Mechanics of Pole Vaulting: A Review: Sports Biomechanics June 2010
Mechanics of Pole Vaulting: A Review: Sports Biomechanics June 2010
Mechanics of Pole Vaulting: A Review: Sports Biomechanics June 2010
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To cite this Article Frère, Julien , L'Hermette, Maxime , Slawinski, Jean and Tourny-Chollet, Claire(2010) 'Mechanics of
pole vaulting: a review', Sports Biomechanics, 9: 2, 123 — 138
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Sports Biomechanics
June 2010; 9(2): 123–138
Abstract
A good understanding of the mechanics of pole vaulting is fundamental to performance because this
event is quite complex, with several factors occurring in sequence and/or in parallel. These factors
mainly concern the velocities of the vaulter-pole system, the kinetic and potential energy of the vaulter
and the strain energy stored in the pole, the force and torque applied by the athlete, and the pole design.
Although the pole vault literature is vast, encompassing several fields such as medicine, sports sciences,
mechanics, mathematics, and physics, the studies agree that pole vault performance is basically
influenced by the energy exchange between the vaulter and pole. Ideally, as the athlete clears the
crossbar, the vaulter mechanical energy must be composed of high potential energy and low kinetic
energy, guaranteeing the high vertical component of the vault. Moreover, the force and torque applied
by the vaulter influences this energy exchange and these factors thus must be taken into consideration
in the analysis of performance. This review presents the variables that influence pole vault performance
during the run-up, take-off, pole support, and free flight phases.
Introduction
The aim of pole vaulting is to jump over a crossbar with the help of a long pole. The rules of
the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF, 2006) state that ‘The pole may
be of any material or combination of materials and of any length or diameter . . . ’. Consequently,
the poles used for vaulting have changed considerably throughout the twentieth century,
explaining the sharp increase in the world record from 3.15 m in 1849 to the present world
record of 6.14 m, set in 1994 by Sergey Bubka. The improvement in height was most
significant when fibreglass poles, along with landing mats, were introduced in 1956.
The mean progression in the world record became 3.97 cm per year with the introduction of
fibreglass poles, whereas it had previously been 1.63 cm per year (Anderson, 1997).
Vault performance with a fibreglass pole generated a great deal of research, including
university theses (Dillman, 1966; Barlow, 1973; Gros, 1982; McGinnis, 1984), scientific
publications (Steben, 1970; Hubbard, 1980b; McGinnis and Bergman, 1986; McGinnis,
Correspondence: Julien Frère, CETAPS, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Rouen, Boulevard Siegfried, 76821 Mont Saint
Aignan Cedex, France. E-mail: julien.frere@univ-rouen.fr
1987; Angulo-Kinzler et al., 1994), and project reports and books (Ganslen, 1961; Gros and
Kunkel, 1990; Arampatzis et al., 1999), in order to provide a complete analysis of this sport
for researchers, coaches, and athletes.
The early studies of the pole vault can be distinguished by method: experimental or
simulation. The first method had the advantage of measuring actual vault data but was limited
by the invasiveness of the research materials and the evaluation of vault performances in a
competitive context. The aim of the second method was to model and predict performance
but the complexity of the pole vault imposed limits on the conclusions that could be drawn.
Several models sought to decompose the event, leading to discrepancies concerning the
performance factors (Vaslin and Cid, 1993). Although the quantity of scientific data about
pole vaulting mechanics continues to grow with the ongoing development of technologies,
such as computer, motion analysis software or force plates, the pole vault has been the subject
of only one literature review, which classified the obvious, dubious, and other factors of
performance (Vaslin and Cid, 1993). This review proposed no model of the pole vault and,
since its publication, knowledge in the field has grown considerably.
Thus, the goals of the present review were to compile and update the mechanical data on
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pole vaulting through the presentation of a new model that incorporates all its phases and to
highlight the performance factors in each phase within kinematics, energies, and kinetics
processes.
The energy calculation of this model was based on the vaulter’s limb motion and CGv, which
allowed the computation of the athlete’s external work but not the internal work of the
individual muscles. Despite this limitation, two criteria were defined to evaluate the athlete’s
behaviour during the vault and to determine patterns in pole vaulting, for example, and males-
females (Schade, Arampatzis, Brüggemann et al., 2004). The vault phase was divided into two
segments: the first began at TD1 and ended at MPB. During this segment, the vaulter’s kinetic
energy is transferred to the pole and stored as strain energy. The second segment began at
MPB and ended at HP. Here, the strain energy of the pole is delivered up to the vaulter as
potential energy. This last model concerned strictly energetic processes during the vault phase
and did not analyse the vaulter’s action before planting the pole, that is, the running phase.
A new model can now be proposed that further elucidates the pole vault event and takes
into account the energy exchange between the athlete and the pole. This model is based on
previous studies (Angulo-Kinzler et al., 1994; Arampatzis et al., 2004) and divides the pole
vault into four phases, each containing relevant instants (Figure 1):
. The run-up phase corresponds to the run-up and includes the TD and TO of every
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support of the approach except the last stance. During this phase, the vaulter’s aim is to
gradually increase kinetic energy by increasing horizontal velocity.
. The take-off phase includes TD1, PP, and TO1. Any pole vault model needs to specify
this phase for two reasons. First, the last stance finishes the run-up and is the longest
stance with a high vertical component (McGinnis, 1987; Angulo-Kinzler et al., 1994).
Second, the vaulter’s kinetic energy begins to be transferred to the pole, which is already
planted in the take-off box. Consequently, the take-off phase is a real transition between
the run-up and the flying part of the vault.
. The pole bending phase, from TO1 to MPB, is characterised by the energy transfer
from the vaulter to the pole. During this phase, the vaulter’s mechanical energy is
transferred to the pole as strain energy.
Figure 1. Pole vault model. (1) Run-up phase; (2) Take-off phase, including the last touchdown (TD1), the pole
plant (PP) and the last take-off (TO1); (3) Pole bending phase until maximum pole bending (MPB); (4) Pole
straightening phase, including pole straight (PS); pole release (PR); and peak height of the CGv (HP).
126 J. Frère et al.
. The pole straightening phase, from MPB to HP and including PS and PR, is the
vaulter’s restitution of energy from the pole. During this phase, the strain energy of the
pole is transferred to the vaulter as potential energy, permitting the maximum elevation
of the CGv.
Except for the run-up phase, which presents only few scientific data, the kinematic
(velocities), energy, and kinetic (forces and torques) analysis of each phase of this new model
provides a good understanding to improving pole vault performance.
Velocity
Horizontal velocity is lost in the take-off phase. As in the long jump, a re-orientation of the
CGv trajectory occurs during the last stance, with a higher vertical component to allow the
following jump. It was shown that take-off velocity decreased with an increase in the take-off
angle (Linthorne, 2000; Linthorne et al., 2005), when take-off velocity referred to the
resultant velocity of the CGv as the vaulter left the ground. The vaulter had a take-off velocity
directed at an angle f to the horizontal, where f refers to the take-off angle. Moreover, the
shock generated at PP also decreases the horizontal velocity. The Olympic gold medallists in
1988 (Gros and Kunkel, 1990) and 1992 (Angulo-Kinzler et al., 1994) respectively cleared
5.90 m and 5.80 m, and both showed a loss in CGv horizontal velocity of about 2 m/s
between the penultimate TO and TO1 (from 9.86 to 7.90 m/s and 9.74 to 7.74 m/s,
respectively). Another study (McGinnis, 1987) reported a 2 m/s decrease in horizontal
velocity from the analysis of 16 vaults in the range of 5.50 to 5.81 m, whereas the analysis of
three elite French pole vaulters clearing 5.50 m indicated a loss in resultant CGv velocity
from 0.9 to 1.8 m/s between TD1 and TO1 (Durey, 1997). The estimation of the optimal
take-off angle with flexible vaulting poles was reported to be 188 (Linthorne, 2000), meaning
that (i) the vaulter should favour a forward directed take-off to minimise loss in CGv
horizontal velocity and (ii) the initiation of pole bending markedly slows down the vaulter
(Durey, 1997; Morlier, 1999).
Energy
At take-off, the amount of mechanical energy in the vaulter-pole system is influenced by the
vaulter’s initial kinetic energy and the behaviour during interaction with the pole (Hubbard,
1980b; Gros and Kunkel, 1990; Ekevad and Lundberg, 1995; 1997; Arampatzis et al., 1999;
2004). During the take-off, the CGv horizontal velocity is higher than the vertical velocity.
128 J. Frère et al.
Given that the amount of kinetic energy is reflected by the vaulter’s CGv horizontal velocity,
the vaulter’s kinetic energy decreases during the take-off.
The vaulter’s mechanical energy decreases because of the decrease in the kinetic energy
(Schade, Arampatzis, Brüggemann et al., 2004). Between TD1 and TO1, the loss in kinetic
energy is reflected at two levels: (i) in the lower limbs with the increasing vertical component
of the last support and (ii) in the trunk and upper limbs with the pole plant and initial
bending of the pole (Angulo-Kinzler et al., 1994; Linthorne, 2000; Schade, Arampatzis,
Brüggemann et al., 2004). The initial pole bending reveals the interaction between an active
vaulter and a passive pole, with the transfer of the vaulter’s kinetic energy to strain energy
within the pole.
Mathematical models of the pole vault take-off demonstrated that a certain amount of
kinetic energy was dissipated as heat in the vaulter’s body using a rigid pole (Linthorne,
1994) and a flexible pole (Linthorne, 2000).
The first model gave results close to vaulting performance with rigid poles (bamboo
or steel). In contrast, when the perfectly rigid rod was replaced by an elastica pole in this
model, thereby simulating pole vault performance with a flexible pole, realistic results
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were not generated because of the lack of an energy dissipation mechanism. The model
gave a maximum vault height of 7.70 m with an optimum take-off angle of 08 (Linthorne,
2000).
The model was thus revised to include a mechanism of energy dissipation in the athlete-
pole system, where only the athlete’s body is subjected to energy dissipation by taking into
account the vaulter’s actions during the take-off phase. The vaulter was modelled by a heavily
damped linear spring, which was characterised by stiffness: the constant k (in N/m).
The author of this model assumed that the value of k reflected the level of resistance in the
vaulter’s arms and torso (Linthorne, 2000), but he suggested that a multi-segment model of
the vaulter would make the model more accurate. Also, the model was based only on energy
dissipation in the athlete’s body, whereas it was shown that 6– 10% of the energy transferred
to the pole is lost during the interaction between athlete and pole (Arampatzis et al., 2004;
Schade et al., 2006). This energy loss was probably due to the viscoelastic properties of the
pole and to friction between the take-off box and the pole. A more accurate version of
Linthorne’s model would thus need to take into account this energy loss from the pole, the
non-uniform stiffness of the pole along its length, and a pole ‘pre-bend’ (Burgess, 1998;
Davis and Kukureka, 2004; Moore and Hubbard, 2004; Morlier et al., 2008). However,
from this energy dissipation model highlighted principles for improving vault performance
such as, the heavier the vaulter is, the lower the energy dissipation is, the higher the stiffness
of the pole and more parallel to the pole the take-off angle are, the higher the energy
dissipation is.
Finally, with regard to the energy processes observed in mechanical and simulation
studies, the vaulter has to (i) produce a high amount of kinetic energy just prior to the
take-off phase in order to compensate for its inevitable decrease and (ii) be able to
develop high muscular strength in the shoulders, arms, and trunk to limit energy dissipation
in the body and store more strain energy in the pole.
Figure 2. Hand location and components of hand forces at TO1 with (a) a steel or bamboo pole and (b) a flexible
pole.
in opposite directions (Figure 2). Indeed, the upper hand exerts forward and downward
resultant force, whereas the lower hand applies forward and upward resultant force
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(Hay, 1980; Dapena and Braff, 1983; Angulo-Kinzler et al., 1994; Morlier, 1999;
Morlier and Mesnard, 2007).
Hubbard modelled the flexible pole as a large slender rod and used large deflection theory
to calculate pole deformation as a function of the force and moment applied by the vaulter
(Hubbard, 1980a, 1980b). His model determined that the reaction force of the pole (Fp,
in N), was linearly related to its shortening chord, when there was no applied moment and in
considering the stiffness of the pole (the Euler buckling load) and its chord shortening.
In beam mechanics, the Euler buckling load is defined as the critical compressive load limit
that will never be overstepped. If the applied compressive load is higher than the Euler
buckling load, the beam will have an irreversible buckling or will be broken. In case of
vaulting pole, the definition of Euler buckling load is confusing within the literature. From
Ekevad and Lundberg (1997), a simply supported straight pole model was computed in
considering that the Euler buckling load was equal to the weight of the vaulter. In such a case,
this definition indicated the minimum stiffness of the pole which was able to straighten
entirely under the weight of the vaulter. Also this definition was in the way of the model
proposed by Hubbard (1980a, 1980b), where the compressive load must be higher than the
Euler buckling load to flex the pole. On the contrary, Burgess (1998) mentioned that
the flexible pole is not in case of buckling instability due to its elastic properties and that the
pole could not be fully collapsed. That is why the compressive load allowing the flexion of the
pole is under the critical Euler buckling load. In addition, the vaulter applied a bending
moment with the lower grip hand around the upper grip hand to initiate the pole deflection at
the beginning of the vault. Moreover, in the case of over-bending the pole, the vaulter jumps
over the plane of the crossbar before the pole straightens (Ekevad and Lundberg, 1997).
Hubbard (1980a, 1980b) and Dapena and Braff (1983) demonstrated that the resultant
ground reaction force (GRF) of the pole decreased when a bending moment was applied to
the top end of the pole in addition to compressive force, especially for low percentages of pole
deflection. For instance, when pole deflection was under 10% with a moment of 250 N·m,
the resultant GRF was decreased by 28% (Hubbard, 1980b). This finding explained that a
greater distance between the hands induced opposite resultant forces from each hand and
thus increased the torque to bend the pole, which is fixed by the tip in the take-off box
(Dapena and Braff, 1983). The wider the distance between both hands was, the lower the
GRF of the pole was. This result indicated the significant advantage of using flexible poles
compared with rigid poles, which allow only a small distance between the hands.
130 J. Frère et al.
This decrease in the GRF allowed the vaulter to use a higher upper hand grip without
increasing the take-off angle, thus preserving high kinetic energy during the take-off phase
(Linthorne, 1994, 2000).
A recent study developed a 3-D calculation model of the torque action applied to the
pole by vaulters at a point mid-way between the two hands (Morlier and Mesnard, 2007).
The vaulters were digitised into 14 articulated rigid solids and mechanical joints for the
calculation of the torque (ultimately materialised by the CGv) on the pole (the mid-point
between the hands). During take-off, the vaulters applied force mainly on the vertical and
horizontal axis as well as a bending moment around the transverse axis. In such a way, the
vaulters attempted to resist the GRF of the pole by applying a vertical and a horizontal force
of about 1000 and 1500 N, respectively, and a high positive moment ranging from 200 to
1800 N·m between TD1 and TO1 (Morlier and Mesnard, 2007). These efforts increased the
angle between the pole and the horizontal axis, which favoured the initial bending of the pole
and consequently increased its accumulated strain energy.
Thus, during the take-off phase, the studies showed that the applied torque on the pole has
a major importance compared to the compressive force. The pole vaulter has two aims
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during take-off: (i) to resist the GRF of the pole by increasing the time of the last support
(TD1 to TO1) and (ii) to increase the angle between the pole and the horizontal axis
(Morlier, 1999; Morlier and Mesnard, 2007). The demonstration of this double aim
highlighted the predominant role of the shoulder muscles at take-off (Frère et al., 2008).
At take-off, the vaulter has high horizontal velocity and a great elevation of the dominant
arm, and begins to resist the load from the pole. This combination of factors is such that the
vaulter is subjected to high loads that may lead to injuries like rotator cuff tendonitis,
shoulder instability, low back pain or spondylolysis (Gainor et al., 1983; Beattie, 1992;
Bird et al., 1997; Brukner et al., 2004) when the take-off is not executed with accuracy.
Accuracy refers to the placement of the last support relative to the upper hand. The elevation
of the dominant arm increases the pole-ground angle and the push action of the
non-dominant arm applies torque to the pole in order the initiate bending.
However, another pole vault take-off model should be mention in this review. This model
is widely used by coaches and corresponds to the Russian ‘free take-off’, mastered by Sergey
Bubka and developed by his coach Vitaly Petrov. There is a free take-off when PP coincides
with the TO1 (Petrov, 2008). This take-off way has advantages such as, higher pole-ground
angle at PP, greater horizontal velocity and impulse at the take-off allowing the use of longer
and stiffer poles (Launder and Linthorne, 1990). Nevertheless, the free take-off implies the
vaulter to be able to produce high muscular strength with the upper-limbs, because of the
risk to be backward leaned. Moreover, the free take-off doesn’t allow applying some force
and moment on the pole while the athlete is still on the ground. Even if the free take-off
appears to be relevant for high pole vaulting performance, there is some lack of published
scientific research and the free take-off only concerned technical articles and coaches’
knowledge. Indeed, it would be interesting for further scientific and mechanic studies to
analyse the effects of the free take-off on the pole vaulting performance, the pole vaulter’s
velocities, and the applied force into the pole and to compare it with the classical take-off.
than strictly following the model. The following sections thus describe the events from TO1
to HP of the CGv.
Velocity
Experimental studies (Gros and Kunkel, 1990; Angulo-Kinzler et al., 1994; Morlier, 1999)
showed a smooth decrease in the horizontal velocity from TO1 to PS, whereas the vertical
velocity increased (Figure 3). In the pole bending phase, the horizontal velocity was greater
than the vertical velocity and the inverse characterised the pole straightening phase.
Ideally, the time at which the two velocities are identical corresponds to MPB. Before
MPB, the vaulter’s body is in forward motion in relationship to the bending pole and, after
MPB, the vaulter is in upward motion from the straightening pole. Measurements of the
angular velocity of the pole chord during the vault confirmed these forward and upward
motions (Angulo-Kinzler et al., 1994).
The vaulter reaches maximal vertical velocity at PS and HP occurs when this velocity is
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null. The greater the vertical velocity at PS is, the greater this velocity will be at PR, and the
higher H3 (Hay, 1980) will be, allowing a high elevation of the CGv during the free flight
phase. For instance, at the 1992 Olympic finals in Barcelona (Angulo-Kinzler et al., 1994),
the gold medallist had a vertical velocity of 1.81 m/s at PR, whereas the velocity of the
7th-ranked vaulter was 1.12 m/s (HP ¼ 5.91 and 5.74 m, respectively). Consequently,
irrespective of the grip height, the Olympic champion benefited from a CGv elevation 11 cm
higher than the 7th between PR and HP. Thus, in addition to the grip height, this higher
free flight phase offers the possibility to increase the final performance. After its peak
at PS, the vertical velocity of CGv decreases until the end of the vault (Figure 3). This
relationship demonstrates that the vaulter loses vertical velocity from PS to HP, despite the
final push-off. The maximal vertical velocity should thus be considered as a performance
factor because the final height could be determined by the vertical velocity at PS and could
estimate the influence of the vaulter’s final push-off on the performance.
Figure 3. Typical curves of horizontal (dashed line) and vertical (solid line) velocities of the CGv during the pole
vault. Data from Gros and Kunkel (1990), Angulo-Kinzler et al. (1994), and Morlier (1999).
132 J. Frère et al.
At TO1, the vaulter initiates the vault with high horizontal velocity, which progressively
decreases until MPB and then stabilises until the end of the vault. The maintained horizontal
velocity ranged from 1.5 to 2 m/s and permitted the vaulter to safely clear the cross bar
(Gros and Kunkel, 1990; Angulo-Kinzler et al., 1994; Morlier, 1999).
Energy
The fundamental principle of pole vaulting is the interaction between vaulter and pole to
transfer kinetic energy to potential energy through the strain energy of the pole (Dillman and
Nelson, 1968; Hay, 1971; Schade et al., 2000; Sheehan, 2002; Arampatzis et al., 2004;
Schade, Arampatzis, and Brüggemann, 2004; Schade, Arampatzis, Brüggemann et al.,
2004; Schade, 2006; Schade et al., 2006; Schade and Brüggemann, 2006). The maximum
height of CGv was found to be significantly correlated with the vaulter’s maximal mechanical
energy at HP, both for men (r ¼ 0.88, p , 0.01) and women (r ¼ 0.86, p , 0.01)
(Schade, Arampatzis, Brüggemann et al., 2004). The energetic patterns were calculated as
follows (Dillman and Nelson, 1968; Morlier, 1999; Schade et al., 2000; Schade, Arampatzis,
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Brüggemann et al., 2004; Schade et al., 2006): As the pole bending phase began, the
vaulter’s mechanical energy decreased caused by the reduction in kinetic energy, which
attained the minimum after MPB. Next, the mechanical energy increased until PS, due to
the constant increase in the vaulter’s potential energy from TO1 to HP (Figure 4).
The energetic interaction between the vaulter and pole during a vault was analysed and
performance criteria were then developed (Arampatzis et al., 2004). It was found that
vaulters benefited from pole flexibility during the pole bending phase. The strain energy
stored in the pole was calculated by the relationship between the GRF measured in the
planting box with the pole deformation summed with the relationship between the bending
moment at the top end of the pole with the location of both vaulter’s hand relative to the pole
chord. This study also pointed out that the amount of total energy transferred to the pole was
greater than the decrease in the vaulter’s mechanical energy (Figure 4). This additional
energy came from muscular work (Arampatzis et al., 2004). However, no detail was given
about the muscular work of each limb relative to the total muscular work allowing this
Figure 4. Typical curves of kinetic energy (black line), potential energy (grey line), and mechanical energy (dashed
lined) of the athlete and total strain energy of the pole (dotted line) during the pole vault. Data from Dillman and
Nelson (1968), Gros and Kunkel (1990), Morlier (1999), Arampatzis et al. (2004), and Schade et al. (2006).
Mechanics of pole vaulting 133
increase of energy of the vaulter/pole system. Further calculations (e.g. inverse dynamics)
should be made or another approach (e.g. electromyography) could be considered to
complete the muscular contribution into pole-vaulting performance.
A similar process was reported during the giant swing before dismounts and flight elements
on the high-bar in acrobatic gymnastics (Arampatzis and Brüggemann, 1998, 1999).
An energetic interaction between the gymnast and the high-bar occurs, with the greatest
mechanical power and torques achieved by the shoulder joint (about 2500 watts and 500 N·m,
respectively). The best values were observed when the gymnast began the ascending phase of
the giant swing. These similarities with the pole vault allow us to hypothesise that the shoulder
joint and muscles provide similar work to add energy to the pole.
After MPB, the strain energy of the pole is transferred to the vaulter as potential energy.
The pole energy decreases until PS, whereas the mechanical energy of the vaulter increases
until PR because of the increase in potential energy (Schade et al., 2000; Arampatzis et al.,
2004; Schade, Arampatzis, Brüggemann et al., 2004; Schade et al., 2006). Moreover, the
increase in the vaulter’s mechanical energy is greater than the decrease in the pole strain
energy. Consequently, the flexible pole appears to provide an efficient tool for the transfer of
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pole strain energy to the vaulter’s potential energy. However, this transfer was found to be
efficient only if the vaulter effectuated muscular work, principally at the shoulders, during
the pole bending and restitution phases (Arampatzis et al., 1997, 1999). Despite the different
methods of energy calculation, the results and conclusions of this experimental study
(Arampatzis et al., 2004) agreed with those of a previous simulation study (Hubbard, 1980b)
that found (i) greater final mechanical energy than the vaulter’s initial energy and (ii) greater
work (in Joules) performed by the shoulder joint rather than the wrist and hip joints.
Figure 5. (a) Direction and magnitude of the resultant GRF at the take-off box during a pole vault;
(b) Approximation of the vertical (y, black line), horizontal (x, grey line), and resultant Fp (dashed line) GRF at the
take-off box during the pole vault. Data from Arampatzis et al. (2004), Morlier and Mesnard (2007), and Schade
et al. (2006).
The inverse dynamic analysis computed different torques during the pole support phase of
the vault including the moment produced on the top of the pole and the resultant shoulder
joint moment. After TO1, the moment produced on the top of the pole ranged from 100 to
250 N·m with a mean duration of 0.2 s and corresponded to the early stage of the swing of the
pole vaulter. Simultaneously, a shoulder flexion moment increased up to a mean peak value
of 89.8 N·m and represented the activity of the shoulder flexor muscles. Then, a long period
Mechanics of pole vaulting 135
of activity of the shoulder extensor muscles occurred with a high shoulder extension moment
reaching a mean peak value of 366.4 N·m.
According to this 2-D analysis, a 3-D inverse dynamic study of the pole vault (Morlier and
Mesnard, 2007) determined that the maximal global moment applied on the pole ranged
from 210 to 410 N·m and occurred during the bending of the pole and when the athlete
swung to attain the rock-back position before MPB.
Through the measurements of the applied moments, it was possible to (i) identify the
swing to rock-back position as a relevant performance factor and (ii) demonstrate that the
action of the shoulder joint muscles was of major importance.
These inverse dynamic measurements about the moments applied by the vaulter on the
pole and joints moments were all in agreement with a previous simulation study using a three
segments model of the vaulter (Hubbard, 1980b). Indeed, this simulation highlighted that
without the pole-buckling moment at the top of the pole just after TO1, the vaulter model
was not able to attain the plane of the crossbar. Also, it appeared that the values of moment
around the top of the pole were higher than those at the shoulder joint which were higher
than those at the hip joint. Again, the inverse dynamic findings (McGinnis and Bergman,
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1986) served as limit to impose maximum moments of 600, 500, 300, and 130 N·m around
the top of the pole and at the shoulders, hips, and knee, respectively, to a ‘smart’ pole vaulter
model (Ekevad and Lundberg, 1995) in order to manage a vault as real as possible.
Simulation studies have also emphasised the role of the vaulter’s muscular actions in
pole vaulting relative to pole stiffness and length (Ekevad and Lundberg, 1995, 1997).
By modelling a ‘smart’ pole vaulter, that is, an active pole vaulter, with six segments and five
pin joints, the authors demonstrated that the performance ratio (maximum vaulter’s
potential energy divided by the initial kinetic energy of both vaulter and pole) was clearly
higher for a ‘smart’ pole vaulter than a ‘passive’ (materialised as a point) vaulter. Also, the
pole characteristics for the ‘smart’ pole vaulter appeared to be inferior to those of a ‘passive’
athlete. This meant that an ‘active’ pole vaulter – that is, who performed muscular work –
produced a more efficient vault and had a higher vault than a ‘passive’ with the same pole.
Finally, the analysis of the vaulter’s angular momentum confirmed that the swing to rock-
back position was a performance factor. The angular momentum around the transverse axis
was higher than those around the two other axes (Morlier and Cid, 1996) and the maximal
values were reached before MPB. This pattern highlighted that the pole vaulter carries
out muscular work to bend the pole more and thus store more strain energy (Gros, 1982;
Gros and Kunkel, 1990; Angulo-Kinzler et al., 1994; Arampatzis et al., 2004; Schade,
Arampatzis, Brüggemann et al., 2004).
During the run-up, the leg muscles are more important than the arm muscles, conversely
to the pole support phase, whereas the take-off requires a high activation of both arm and leg
muscles for the double contact with the ground, one with the pole planted in the take-off
box and the other with the take-off foot. All the interactions between the vaulter and the
pole require strength production, especially from the shoulder and trunk muscles. During
pole bending, the upper body muscles are most activated to produce this strength so that the
vaulter can transfer energy into the pole and then benefit from the pole’s elastic properties to
clear the crossbar.
However, the activity of the shoulder and trunk muscles requires further study to
determine their role in the strength applied on the pole and in the energy production relative
to the final pole vaulting performance. There is much work to be done in this area and efforts
are needed to improve our knowledge about the effects of force production, especially from
the shoulder muscles, on pole vault performance.
Acknowledgements
Downloaded By: [Frère, Julien] At: 18:01 12 July 2010
No sources of funding were used to assist in the preparation of this review. The authors have
no conflicts of interest that are directly relevant to the content of this review. The authors are
grateful to Catherine Carmeni for help in writing the English manuscript.
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