PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

★ We use the past continuous to talk about an action that was in progress at a
certain time in the past, an action at some point in the past between its
beginning and end.

Example: He was working in the garden at 7 o’clock this morning.

★ We form the past continuous by using the simple past form of the
verb ‘to be’ – was/were – and the main verb in the -ing form. For
example,

“You were reading a book.”

“She was speaking too loud.!

★ To make questions we invert the auxiliary verb was/were and the

subject:

“Were you reading a book?”

“Was he writing an email?”

★ And to make negative forms we add ‘not’:

“You weren’t reading a book.”

“she wasn't watching tv.

Past simple and past continuous differences:

★ The past simple is used to talk about finished actions in the past.
 Examples:

I travelled to Cancun last summer.

I didn't travel to Cancun last summer

Did I travel to Cancun last summer?

Why did you travel by train?

★ We only use state verbs in past simple NOT past continuous:

Examples:

love - like - hate - understand - believe - know - decide

★ The past continuous is used to describe an action in progress at a specific

moment in the past, or to describe those actions that were interrupted by a

short action in the past.

★ We often use the past continuous and the past simple in the same

sentence.

★ The action in the past simple is short and usually unexpected. It interrupts

the “longer” action which is usually in a past continuous form.

For example:

What were you doing when the plane landed?

I was looking in my bag for my passport when I heard a shout.

We jumped into a car that was waiting for the bus stop

I was watching TV while my wife was sleeping.

 ★ When we have a sentence in the past simple and

another in the past continuous we often use when and while, but we have to

take into consideration the following rules:

Rule Examples

When When is followed by a When I took the photo, the kids were playing.

sentence in the past simple.

The kids were playing when I took the photo.

While While is followed by a While I was having dinner, my father arrived.

sentence in the past

continuous.
My father arrived while I was having dinner.

While is also used when two While I was watching TV my mother was

actions are happening cooking.

simultaneously.

I was watching TV while my mother was

cooking.

QUANTIFIERS:

★ A quantifier is a word that usually goes before a noun to

express the quantity of the object.

For example: a little milk.

 ★ There are quantifiers to describe:
➔ Large quantities : a lot, much, many.
➔ Small quantities :a little, a few.
➔ Undefined quantities :some, any.

★ There are some quantifiers that have a similar meaning but differ
because one is used with countable nouns and the other is used with
uncountable nouns.

➔ Countable nouns are things that we can count.

for example: a table, two chairs.

➔ Uncountable nouns are things that we cannot count and only have a
singular form.

For example: furniture, drinks, meats, sweets.

Look:

MANY/MUCH

A FEW/ A LITTLE
SOME/ANY

HOW MANY? HOW MUCH?

★ When we want to ask the quantity of something, we use ‘how much’

or ‘how many’.

● We also use ‘how much’ when we ask the cost of something.

● For example:
● How much do these melons cost?

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE:

WE USUALLY USE THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE

for :

➢ Unfinished Actions: We use this tense when we want to talk about

unfinished actions or states or habits that started in the past and continue to

the present.

Examples: I've known Karen since 1994.

She's lived in London for three years.

➢ Finished Actions: Life experience. These are actions or events that

happened sometime during a person's life. We don't say when the experience

happened, and the person needs to be alive now.

Examples: I have been to Tokyo.

They have visited Paris three times.

➢ With an unfinished time word (this month, this week, today). The period of

time is still continuing.

Examples: I haven't seen her this month.

She's drunk three cups of coffee today.

➢ A finished action with a result in the present (focus

on result). We often use the present perfect tense to talk about something that

happened in the recent past, but that is still true or important now.

Examples: I've lost my keys (so I can't get into my house).

She's hurt her leg (so she can't play tennis today).

➢ We can also use the present perfect tense to talk about something that

happened recently.

Examples: The Queen has given a speech

➢ We use some words when we use THE PRESENT PERFECT TENSE:

Since
● We use ‘since’ in front of a finished point in time in the past.
● We normally use ‘since’ with the present perfect to describe an action
or situation that began in the past and continues in the present.

Examples:

We’ve been married since 1995.

I’ve worked here since 2008.

For
● We use ‘for’ with a period of time.

We can also use ‘for’ with the present perfect to describe an action that
started in the past and continues in the present.

For example: We’ve been married for 22 years.

I’ve had this car for three months.

Ever

➢ We use "ever" in interrogative sentences: Ever means 'at any time'.

Examples:
Have you ever been to the United States?

Have you ever traveled by train?

Never

➢ We use "never" in affirmative sentences: but the meaning is negative.

Never means 'at no time'

Examples:

I have never cheated in an exam.

My son has never been to Moscow.

Just

➢ We use "just" to express a recently completed action.It is used in

affirmative sentences.

Examples:

The cat has just caught a bird.

The guests have just arrived.

Already

➢ We use "already" to express that something has happened sooner

than expected. It is used in affirmative sentences.

Examples:

Don't forget to bring your book! Oh, I have already brought it.

The boys are going to pack, aren't they? No. They have already packed.

Yet

➢ We use "yet" in interrogative and negative sentences and it suggests

a time later than expected.
Examples:

Have you done your homework yet?

Has your boss seen your report? No, he hasn't seen it yet.

PRESENT PERFECT AND PAST SIMPLE DIFFERENCES:

★ The past simple tense is used to express finished time; In contrast, the
present perfect tense describes unfinished time.

Examples:

We lived in Japan from 1995-1998. (a time period that started and ended in
the past) (past simple)

I’ve worked as a teacher since 2011. (a time period that started in the past,
and continues until now) (present perfect)

★ The past simple tense is used to refer to definite time, while the present
perfect tense refers to indefinite time.

Examples:

I saw the Eiffel Tower in 2007. (past simple)

I have seen the Eiffel Tower. (present perfect)

★ The past simple tense indicates a series of finished actions or repeated

actions; the present perfect tense expresses experience or result.

Examples:

First, he read a book and then he watched a movie. (past simple)

 He went to the cinema every weekend last year. (past
simple)

Have you ever seen this movie? (present perfect)

She has already watched this movie 3 times. (present perfect)

★ Time Phrases for Past Simple vs Present Perfect

★ Past Simple Tense: Yesterday- Ago -Last - In 1994, etc.

★ Present Perfect Tense: Already- Just - Yet - Ever - Never- For - Since

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES TYPE 1

★ Function : The type 1 conditional refers to a possible condition and its

probable result. These sentences are based on facts, and they are used to
make statements about the real world, and about particular situations. In type
1 conditional sentences, the time is the present or future and the situation is
real.

Examples:
● If I have time, I'll finish that letter.

● What will you do if you miss the plane?

● Nobody will notice if you make a mistake.

● If you drop that glass, it will break.

★ Form: In a type 1 conditional sentence, the tense in the "if" clause is the
simple present, and the tense in the main clause is the simple future.

If clause (condition) Main clause (result)

If + simple present simple future

If this thing happens that thing will happen.

Examples:
● If it rains, you will get wet.

● If Sally is late again I will be mad.

● If Tom doesn't do his homework, he won't go to the party.

IMPORTANT: WE CAN CHANGE THE SENTENCE ORDER:

● If Mary studies hard, she will pass the test = she will pass the test if Mary

studies hard.

● They will win the race if they train a lot = if they train a lot, they will win the

race.

CONDITIONAL SENTENCES TYPE 2

Function: The type 2 conditional refers to an unlikely or hypothetical

condition and its probable result. These sentences are not based on the

actual situation. In type 2 conditional sentences, the time is now or any time

and the situation is hypothetical.

Examples:

● If the weather wasn't so bad, we would go to the park. (But the weather is

bad so we can't go.)

 ● If I was the Queen of England, I would give

everyone a chicken. (But I am not the Queen.)

IMPORTANT: WE CAN CHANGE THE SENTENCE ORDER:

● If Clare finished the exam, she would pass it = she would pass it if Clare

finished the exam.

● I would be a great Architect if i studied at university = if i studied at university, I

would be a great architect.

Form: In a type 2 conditional sentence, the tense in the "if" clause is the simple
past, and the tense in the main clause is would + infinitive verb.

If clause Main clause (result)

(condition)

If + simple past would /wouldn't + infinitive

verb

If this thing that thing would happen.

happened

Examples:

● If it rained, you would get wet.

● You would get wet if it rained.

● If you went to bed earlier you wouldn't be so tired.

 MODAL VERBS

Modal verbs show possibility,

intent, ability, or necessity. Because they’re a type of auxiliary verb (helper verb),

they’re used together with the main verb of the sentence. Modal verbs are quite

common in English. The most frequently used ones are: can- may- might- could -

should - must - mustn't

Could-must-mustn't.

COULD

Ability in the past I could play tennis when I was 9.

Request Could you take me to the train station?

Suggestions we could go to the cinema.

MUST

MORAL OBLIGATION I MUST GO TO THE DENTIST

CERTAINTY THAT SOMETHING IS LOOK AT THE SNOW! IT MUST BE

TRUE COLD OUTSIDE.

MUSTN'T

PROHIBITION YOU MUSTN'T SMOKE IN THE

HOSPITAL.

How to write / tell a story

When we try to put our story in a well-organised
structure, we can simply look at every story ever written in the history of
humankind and we will find that 99% of them look like this:

Beginning
Main part
Ending

At the beginning of a story, we are usually introduced to the main character(s)

and learn a little bit about the background of the plot. We might also find out
about how the main character(s) feel right before the action starts.
The main part includes the main actions and parts of the plot. Here, the story
progresses the furthest, but we normally don’t come to a conclusion yet.
The ending does what the name suggests. It brings the plot to a conclusion
and ends the story in an appropriate and satisfying way. You don’t want to
keep your readers guessing too much because there won’t be a sequel.

Beginning
The beginning of a story fulfills two tasks. It introduces the reader to the main
character(s) and sets the scene. We can include previous events and background
information so we can start.

One of the main criteria in a story is the correct use of narrative verb forms. These
are different past verb forms, each of which has a distinct function in a story. We
want to use past simple for the main events, past continuous for background actions
and past perfect simple and continuous for things that happened before the main
events.

In addition to this particular grammar point, we want to make the beginning

interesting from the get-go using some engaging adjectives/adverbs and other
helpful expressions.

Every good story has a title so yours should have one as well, but don’t worry too
much. It can be short and doesn’t have to be anything amazing. Just make sure that
you include it.

Main part
The main part of a story is what the name says: the most important part which
includes the majority of information.

Here we find most of the main events and the plot progresses between the beginning
and ending.
Your focus in this part should lie on a logical order of events
while keeping the reader engaged and interested.

We achieve this, once again, by using the correct verb forms (mostly past simple as
we are in the middle of the main events) as well as other stylistic features.

Ending
The very last part of every amazing story is a great ending. Here, we tie everything
together and bring the events to a conclusion.

It is your decision if you want to give your story a happy ending or not, but make sure
that it ends in some way. Don’t just stop after the main part and leave your reader
with questions. Send them off with a smile on their face or tears in their eyes.
Expressions of place and time that you can use:
At the shopping centre, ...
Back at home, ...
There, ...
Then, ...
Next (day, morning, etc.), ...
when, before, until, etc.
Adjectives and adverbs
...his old and dirty car...
...his dreadful journey.
...he walked absent-mindedly into a family...
...with a smile...

PASSIVE VOICE: PRESENT AND PAST SIMPLE

WHEN DO WE USE PASSIVE VOICE?
➢ When we want to emphasize the action more than the subject performing it,

because the action is more important.

Example: more and more computers are sold every year.

➢ The subject performing the action is not important or unknown.

Example: many computers are bought each hour.

➢ When we describe a specific process.

Example: first coffee beans are grown, then they are processed.

HOW DO WE FORM THE PRESENT PASSIVE VOICE?

Thing receiving the action + verb to be (is-are-am)+

past participle. Example: ACTIVE:

John buys the newspapers.

PASSIVE: The newspapers are bought (by john)

★ When we know who does the action we can use the agent BY.

Example: the computer is used by Tom.

HOW DO WE FORM THE PAST PASSIVE VOICE?

Thing receiving the action + verb to be (was-were)+ past participle.

Example: ACTIVE: the analist solved the problem.

PASSIVE: the problem was solved by the analist.

When we know who does the action we can use the agent BY.

Example: all the computer problems were solved by the engineering

department.
 Writi

ng:

Informal letter or email

The purpose of an informal email will depend on each task.

➢ to provide your friend with some important information

➢ to ask for some advice.
➢ to ask you something about the place where you live, while saying that
they will be visiting soon.

The language will be relaxed and friendly. So we will be making use of contracted
forms, common phrasal verbs, colloquial expressions and even flexible punctuation
(E.g.: using em dashes “–”). The language is informal:
-Contractions: It’s great, I’m, you’ll have, etc.
-Common phrasal verbs: put you up, check out.
-Colloquial language: How are you doing?, you should totally, you can’t miss, drop
me a line, etc.
-Writing as we think: Oh, By the way, Anyway,
Emails always follow the same structure. In general terms, we always need an
opening and a closing formula; an introductory and closing paragraph; and the body,
which will consist of as many paragraphs as ideas you are
asked to discuss.Each paragraph has a clear purpose.
○ The opening and closing formulas are used to say “hi” and
“goodbye” in a polite way.
○ The introductory paragraph is typically used to react to news (It’s
great to hear from you… / I’m so excited about...) and to
introduce the topic of our email.
○ The main body deals with each of the sub tasks.
○ In the closing paragraph we start saying goodbye and we can
ask for a reply to our email.
Useful phrases:
● Greetings:
○ Dear Sarah,
○ Hello Sara,
○ Hi Sara,
● Giving a reason for writing:
○ Just a short note to let you know…
○ I thought I'd drop you a line because…
○ I´m writing because …
○ I hear you´re looking for a pen friend.
● Introductory paragraph:
○ How 's it going?
○ How are you doing?
○ How are things?
○ How are things going?
○ It’s great to hear from you!
○ Long time, no see!
○ Sorry I haven’t written for ages, but
○ I’m really sorry it’s taken me so long to get back to you.
● Reacting to good news:
○ I’m glad to hear that
○ I’m so happy that
○ Great news about your
○ I’m very happy to hear about
○ It’s so great that
● Reacting to bad news:
○ I’m so sorry to hear about
○ Sorry to read about
○ I can’t tell you how sad I am that
○ I’m extremely sorry to hear about
○ It’s just awful to hear that
● Introducing paragraphs:
○ Oh, by the way,
○ Hey, did you hear about…?
○ One more thing,
 ○ As for
○ By the way, tell me about
● Ending the email or letter:
○ Well, I gotta go now.
○ Anyway, I should get going.
○ I’ve got to leave you now.
○ I’d better get going.
○ Well, it’s time to go
○ Make sure you write soon
○ Don’t forget to drop me a line soon.
○ Look after yourself.
○ Take care of yourself.
● Closing the email or letter:
○ All my love,
○ Love,
○ Lots of love,
○ All the best,
○ Take care,
○ Best wishes,
○ Best,
○ Regards,
○ Kind regards,

EXAMPLE:

Dear Roman,
Good to hear from you again! How are you doing? I´m so glad about your visit next winter. Let me
give you some tips.
First of all, there are some places which you can´t miss! For example, here in Buenos Aires you
should visit The Casa Rosada, which is the seat of the Executive Power of the Republic . The
building is located in Montserrat in front of the historic Plaza de Mayo.
As for clothes, remember that it can get really cold. So pack long sleeves or warm trousers. Don´t
forget warm coats.
By the way, do you have a place to stay? If you want, I could put you up in my place. I have a spare
room at home and it would be great to have you here.
Anyway, I must dash now. Drop me a line and let me know what you think.
Lot of love,
Renata

Speaking:
A job interview
It is a formal meeting at which someone is asked questions
in order to find out whether they are suitable for a job.
In a job interview you are going to be asked questions related to your personality,
strengths, experience and why you want the job, of course.

Describing your personality

As they sit down with candidates, the interviewer (your potential boss) is looking to
find out if the interviewee (you) will or won’t fit in well with their existing team. So
now’s the time to show them who you are and why you’re a great person to work
with. Here are some adjectives to use:

● Easy-going: a relaxed person who is easy to get along with

● Hard-working: someone who works well and isn’t lazy
● Committed: a person who is loyal to a project or person
● Trustworthy: someone who you can rely on
● Honest: someone who tells the truth
● Focused: someone who is not easily distracted
● Methodical: a person who pays attention to details and works in a logical
way
● Proactive: someone who takes steps to complete tasks without
supervision

For example: I’m (easy-going), or I’m a/an easy-going person/employee/worker.

Describing your strengths

Your interviewer will also want to know what you’re good at. Why? Because the job
you’re applying for requires certain skills – so now’s the time to explain what you can
do well!

Some positive traits and skills managers look for include:

● Organization
● The ability to multitask
● Perform to a deadline
● Solve problems
● Communicate well
● Work in an international environment and with people from all over the
world
● Speak foreign languages
● Enthusiasm
For example:I’m good at/I’m skilled at multitasking/working
under pressure/working to a deadline, or My strength is/are
my ability to problem solve/be enthusiastic/speak fluent English etc.

Describing your experience

If you’ve had a job before you have valuable experience to bring to this new position.
Depending on the sort of job you’re applying for, your education might also be
important to highlight. Here are some phrases to use:

● I have five years’ experience as a waitress/in retail/as a teacher

● I worked in retail for seven years and was promoted to manager in my
second year
● I studied at the University of Queensland
● I worked for Anderson and Assoc. as a lawyer

Describing your goals for the future and why you want this job
Here’s your moment to tell the interviewer why you want the advertised position.
Maybe you want to gain experience in your field, learn a particular skill, believe you
are a great fit for the company or particularly respect them in their industry. These
phrases can help:

● I’m looking to further my skills as a barista/in hospitality, as a childcare

worker/in early childhood education
● I want to further my career in physiotherapy/as a physiotherapist, in
administration/as an administrator, in retail/as a branch manager
● I believe your company is an important player in its industry
● I feel my skills set is a perfect fit for your team and I can contribute by…

Common questions and phrases in a job interview:

● Tell me a little about yourself.

● What are your biggest weaknesses?
● What are your biggest strengths?
● What kind of work environment do you like best?
● Where do you see yourself in five years?
● Why do you want to leave your current job?
● Why should we hire you?
● Have you got any questions for me ?
 ● What would my role be in this company?
● Why do you want this job?
● What do you consider to be your biggest professional achievement?
● Describe your dream job.
Example:

Miranda: Good Morning, John. I am Miranda.

John: Good Morning.
Miranda: How are you doing?
John: I am doing fine. Thank you.
Miranda: How was the traffic coming over here?
John: I am so glad that the traffic was light this morning.
Miranda: That is good. John, let’s start the interview. Are you ready?
John: Yes, I am.
Miranda: First of all, let me properly introduce myself. I am the Finance Department
Manager. As you know there is an open position in my department, and I need to fill
this position as soon as possible.
John: Please, tell me a little bit about the position.
Miranda: It is an entry-level position. The new employee will have to work closely
with the Accounting department. He will also have to deal with the bank on a daily
basis. I require a four-year college degree in Finance. Some working experience
would be helpful. But I am willing to train the new person.
John: That is great!
Miranda: John, tell me a little bit about yourself.
John: I was a student at West Coast University, and I just graduated with a Bachelor
degree in Finance. I have been working part-time as a payroll clerk for the last two
years.
Miranda: What are you looking for in a job?
John: The job should help me see what Finance is all about. I have learned a lot of
Finance theories, and now it is time for me to put them into practice. I also hope that
it will help me grow in my field.
Miranda: What are your strengths? Why should I hire you?
John: I am a hard-working person and a fast learner. I am very eager to learn, and I
get along fine with people.
Miranda: OK. You do not mind working long hours, do you?
John: No, I do not.
Miranda: Do you still have any questions for me?
John: No, I think I have a pretty good understanding of the job. I believe that I can
handle it with ease, and I hope to have the opportunity to work for you.
Miranda: John, nice meeting you. Thank you for coming.
John: Nice meeting you too. Thank you.

Making a phone call

There are some expressions we use for making and
receiving phone calls at work. The following phrases will
help you prepare for telephone conversations in English.

Introducing yourself
Good morning/afternoon/evening. This is Mike at (company name)/Mike from
(department name).
Could I speak to (person you’re calling for)?
Good morning/afternoon/evening. This is Mike at (company name)/Mike from
(department name).
I’m calling because…

When the person you want to speak to is unavailable

Can I leave a message for him/her?
Could you tell him/her that I called, please?
Could you ask him/her to call me back, please?
Ok, thanks. I’ll call back later.

Ending the call

Thank you very much. Have a good day.
Thanks for your help. Have a good day.
Thank you. Goodbye.

Answering the phone

(Company name) , this is Mike. How may I help you?
Good morning/afternoon, (Company name). How can I help you?
Administrative department, Frank speaking.

Getting the name of the caller if he/she doesn’t give it to you

May I have your name please?
Who am I speaking with?
May I ask who’s calling?

Responding to a caller’s request

Sure, let me check on that.
Let me see if she/he is available.
Sure, one moment please.

Asking someone to wait on the line

Can I put you on hold for a minute?
Do you mind holding me while I check to see if he/she is available?
Taking a message
He’s/she’s not available at the moment. Would you like to leave a message?
He’s/she’s out of the office right now. Can I take a message?

Dealing with bad connections/wrong numbers

I’m sorry, we have a bad connection. Could you give me your number and I’ll
call you right back?
I think we have a bad connection. Could you speak louder, please?
I’m sorry, could you repeat that, please?
I’m sorry, you have the wrong number.

Ending the call

Is there anything else I can help you with?…Ok, thanks for calling. Have a
great day.
Is there anything else I can do for you?…Ok, have a good day.

Example:
Secretary:Good afternoon. This is Mary at IT Solutions. How can I help you?
Mark: Hello, could I speak to Martin?
Secretary: He’s not available at the moment. Would you like to leave a
message?
Mark:Oh, yes, please. Could you tell him to call me back later?
Secretary:Sure. May I ask who’s calling?
Mark: Yes, I´m Mark. Mark Helter. Thank you!
Secretary: Great! Is there anything else I can do for you?
Mark:No, thanks. Have a great day!
Secretary:Ok, have a good day.