always
and also trigger the memories. For example, music gives emotions to the has its place at food markets such as supermarkets, restaurants, bars,
stories in the movies, radio programs and podcasts, mostly couples those cafes, and so on. From a cognitive point of view, the structure of the
emotions with the memories of brands, special events, childhood, and music have a direct effect on the perceived values of the brand and the

E-mail address: [email protected].

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2021.100419
Received 2 March 2021; Received in revised form 15 August 2021; Accepted 28 August 2021
Available online 3 September 2021
1878-450X/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Ozilgen International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 26 (2021) 100419

products, and emotional engagement, feelings, attention, purchase 2.2. Musical stimuli
intention, and conscious and unconscious purchasing decisions of con­
sumers (Cherubino et al., 2019; Cuesta et al., 2018; Kantono et al., 2016; Seven diatonic modes; Aeolian, Ionian, Locrian, Dorian, Lydian,
Morris and Boone, 1998; Ziv, 2018). Mixolydian, and Phrygian; recorded in electro guitar by a professional
Ancient Greek musical modes, Ionian, Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, musician, were used as the musical stimuli. All seven modes were
Mixolydian, Aeolian and Locrian, also known as western church modes, recorded at the same rhythm, tempo of 110 BPM (moderate tempo) and
have been a major structural part of many music such as classical, jazz, 440 Hz pitch (a tuning standard).
baroque, and modern compositions since the Middle Ages, and have
generally been described as “flavors” of sound and music. Many
legendary musicians and bands such as Pink Floyd, B. B King, Michael 2.3. Procedure
Jackson, Mozart, Simon and Garfunkel, The Beatles, REM, Bob Dylan,
Guns and Roses, and The Doors used Greek modes to compose their The study was conducted in an isolated class-like room with a
music. Structurally, all modes are formed from the same set of seven comfortable temperature, stable lighting, and adequate ventilation. The
absolute notes (C-D-E-F-G-A-B); however, each starts with a different test room was equipped with a surround system. Students were informed
reference note. For example, in the Dorian mode, the reference note is D. about the purpose of the study and their consent was required prior to
In the Lydian, it is the note F. The reference tone, and the pitch intervals commencement. The experiments were carried out 2 h after the main
between the reference note and the other notes determine the main meal times. Participants were not allowed to drink or eat anything
feature of the mode; hence determine the emotional expressions specific during the test except water. Students were organized in ten groups and
to each mode. It has been shown that, emotional response to music is modes played in a random order. The scorecards that were prepared to
strongly cognitive since modifying the reference note of the musical collect the data had two parts. The first part covered the demographic
scale is enough to manipulate perceived emotions in people. From the details of the participants. It consisted of questions about a respondent’s
previous studies, Ionian, the balanced mode, expresses joy, charm, gender, age, and socio-economic status. The second part had a section
happiness, serenity, and confidence. Dorian, the specious mode, is for each mode with the words of tastes, sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and
associated with seriousness, brilliance, constancy, cheerfulness, and umami. Participants were instructed to listen to each mode and choose
uncertainty. Lydian is the brightest mode with joy and happiness. Mix­ the taste in the scorecards that most closely corresponded with the effect
olydian, the restful mode, is associated with serenity and happiness. of each mode. Each mode played twice on a continuous loop. The time
Phrygian, the darkest mode, conveys spiritual discomfort such as lap between each mode was 20 s. The change of the mode did not affect
sadness, fear and anger. Aeolian, the somber mode, is associated mixed the loudness of a piece. Emotions evoked by tastes and modes were
emotions of sadness, fear, loss, serenity, and sweetness. Locrian, the fears collected from the literature. A chi-square test was conducted to assess
mode, expresses boredom, and disgust than fear and anger (Krumhansl, the results. The level of significance was p ˂ 0.05.
2002; Mieczyslaw, n.d.; Ramos et al., 2011; Straehley and Loebach,
2014; Voitinskaia, 2019). 3. Results and discussion
In the musical world, people have been using many food-driven
musical terminologies for centuries such as sweet melody, bitter Table 1 represents the categories of the tastes that were most often
sounds, sour notes, and even a specific term Lydian flavor, driven from chosen by all participants, as a function of mode. From the data, Aeolian,
an ancient mode, to describe what they feel from the sound. Similar to Ionian, Lydian, and Mixolydian modes mainly associated with sweet
music and emotion association, the literature indicates a strong link tastes, Dorian was salty, and Locrian and Phriygian were percieved as
between tastes and emotions. For example, sweet taste is usually asso­ bitter.
ciated with positive emotion, and bitter taste is linked with the negative; Data distribution between culinary and non-culinary groups, how­
whereas sour, salty and umami tastes are rather challenged (Bartkiene ever, showed some differences than the overall results given in Table 1
et al., 2019; Gayler and Sas, 2017). (p ˂ 0.05).
This study attempts cross modal associations between tastes, ancient For both groups, the taste of restful and happy Mixolydian was sweet.
Greek modes (structure of music), and the emotions evoked by these While the groups agreed on taste interpretation of this mode, the culi­
stimuli. Other aim was to explore the possible influence of gastronomy nary group perceived it sweeter than their non-culinary counterparts
and culinary arts education on taste perceptions evoked by the musical (51.8% and 29.5%, respectively) (Fig. 1 and Table 2). Aeolian mode
structure. The results from this study can be used for neuromarketing reminded majority of non-culinary students (51%) of sweet taste. The
practices in the food industry such menu and music pairings especially culinary group, however, associated the same mode with bitter taste
in conventional food service systems such as restaurants, bars, and cafes. (39.7%) (Fig. 1). In the literature, both Aeolian, at the tempo value used
in our study, and sweet tastes are typically correlated with happiness,
2. Materials and methods sadness, calmness, serenity, and sorrow (Gayler and Sas, 2017; Ramos
et al., 2011; Straehley and Loebach, 2014). Bitter taste is predominantly
2.1. Participants associated with fear and anger, however enjoyment and positive mood
effects of bitterness from long-term memories have been reported as a
The study was conducted with 510 university students. Among those learned respond in a recent neuroscience study. In those researches,
students, 141 were majoring in gastronomy and culinary arts (culinary
group) and the rest 369 were majoring in other disciplines (non-culinary Table 1
group). Non-culinary students were randomly chosen to represent the Taste-mode association responses of university students.
entire student body. Culinary students were a month away to become TASTE (%)
certified chefs and all had industry experiences. Participants ranged in
MODE Sweet Bitter Salty Sour Umami
age between 18 and 24 years old. Only volunteered students took part in
the study, and they were informed that they had the right to withdraw Aeolian 40.78 12.10 22.35 14.53 10.24
Ionian 35.01 6.33 18.25 30.73 9.68
their responses at any time during the study period. None of the par­ Locrian 4.66 59.59 14.53 13.59 7.64
ticipants had hearing or ear related health problems. Students with a Dorian 17.88 15.83 27.56 20.86 17.88
professional music background were explicitly excluded in this study. Lydian 36.69 6.70 19.74 24.58 12.29
Mixolydian 35.38 17.69 17.88 16.76 12.29
Phriygian 10.43 33.71 20.11 17.69 18.06

2
S. Ozilgen International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 26 (2021) 100419

Fig. 1. Distribution of taste associations with modes in (a) non-culinary and (b) culinary groups.

Mixolydian and Aeolian modes (p ˂ 0.05) (Table 2), suggesting that taste
Table 2
interpretation of this mode was affected from the culinary background
Comparison of effects of modes on the taste association frequency between non-
of the participants.
culinary and culinary groups.
Ionian had mixed association of two tastes, sweet and sour, in both
Taste
groups. However, the distribution of data as regarding the association of
Mode Sweet Bitter Salty Sour Umami this mode with tastes was significantly different across culinary and non-
Aeolian * * ns (p = ns (p = ns (p = culinary groups, with the exception of salty taste (p ˂ 0.05) (Table 2).
0.195) 0.327) 0.250) Lydian mode had mixed association of two tastes, salty and sour (25.5%
Ionian * * ns (p = * * and 23.4%, respectively), among the culinary group, whilst it was
0.8525)
perceived as sweet for its counterpart. For this mode, a non-significant
Locrian * * ns (p = ns (p = *
0.490) 0.811) difference between two groups was observed in sour taste only (p =
Dorian ns (p = ns p= ns (p = ns (p = ns (p = 0.71) (Table 2). Sourness and saltiness evoke a variety of emotions in
0.281) (0.533) 0.259) 0.891) 0.840) people (Wang et al., 2016). Similar to the mixed emotions of joy, charm,
Lydian * * * ns (p = * happiness, serenity, and confidence evoked by Ionian and Lydian modes,
0.71)
sourness is mostly connected to, surprise, emotional bravery, excite­
Mixolydian * * ns (p = * ns (p =
0.110) 0.059) ment, and the desire to enjoy something that actually is hard to enjoy;
Phriygian ns (p = ns (p = ns (p = p = 0.297 ns (p = and those emotions were linked to childhood memories (Gayler et al.,
0.385) 0.607) 0.195) 0.370) 2019; Gayler and Sas, 2017). In the literature, salty taste, on its own, is
Note. * denotes significant difference at p ˂ 0.05, p values are given in paren­ less associated with emotions than other tastes. But the combination of
thesis for non-significant differences. salty taste with other tastes may evoke some feelings in individuals. For
example, mixture of sweet, salty, and umami tastes was described as
emotions from bitterness is often interpreted in a more physical manner; “like mother’s milk kind of foods”, and associated with happiness
for example, experiencing energy spikes after consuming a food that is (Gayler and Sas, 2017; Ramos et al., 2011; Straehley and Loebach,
bitter and high in caffeine, a stimulant, such as coffee. Even among 2014). Both culinary and non-culinary groups were in agreement on the
people who are well rested, these energy spikes have been proven to salty taste of serious Dorian mode. The darkest mode Phrygian and the
affect mood (Gayler et al., 2019; Gayler and Sas, 2017; Lieberman, fears mode Locrian were associated with bitter taste in both groups and
2001). Therefore, in our study, Aeolian mode and bitter taste association these modes are strongly associated with fear and anger in the previous
in the culinary group may be interpreted as the enjoyment of the mixed studies (Ramos et al., 2011; Straehley and Loebach, 2014).
emotions from some foods. The chi square test revealed a significant The distribution of tastes was significantly different between modes
difference between culinary and non-culinary groups for both in the non-culinary group (p < 0.005). However, in the culinary group

3
S. Ozilgen International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 26 (2021) 100419

more modes showed non-significant differences than its counter group Table 3
(Table 3). The results clearly indicate the influence of modes on taste The relationship between modes for the non-culinary group (N) and culinary
associations and how they change with food education. In general, the group (C).
conceptual structure of metaphoric association of taste-emotion, which Modes Aeolian Ionian Locrian Dorian Lydian Mixolydian
we learn since early ages, is build up deep in our brains. The emotional Ionian
processing, learning and interpretation and the senses are closely linked. N 44.1*
Sensory cortices are triggered differently based on the elements that C 25.34*
evoke the feelings (Rago, 2014). Brain can relate taste to pro-social at­ Locrian
N 404.9* 368.9*
titudes, interpersonal relationships, moral judgments about some ac­
C 4.02 42.01*
tions, and so on within the brain (Zhou and Tse, 2020). Culinary Dorian
education covers a variety of food related topics like food chemistry, N 117.1* 98.2* 198.7*
food safety and security, food culture, management, and cost control, as C 24.22* 9.01 43.35*
well as hands on industrial practices. On-going food experience may Lydian
N 18.4* 10.17* 388.6* 98.4*
have an impact on episodic memory, causing differences between C 14.45* 6.33 30.49* 2.07
non-culinary and culinary groups. Mixolydian
N 93.3* 100.1* 179.5* 22.9* 90.2*
4. Conclusion C 79.0* 28.7* 101.2* 335.6* 52.3*
Phriygian
N 218.4* 198.4* 86.7* 33.6* 200.4* 43.6*
Sound and taste association behaviors are generally influenced by C 4.78 24.01* 6.91 23.63* 14.12* 86.69*
both structure of music (ancient Greek modes) and gastronomy and
Note. Chi-square values lead, * denotes significant difference at p < 0.005.
culinary arts education. The emotional impacts of the modes are mostly
in agreement with the emotional impacts of the associated tastes. The
musical structure clearly effects the taste association evoked by this manuscript.
stimulus; however culinary people may show less variability in their
selection of tastes evoked by the modes compared to their counterparts. Acknowledgements
Each musical mode has its typical taste association distribution and it is
mostly significantly different between culinary and non-culinary groups. I’d like to thank all of my students who took part in this research.
Therefore, musical structure and taste and emotion associations must be
analyzed in both food professionals and their target consumers sepa­ References
rately for the success of food neuromarketing practices.
Bartkiene, E., Steibliene, V., Adomaitiene, V., Juodeikiene, G., Cernauskas, D., Lele, V.,
Klupsaite, D., Zadeike, D., Jarutiene, L., Guiné, R.P.F., 2019. Factors affecting
5. Gastronomy impact consumer food preferences: food taste and depression-based evoked emotional
expressions with the use of face reading technology. BioMed Res. Int. https://doi.
org/10.1155/2019/2097415.
From a cognitive point of view, the structure of the music have a Cherubino, P., Martinez-Levy, A.C., Caratù, M., Caratù, C., Cartocci, G., Flumeri, G. Di,
direct effect on the perceived values of the brand and the products, and Modica, E., Rossi, D., Mancini, M., Trettel, A., 2019. Consumer Behaviour through
emotional engagement, feelings, attention, purchase intention, and the Eyes of Neurophysiological Measures: State-of-The-Art and Future Trends.
https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/1976847.
conscious and unconscious purchasing decisions of consumers. Although Collier, W.G., Hubbard, T.L., 2001. Musical scales and evaluations of happiness and
numerous papers have been written on different elements of music, i.e., awkwardness: effects of pitch, direction, and scale mode. Am. J. Psychol. 114 (3),
tempo and pitch, and their effects on consumer perception of food, the 355–375. https://doi.org/10.2307/1423686.
Crisinel, A.S., Spence, C., 2009. Implicit association between basic tastes and pitch.
impact of musical structure has been overlooked so far. In this study,
Neurosci. Lett. 464 (1), 39–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2009.08.016.
cross modal associations between tastes, ancient Greek modes (a major Cuesta, U., Martínez-Martínez, L., Niño, J.I., 2018. A case study in neuromarketing:
structural part of many music such as classical, jazz, baroque, and analysis of the influence of music on advertising effectivenes through eye-tracking,
modern compositions) and the emotions evoked by these stimuli, and facial emotion and GSR. Eur. J. Soc. Sci. Educ. Res. 5 (2), 84–92. https://doi.org/
10.26417/ejser.v5i2.p84-92.
the influence of gastronomy and culinary arts education on taste per­ Gayler, T., Sas, C., 2017. An exploration of taste-emotion mappings from the perspective
ceptions evoked by the musical structure are attempted for the first time. of food design practitioners. In: MHFI 2017 - Proceedings of the 2nd ACM SIGCHI
The emotions evoked by musical modes are commonly in agreement International Workshop on Multisensory Approaches to Human-Food Interaction.
https://doi.org/10.1145/3141788.3141793. Co-Located with ICMI 2017.
with emotions evoked by tastes. From our findings, music and taste Gayler, T., Sas, C., Kalnikaite, V., 2019. Taste your emotions: an exploration of the
association behaviors are generally influenced by both structure of relationship between taste and emotional experience for HCI. DIS 2019 - Proceedings
music and gastronomy and culinary arts education. Therefore, in food of the 2019 ACM Designing Interactive Systems Conference. https://doi.org/
10.1145/3322276.3322336.
neuromarketing practices such as, in menu-music pairings, combining Grant, B.J., 2019. How current mood state influences song selection behaviors. Diss.
food commercials with music, etc., we should consider the fact that the Abstr. Int. Sect. B Sci. Eng.
combined effects of musical structure and associated tastes and emo­ Kantono, K., Hamid, N., Shepherd, D., Yoo, M.J.Y., Grazioli, G., Carr, B.T., 2016.
Listening to Music Can Influence Hedonic and Sensory Perceptions of Gelati.
tions may differ between food professionals (such as chefs) and their Appetite. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2016.02.143.
consumers. Krumhansl, C.L., 2002. Music: a link between cognition and emotion. Curr. Dir. Psychol.
Sci. 11, 45–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8721.00165.
Lieberman, H.R., 2001. The effects of ginseng, ephedrine, and caffeine on cognitive
Author statement
performance, mood and energy. Nutr. Rev. 59 (4), 91–102. https://doi.org/
10.1111/j.1753-4887.2001.tb06995.x.
I certify that I have participated sufficiently in the work to take Mieczyslaw, K.. Mode. Encycl. Br. n.d. https://www.britannica.com/art/mode-music.
Morris, J.D., Boone, M.A., 1998. The effects of music on emotional response, brand
public responsibility for the content, including participation in
attitude, and purchase intent in an emotional advertising condition. ACR North Am.
Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Validation, Investigation, Adv. 25, 518–526. NA-25.
Formal analysis, Resources, Data Curation, Writing Original Draft, Ozilgen, S., 2012. Factors affecting taste perception and food choice. The Sense of Taste.
Writing Review and Editing, Visualization, Supervision, Project Rago, R., 2014. Emotion and Our Senses [WWW Document]. Emot. Brain, Behav. Lab.
URL. https://sites.tufts.edu/emotiononthebrain/2014/10/09/emotion-and-ou
administration, Funding acquisition. Furthermore, I certify that this r-senses/. accessed 7.20.20.
material or similar material has not been and will not be submitted to or Ramos, D., Bueno, J.L.O., Bigand, E., 2011. Manipulating Greek musical modes and
published in any other publication before its appearance in International tempo affects perceived musical emotion in musicians and nonmusicians. Braz. J.

Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science. I am the sole author of the

4
S. Ozilgen International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 26 (2021) 100419

Med. Biol. Res. 44 (2), 165–172. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100- Straehley, I.C., Loebach, J.L., 2014. The influence of mode and musical experience on the
879X2010007500148. attribution of emotions to melodic sequences. Psychomusicology Music. Mind, Brain.
Reinoso-Carvalho, F., Gunn, L., Molina, G., Narumi, T., Spence, C., Suzuki, Y., ter https://doi.org/10.1037/pmu0000032.
Horst, E., Wagemans, J., 2020a. A sprinkle of emotions vs a pinch of crossmodality: Van den Tol, A.J.M., Coulthard, H., Hanser, W.E., 2020. Music listening as a potential aid
towards globally meaningful sonic seasoning strategies for enhanced multisensory in reducing emotional eating: an exploratory study. Music. Sci. 24 (1), 78–95.
tasting experiences. J. Bus. Res. 117, 389–399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. https://doi.org/10.1177/1029864918780186.
jbusres.2020.04.055. Voitinskaia, A., 2019. The Many Moods of Musical Modes [WWW Document]. Music. U.
Reinoso-Carvalho, F., Gunn, L.H., Horst, E. ter, Spence, C., 2020b. Blending Emotions URL. https://www.musical-u.com/learn/the-many-moods-of-musical-modes/.
and Cross-Modality in Sonic Seasoning: towards Greater Applicability in the Design Wang, Q.J., Wang, S., Spence, C., 2016. “Turn up the Taste”: assessing the role of taste
of Multisensory Food Experiences. Foods 9 (12), 1876. https://doi.org/10.3390/ intensity and emotion in mediating crossmodal correspondences between basic
foods9121876. tastes and pitch. Chem. Senses 41 (4), 345–356. https://doi.org/10.1093/chemse/
Slocombe, B.G., Carmichael, D.A., Simner, J., 2016. Cross-modal tactile–taste bjw007.
interactions in food evaluations. Neuropsychologia 88, 58–64. https://doi.org/ Wang, Q.J., Woods, A.T., Spence, C., 2015. “What’s your taste in music?” a comparison
10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2015.07.011. of the effectiveness of various soundscapes in evoking specific tastes. Iperception.
Spence, C., 2012. Auditory contributions to flavour perception and feeding behaviour. https://doi.org/10.1177/2041669515622001.
Physiol. Behav. 107 (4), 505–515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2012.04.022. Zhou, Y., Tse, C.S., 2020. The taste of emotion: metaphoric association between taste
Spence, C., Shankar, M.U., 2010. The influence of auditory cues on the perception of, and words and emotion/emotion-laden words. Front. Psychol. https://doi.org/10.3389/
responses to, food and drink. J. Sensory Stud. 25 (3), 506–530. https://doi.org/ fpsyg.2020.00986.
10.1111/j.1745-459X.2009.00267.x. Ziv, N., 2018. Musical flavor: the effect of background music and presentation order on
Spence, C., Youssef, J., 2015. Olfactory dining: designing for the dominant sense. Flavour taste. Eur. J. Market. 52 (7/8), 1485–1504. https://doi.org/10.1108/EJM-07-2017-
4 (32). https://doi.org/10.1186/s13411-015-0042-0. 0427.