PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

LEARNING MODULE 07
Ice and Rain
Protection System

AE 221 – AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page
Introduction and Theory 5
Different Types of Ice Accretions 5
Requirements And Standards of Protection 12
Detection Devices And Warnings 14
Ice Detector Heads 14
Mechanical Ice Detectors 16
Element Ice Sensing Unit 18
Beta Particle Ice Detection Probe 19
Ice Formation Spot Light 20
Mechanical De-Icing 21
Thermal Anti-Icing and De-Icing 24
Fluid System 29
Windscreen Protection 30
Propeller Protection Systems 31
Miscellaneous Items 38
Activity No. 1 39
Activity No. 2 41
Case Study No. 1 43
Case Study No. 2 45

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

TABLE OF REFERENCES

References No.
Khan, O. (2016) Aircraft Structures and Systems, EASA Module 13,
Aviation Maintenance Technician Certification Series 1
https://cutt.ly/0nrt7MK
Moir, I., Seabridge, A. (2008) Aircraft Systems: Mechanical, Electrical, and
Avionics Subsystems Integration, 3rd Edition 2
https://cutt.ly/SnrtERp
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. (2016).
Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. Washington, D.C.
3
:The Administration : [Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O., distributed]
https://cutt.ly/dnruhVH
U.S Federal Aviation Administration. (2018). Aviation Maintenance
Technician Handbook – Airframe Volume 1, US Department of Transportation 4
https://cutt.ly/UnruFCI
Federal Aviation Administration. (2018). Aviation Maintenance
Technician Handbook – Airframe Volume 2, US Department of Transportation 5
https://cutt.ly/cnruMst
Jeppesen; A Boeing Company. (2011). A&P Technician Airframe Textbook
6
https://cutt.ly/lnrybrz

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 PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Course Learning Outcomes [CLO]

Module Learning Outcomes [MLO]
CLO 1. Understand the Topic Learning Outcomes [TLO]
fundamental technical MLO 1. Understand the
aspects, principles of requirements and standards
operation, design features of ice and rain protection in TLO 1. Describe how ice and
and construction of different regards to regulatory rain protection prevents the
airframe systems and its requirements. disturbance to aircraft
components. operations.
MLO 2. Identify the areas in
CLO 2. Interpret the design the aircraft with anti-icing and TLO 2. Explain how ice
principles and operation of de-icing methods, rain accumulations and rain can
different airframe systems to repellant system and cause an aircraft incident or
the context of inspection, windshield wiper and discuss accident.
service, repair and its operation and
maintenance of these descriptions. TLO 3. Discuss the operation
systems. and description of the aircraft
ice and rain protection
MLO 3. Define how the system and identify the areas
CLO 3. Identify the purpose aircraft should be inspected in the aircraft with anti-icing
and operation of the different to ensure that it is free from and de-icing methods.
airframe systems in an deposits of frost, ice and
aircraft based in the snow and when necessary
approved manufacturer’s what de-icing fluids should be
manual and regulatory used.
standards.

CLO 4. Describe correct

maintenance procedures of
different airframe systems
based on the inspection
intervals established by the
authority and manufacturer.

CLO 5. Identify and apply the

principles of function and
safe operation of aircraft
cabin atmospheric control
systems, ice & rain protection
systems, fire protection &
warning systems, fuel
systems and their
components when operating
and maintaining an aircraft
using the manufacturer’s
service manuals, acceptable
industry practices and
applicable regulatory
standards.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY

Without exception, the formation of ice or frost on the surfaces of an aircraft will cause a
detrimental effect on aerodynamic performance. The ice or frost formation on the aircraft
surfaces will alter the aerodynamic contours and affect the nature of the boundary layer.
Of course, the most important surface of the aircraft is the wing and the formation of ice
or frost can create significant changes in the aerodynamic characteristics.

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Ice Formation on Aircraft"

https://youtu.be/9I40DQcK_6U

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ICE ACCRETIONS

 Hoar Frost

Figure 1

A white semi-crystalline frost which covers the surface of the airplane forms in
clear air by the process of deposition. This has little or no effect on flying but may
obscure vision by coating the windshield. It may also interfere with radio by coating
the antenna with ice. It generally forms in clear air when a cold aircraft enters
warmer and damper air during a steep descent. Aircraft parked outside on clear
cold nights are likely to be coated with frost by morning. The upper surfaces of the
aircraft cool by radiation to a temperature below that of the surrounding air.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

Frost which forms on wings, tail and control surfaces must be removed before
take-off. Frost alters the aerodynamic characteristics of the wing sufficiently to
interfere with take-off by increasing stall speed and reducing lift.

Frozen dew may also form on aircraft parked outside on a night when
temperatures are just below freezing. Dew first condenses on the aircraft skin and
then freezes as the surface of the aircraft cools. Frozen dew is usually clear and
somewhat crystalline, whereas frost is white and feathery. Frozen dew, like frost,
must be removed before take-off. In fact, any snow or moisture of any kind should
be removed since these may freeze to the surface while the airplane is taxiing out
for take-off. The heat loss due to the forward speed of the airplane may be
sufficient to cause congelation.

 Rime Ice

Figure 2

It is an opaque, or milky white, deposit of ice that forms when the airplane is flying
through filmy/strati form clouds. It is dependent on a low rate of catch of small
super cooled water droplets. It accumulates on the leading edges of wings and on
antennas, pilot heads, etc.

For rime to form, the aircraft skin must be at a temperature below 0°C. The drop
will then freeze completely and quickly without spreading from the point of impact.
Thus, the droplets retain their spherical shape as they freeze, creating air packets
between the frozen particles. This process creates an irregular shape of the ice.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

The deposit has no great weight, but its danger lies in the aerodynamic alteration
of the wing camber and in the choking of the orifices of the carburetor and
instruments. Rime is usually brittle and can easily be dislodged by de-icing
equipment. Occasionally, both rime and clear ice will form concurrently. This is
called mixed icing and has the bad features of both types.

 Clear or Glaze Ice

Figure 3

Clear ice or glaze ice is a heavy coating of glassy ice which forms when flying in
areas with high concentration of large super cooled water droplets, such as
cumuliform clouds and freezing rain. It spreads, often unevenly, over wing and tail
surfaces, propeller blades, antennas, etc. Clear ice forms when only a small part
of the super cooled water droplet freezes on impact. The temperature of the
aircraft skin rises to 0°C with the heat released during that initial freezing by impact
of the part of the droplet. A large portion of the droplet is left to spread out, mingle
with other droplets before slowly and finally freezing.

A solid sheet of clear ice thus forms with no embedded air bubbles to weaken its
structure. As more ice accumulates, the ice builds up into a single or double horn
shape that projects ahead of the wing, tail surface, antenna, etc. on which it is
collecting. This unique ice formation severely disrupts the airflow and is
responsible for an increase in drag that may be as much as 300 to 500%.

The danger of clear ice is great owing to (1) the loss of lift, because of the altered
wing camber and the disruption of the smooth flow of air over the wing and tail
surfaces, (2) the increase in drag on account of the enlarged profile area of the

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

wings. (3) the weight of the large mass of ice which may accumulate in a short
time, and finally (4) the vibration caused by the unequal loading on the wings and
on the blades of the propeller(s).

When large blocks break off, the vibration may become severe enough to seriously
impair the structure of the airplane. When mixed with snow or sleet, clear ice may
have a whitish appearance. (This was once classified as rime-glazed but it is now
considered to be a form of clear ice).

 Mixed Ice

Figure 4

Mixed icing, as the name implies, has the properties of both clear and rime icing.
Large and small super cooled droplets coexist. Appearance is whitish, irregular
and rough.

Favorable conditions include liquid and frozen particles found in the colder portion
of the cumuliform cloud and wet snow flakes. The formation process for mixing
icing includes that of clear and rime icing. Mixed ice can accumulate rapidly and
is difficult to remove.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Wing & Engine Anti-Ice Systems

Explained"
https://youtu.be/K7R0wzM2y6M

A large formation of ice on the leading edge of the wing can produce large changes in
the local contours and severe local pressure gradients. The extreme surface roughness
common to some forms of ice will cause high surface friction and a considerable reduction
of boundary layer energy.

As a result of these effects, the ice formation can produce a considerable increase in
drag and a large reduction in maximum lift coefficient. Thus, the ice formation will cause
an increase in power required and stall speed. In addition, the added weight of the ice
formation on the aircraft will provide an undesirable effect. Because of the detrimental
effects of ice formation, recommended anti-icing procedures must be followed to preserve
the aircraft performance.

The effect of frost is perhaps more subtle than the effect of ice formation on the
aerodynamic characteristics of the wing. The accumulation of a hard coat of frost on the
wing upper surface will provide a surface texture of considerable roughness.

Figure 5

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

While the basic shape and aerodynamic contour is unchanged, the increase in surface
roughness increases skin-friction and reduces the kinetic energy of the boundary layer.
As a result, there will be an increase in drag but, of course, the magnitude of drag
increase will not compare with the considerable increase due to a severe ice formation.

The reduction of boundary layer kinetic energy will cause incipient stalling of the wing,
i.e. separation will occur at angles of attack and lift coefficients lower than for the clean,
smooth wing.

While the reduction in the coefficient of lift (CL max) due to frost formation ordinarily is not
as great as that due to ice formation, it is usually unexpected because it may be thought
that large changes in the aerodynamic shape (such as due to ice) are necessary to
reduce the coefficient of lift (CL max). However, the kinetic energy of the boundary layer is
an important factor influencing separation of the airflow and this energy is reduced by an
increase in surface roughness.

The effect of ice or frost on take-off and landing performance is of great importance. The
effects are so detrimental to the landing and take-off that no effort should be spared to
keep the aircraft as free as possible from any accumulation of ice or frost.

If any ice remains on the aircraft as the landing phase approaches it must be appreciated
that the ice formation will have reduced and incurred an increase in stall speed. Thus, the
landing speed will be greater. When this effect is coupled with the possibility of poor
braking action during the landing roll, a critical situation can exist. It is obvious that great
effort must be made to prevent the accumulation of ice during flight.

In no circumstances should a formation of ice or frost be allowed to remain on the aircraft

wing surfaces prior to take-off. The undesirable effects of ice are obvious but, as
previously mentioned, the effects of frost are more subtle. If a heavy coat of hard frost
exists on the wing upper surface, a typical reduction in coefficient of lift (C L max) would
cause a 5 to 10 percent increase in the aircraft stall speed.

Because of this magnitude of effect, the effect of frost on take-off performance may not
be realized until too late. The take-off speed of an aircraft is generally some 5 to 25
percent greater than the stall speed; hence the take-off lift coefficient will be a value from
90 to 65 percent of coefficient of lift (CL max).

Thus, it is possible that the aircraft with frost cannot become airborne at the specified
take-off speed because of premature stalling. Even if the aircraft with frost were to
become airborne at the specified take-off speed, it could have insufficient margin of
airspeed above the stall. Turbulence, gusts and or turning flight could produce incipient
or complete stalling of the aircraft.

The increase in drag during take-off roll due to frost or ice is not considerable and there
will not significant effect on the initial acceleration during take-off. Thus, the effect of frost

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

or ice will be most apparent during the later portions of take-off if the aircraft is unable to
become airborne or if insufficient margin above the stall speed prevents successful initial
climb. In no circumstances should a formation of ice or frost be allowed to remain on the
aircraft wing surfaces prior to take-off.

Icing on aircraft in flight is caused primarily by the presence of super-cooled water

droplets in the atmosphere. If the droplets impinge on the forward facing surfaces of an
aircraft, they freeze and cause a buildup of ice which may seriously alter the aerodynamic
qualities. This applies particularly to small objects, which have higher catch rate efficiency
than large ones, as small amounts of ice will produce relatively bigger changes in shape.
The actual amount and shape of the ice buildup depends on the surface temperature.

These results from an energy change caused by heat variations to the skin of the aircraft:

 Kinetic air heating.

 Kinetic heating by water droplets.
 Latent heat of fusion, (caused by the water droplets changing from liquid to solid
upon impact).
 Evaporation.
 Convection.

Figure 6 - Altitudes where airframe icing occurs.

Three different situations arise, depending on whether the surface temperature is less
than, equal to or greater than 0°C. When the temperature is less than 0°C, all the
impinging water droplets are frozen, and when it is above 0°C none are frozen.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

However, for a particular set of atmospheric conditions and altitudes it is found that there
is quite a wide aircraft speed range over which the energy balance gives a skin
temperature of 0°C. This energy balance occurs at one end of the speed range by all the
droplets freezing and at the other by none freezing. The potential "catch rate" or
"impingement rate" and the actual icing rate are thus not simply related in this region. The
"no icing hazard" speed depends, therefore, upon the free water content of the
atmosphere as well as the temperature and altitude.

For severe conditions it is about the maximum speed of subsonic aircraft. The final
influencing factor of note is that icing does not occur above about 12,000 m (40,000 feet)
since the droplets are all frozen and in the form of ice crystals and will not adhere to the
aircraft's surface.

REQUIREMENTS AND STANDARDS OF PROTECTION

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Ice and Rain Protection System – Areas

Requiring Protection"
https://youtu.be/PECvotQjvns

Figure 7 - Areas most susceptible to ice formations.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

The aircraft must be cleared of ice, frost and snow prior to dispatch and the regulation
requires that public transport aircraft shall be provided with certain protective equipment
for flights in which the weather reports available at the time of departure indicate the
probability that conditions predisposing to ice formation will be encountered.

Certain basic standards have to be met by all aircraft whether or not they are required to
be protected by the requirements of the regulation, and these are intended to provide a
reasonable protection if the aircraft is flown unintentionally for short periods in icing
conditions.

The requirements cover such considerations as the stability and control balance
characteristics, jamming of controls and the ability of the engine to continue to function in
icing conditions.

Two different approaches are generally used:

 De-icing – where ice is allowed to accumulate prior to being removed.

 Anti-icing – where the object is to prevent any ice accumulation,

There are a number of avenues which need exploring and these include detection and
warning systems and the methods used to protect the aircraft, which can be any or all of
the following:

 Pneumatic – Expanding rubber boots (mechanical).

 Thermal – Electrically heated, oil heated, air heated.
 Liquid – Freezing point depressant fluids. (FPD)
 Ice detection – is provided automatically by the provision of ice detectors which
relay a warning to the flight crew.
 Anti-Icing – is the application of continuous heat or fluid.
 De-Icing – is the intermittent application of fluid, heat or mechanical effort.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

DETECTION DEVICES AND WARNINGS

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Ice and Rain Protection System – Ice

Detection"
https://youtu.be/gYoBACKgwHw

There are three main types of ice detector in current use:

• The ice detector head. (Accretion principle)

• The mechanical ice detector. (Accretion principle )
• The element ice sensing unit. (Inferential principle)

ICE DETECTOR HEADS

• Teddington Ice Detector

This detector consists of an airfoil shaped mast protruding into the airflow and
visible from the cockpit. The mast incorporates a heater element and a light to
illuminate the mast at night.

Figure 8 - A Teddington ice detector.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

When icing conditions are encountered in flight, with the heater power supply
switched off, ice accumulates on the mast and gives a direct visual indication of
ice accretion. The heater may be switched on to dissipate accumulated ice.

• Smiths Ice Detector

The Smiths ice detector consists of a hollow tube, attached to the aircraft by one
end and has holes drilled in the leading and trailing faces; there are four holes in
the leading edge and two in the trailing edge.

Figure 9 - A Smiths ice detector.

In flight under normal conditions, there is a pressure build up in the probe which is
sensed by a relay unit at the open base of the tube. In icing conditions, the leading
edge holes become blocked by ice and a negative pressure is created in the hollow
tube, causing the relay unit to give a warning. A heater element is fitted around the
tube to dissipate accumulated ice.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

MECHANICAL ICE DETECTORS

 English Electric (Napier) Ice Detector

In the Napier ice detector a serrated rotor shaft is continuously driven by an electric
motor. The shaft rotates adjacent to a fixed knife-edge cutter, with a clearance
between them of less than 0.002 inches.

Figure 10 - A rotary (Napier) ice detector.

The unit is mounted on the aircraft fuselage with the rotor axis at right angles to
the airflow and with the cutter in the tee of the shaft. Under normal conditions, little
torque is required to drive the rotor. In icing conditions, ice builds up on the rotor
and is shaved off by the cutter.

This requires greater rotational torque and causes the motor to rotate slightly in its
flexible mountings. This movement operates a micro-switch which gives an ice
warning, or automatically initiates the anti-icing sequence. The warning remains
as long as ice continues to foul the cutter blade.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

• Rosemount Ice Detector

This detector consists of a short cylindrical probe mounted on a vibrator housing
which vibrates the probe axially at about 35 kHz.

Figure 11 - A Rosemount ice detector.

If ice builds up on the probe, the added mass reduces the resonant frequencies.
When the frequency falls to a predetermined level, an ice warning is given. The
warning signal also operates a built in heater element in the probe to shed
accumulated ice.

After six seconds, the heater switches off and the icing cycle recommences. The
frequency of the cycle may be measured to give an indication of the ice accretion
rate.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

ELEMENT ICE SENSING UNIT

• Sangamo Weston Ice Detector

Ice can only be formed when there is a combination of moisture and freezing
temperatures. In the Sangamo Weston ice detector, these two conditions are
detected separately and, therefore, icing conditions are detected rather than actual
ice formation.

Figure 12 - A Sangamo Weston ice detector.

The system comprises three main components:

a) Moisture Sensing Head. This consists of two heated metal resistance bulbs
situated in the airflow and arranged so that the leading bulb screens the rear
one so that no moisture impinges upon it. When the detector encounters free
water in the airflow, the shielded rear bulb remains dry and cools at a slower
rate than the wet leading bulb.

b) Moisture Detector Controller. This controller is situated in the base of the

unit and senses the temperature difference between the "wet" and "dry" sensing
bulbs. When the temperature difference reaches a predetermined value, and
provided that the thermal switch is made, relays operate a ice warning or initiate
the anti-icing or de-icing cycles.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

c) Thermal Switch. This is a contact operating thermometer which is housed

in a bulb and is exposed to ambient temperature. When the temperature is
above freezing, the thermal switch prevents the moisture detector from sending
an ice warning signal, even though the latter unit is sensing the presence of
water in the airflow. With a temperature below freezing, the thermal switch
allows the warning signal to be sent.

BETA PARTICLE ICE DETECTION PROBE

Two probes, mounted perpendicularly from the forward fuselage, plus a relay and the
flight deck warning constitute the basic system.

Figure 13 - A Beta particle ice detection probe.

Under nil ice conditions the forward probe, an emitter, will emit Beta particles which are
detected by the probe, a detector. Beta particles are absorbed by ice so that, in icing
conditions, less particles are sensed by the detector.

At a certain Beta particle count rate, corresponding to 0.4 mm of ice, a relay in the
detector probe will operate causing a warning on the flight deck. This may take the form
of an ECAM system display and a single chime. A system test gives the same indications
as above.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

ICE FORMATION SPOT LIGHT

Many aircraft have two ice formation spot lights mounted one each side of the fuselage,
in such a position as to light up the leading edges of the mainplanes (wings), when
required, to allow visual examination for ice formation. In some aircraft, this may be the
only aid to ice detection at night.

An awareness of the inflight conditions with regard to temperature and moisture is

essential for all aircrew, and a general rule for engine protection is to apply it when the
indicated outside air temperature (IOAT) is +10°C or below, and the air contains visible
moisture. Airframe protection is generally applied at the onset of indicated icing.

This may be from visual indications of leading edges, aerials, windscreen wipers etc. or
from the ice detector systems. Ice warnings usually take the form of an amber caution
light and can in some systems initiate the de-icing or anti-icing systems if they have been
pre-selected to 'auto'.

However mechanical de-icing by the ‘boots' method must not be initiated until a specific
depth of ice has built up.

The following list is not exhaustive, but should give an indication of the variety of systems
and components which are protected against the effects of ice and rain.

• Engine - Intakes – IGVs (inlet guide vanes) - Struts or Webs

• Oil cooler intakes, fuel system filters.
• Ram air intakes for generator cooling or Engine bay ventilation.
• Airfoils - Wing and tail leading edges. Slats - Propellers.
• Airframe - Aerials - Waste water outlet horns, Large fences and bullets.
• Instrument Systems - Pitot heads and probes.
• Cockpit windows.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

MECHANICAL DE-ICING

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Aircraft Mechanical Ice and Rain

Protection"
https://youtu.be/mJDVkIESqQM

Pneumatic de-icing systems are employed in certain types of piston engine aircraft and
twin turbo-propeller aircraft.

The number of components comprising a system vary, together with the method of
applying the operating principle. The arrangement of a typical system is illustrated
schematically in the figure below.

Figure 14 - De-icer boots.

DE-ICER BOOTS

Supplemental Video Presentation

“De-Icing Boots in Action"

https://youtu.be/HrjP_iYlJ1k

The de-icer boots, or overshoes, consist of layers of natural rubber and rubberized fabric
between which are disposed flat inflatable tubes closed at the ends. The tubes are made
of rubberized fabric and are vulcanized inside the rubber layers.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

In some boots the tubes are so arranged that when the boots are in position on a wing or
tailplane leading edge the tubes run parallel to the span; in others they run parallel to the
chord. The tubes are connected to the air supply pipelines from the distribution valves
system by short lengths of flexible hose secured to connectors on the boots and to the
pipelines by hose clips.

The external surfaces of the boots are coated with a film of conductive material to bleed
off accumulations of static electricity. Depending on the type specified, a boot may be
attached to a leading edge either by screw fasteners (rivnuts) or by cementing them
directly to the leading edge.

AIR SUPPLIES AND DISTRIBUTION

The tubes in the boot sections are inflated by air from the pressure side of an engine-
driven vacuum pump, from a high-pressure reservoir or in the case of some types of
turbo-propeller aircraft, from a tapping at an engine compressor stage.

Figure 15 – A schematic diagram of a pneumatic de-icing system.

At the end of an inflation stage of the operating sequence, and whenever the system is
switched off, the boots are deflated by vacuum derived from the vacuum pump or, in
systems utilizing an engine compressor tapping, from the Venturi section of an ejector
nozzle.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

The method of distributing air supplies to the boots depends on the de-icing systems
required for a particular type of aircraft but, in general, three methods are in use. One
method employs shuttle valves which are controlled by a separate solenoid valve; in the
second method air is distributed to each boot by individual solenoid-controlled valves; in
the third method distribution is effected by a motor-driven valve.

CONTROLS AND INDICATORS

The controls and indicators required for the operation of a de-icing system depend on the
type of aircraft and on the particular arrangement of its de-icing system. In the basic
arrangement, a main on-off switch, pressure and vacuum gauges or indicating lights form
part of the controlling section.

Pressure and vacuum is applied to the boots in an alternating timed sequence and the
methods adopted usually vary with the methods of air distribution referred to above. In
most installations, however, timing control is affected by means of an electronic device.
Reference should always be made to the relevant aircraft Maintenance Manual for details
of the appropriate controlling system and time cycles.

OPERATION

When the system is switched on, pressure is admitted to the boot sections to inflate the
tubes. The inflation weakens the bond between ice and the boot surfaces, causing the
ice to break away. At the end of the inflation stage of the operating sequence, the air in
the tubes is dumped to atmosphere through automatic opening valves and the tubes are
fully deflated by the vacuum supply.

This inflation and deflation cycle is repeated during the period the system is in operation.
When the system is switched off vacuum is supplied continually to all tubes of the boot
sections to hold the sections flat against the wing and tail leading edges thus minimizing
aerodynamic drag.

The de-icer boots are pulsated in a set cycle, the frequency of which can be varied by
the frequency selector to cater for light or heavy icing conditions. For cycling purposes,
the boots are usually divided into three groups as follows:

• Group 1 - Port and Starboard mainplane inboard boots.

• Group 2 - Port and Starboard mainplane outboard boots.
• Group 3 - Fin and tailplane boots.

The cycle takes 34 seconds, irrespective of the selection made on the cyclic frequency
selector The selector merely alters the delay period between cycles, e.g. 206 seconds
for light icing and 26 seconds for heavy icing.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

THERMAL ANTI-ICING AND DE-ICING

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Thermal Ice Protection"

https://youtu.be/D_6p4JUYAhU

Hot air systems on modern aircraft are generally engine bleed air and are said to be “anti-
icing'. Other methods of obtaining the hot air will be described, and depending on the
duration of application and the temperature applied, they may be either de-icing or anti-
icing systems. Some large jet transport aircraft are not equipped with tailplane ice
protection. These aircraft have been certified assuming that they have ice on the tail.

In systems of this type, the leading edge sections of wings including leading edge slats
but not leading edge flaps, and tail units are usually provided with a second, inner skin
positioned to form a small gap between it and the inside of the leading edge section.
Heated air is ducted to the wings and tail units and passes into the gap, providing
sufficient heat in the outer skin of the leading edge to melt ice already formed and prevent
further ice formation.

The air is exhausted to atmosphere through outlets in the skin surfaces and also, in some
cases, in the tips of wings and tail units. The temperature of the air within the ducting and
leading edge sections is controlled by a shutter or butterfly type valve system, the
operation of which depends on the type of heating system employed.

A gas turbine engine presents a critical icing problem, and therefore requires protection
against ice formation particularly at the air intake, nose bullet or fairing and inlet guide
vanes. Icing of these regions can considerably restrict the airflow causing a loss in
performance and, furthermore, cause damage to the compressor as a result of ice
breaking away and being ingested by the compressor.

There are two thermal systems in use for air intake de/anti-icing; a hot air bleed system
and an electrical resistance heating system, and although the latter is usually chosen for
turbo-propeller engines to provide protection for the propeller, there are some examples
where both systems are used in combination.

AIR SUPPLIES

There are several methods by which the heated air can be supplied and these through a
heat exchanger located in an engine exhaust gas system, and combustion heating of ram
air.

In a compressor bleed system the hot air is tapped directly from a compressor stage, and
after mixing with a supply of cool air in a mixing chamber it passes into the main ducting.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

In some systems, equipment, e.g. safety shut-off valves, is provided to ensure that an air
mass flow sufficient for all de-icing requirements is supplied within pressure limits
acceptable to duct and structural limitations.

Figure 16 - A heat exchange system.

The heat exchanger method of supplying warm air is employed in some types of aircraft
powered by turbo-propeller engines. The heat exchanger unit is positioned so that
exhaust gases can be diverted to pass between tubes through which outside air enters
the main supply ducts. The supply of exhaust gases is usually regulated by a device such
as a thermostatically controlled flap fitted in the ducting between the exhaust unit and the
heat exchanger.

In a combustion heating system ram air is passed through a cylindrical jacket enclosing
a sealed chamber in which a fuel/air mixture is burned, and is heated by contact with the
chamber walls. Air for combustion is derived from a separate air intake and is supplied to
the chamber by means of a blower.

TEMPERATURE CONTROL

The control of the air temperature within ducting and leading edge sections is an
important aspect of thermal de-icing system operation and the methods adopted depend
on the type of system.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

In a typical compressor bleed system, control is effected by temperature sensing units

which are located at various points in the leading edge ducting and by valves in the main
air supply ducting.

The sensing units and valves are electrically interconnected so that the valves are
automatically positioned to regulate the flow of heated air to the system, thus maintaining
the temperature within a predetermined range. Indications of air temperature conditions
are provided by resistance type temperature sensing elements and indicators,
temperature sensitive switches and overheat warning lights.

On some aircraft the electrical supplies to the valves are interrupted by landing gear
controlled relays when the aircraft is on the ground. Under these conditions, valve
operation is accomplished by holding the system control switch to a TEST' position.

Figure 17 - Areas heated by ‘anti-icing’ air.

When heat exchangers are employed, temperature control is usually obtained by the use
of adjustable flaps and valves to decrease or increase the supply of heating and cooling
air passed across the exchangers.

The method of controlling the flaps and valves varies with different aircraft, but a typical
system incorporates an electric actuator, which is operated automatically by an inching
device controlled by a temperature sensing element fitted in the duct on the warm air
outlet side of the heat exchanger.

In some systems, actuators are directly controlled by thermal switches, so that the flaps
or valves are automatically closed when a predetermined temperature is reached.
Indications of air temperature conditions are provided by resistance type temperature

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

sensing elements and indicators, temperature sensitive switches and overheat warning
lights.

In systems incorporating combustion heaters, the temperature is usually controlled by

thermal cyclic switches located in the heater outlet ducts, so that when the temperature
reaches a predetermined maximum the fuel supply to the heaters is automatically
switched off.

In an engine hot air system the air is bled from the compressor and is fed via ducting into
the air intake nose cowl, through the inlet guide vanes of the engine and also, in some
engines, through the nose bullet. After circulating the intake cowl and guide vanes, the
air is exhausted either to atmosphere or into the engine air intake. The flow of hot air is
regulated by electrically operated control valves which are actuated by control switches
on a cockpit panel. An air temperature control system is not usually provided in a hot air
system.

ELECTRICAL HEATING SYSTEM

In an electrical heating system, heating elements either of resistance wire or sprayed

metal, are bonded to the air intake structure. The power supply required for heating is
normally three-phase alternating current. The arrangement adopted in a widely used
turbo-propeller engine is illustrated in the figure below as an example.

Figure 18 - Heater mats.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

The elements are of the resistance wire type and are formed into an overshoe which is
bonded around the leading edge of the air intake cowl and also around the oil cooler air
intake. Both anti-icing and de-icing techniques are employed by using continuously
heated and intermittently heated elements respectively.

The elements are sandwiched between layers of glass cloth impregnated with resin. In
some systems the elements may be sandwiched between layers of rubber. The outer
surfaces are, in all cases, suitably protected against erosion by rain, and the effect of oils,
greases, etc.

The power supply is fed directly to the continuously heated elements, and via a cyclic
time switch unit to the intermittently heated elements and to the propeller blade elements.
The cyclic time switch units control the application of current in selected time sequences
compatible with prevailing outside air temperature conditions and severity of icing. The
time sequences which may be selected vary between systems.

For the system shown in the previous figure, the sequences are 'Fast', giving one
complete cycle (heat on/heat oft) of 2 minutes at outside air temperatures between -6°C
and +10°C, and 'Slow', giving one complete cycle of 6 minutes at outside air temperatures
below -6°C. An indicator light and, in some cases, an ammeter, are provided on the
appropriate cockpit control panel to indicate correct functioning of the time switch circuit.

For the use of Spraymat systems, the electrical supply can be either AC or DC depending
on the protection required.

The anti-icing supply is continuous, controlled only by master switching and overheat
protection devices. The latter consists usually of a "Thermal Controller" with its
associated overheat protection..

The de-icing supply is cyclic, pulses being fed through a cyclic switch or similar device.
The timing of the pulses is determined by the manual setting of a selector (Cyclic Timer).
The circuit is arranged so that while the supply is on for some heaters, it is off to others,
and vice versa, in order to maintain a constant de-icing load.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

FLUID SYSTEM

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Fluid Protection"

https://youtu.be/D_6p4JUYAhU

This system prevents the adhesion of ice on surfaces by pumping de-icing fluid to panels
in the leading edge of the airfoil, and allowing the fluid to be carried over the surface by
air movement.

The fluid is supplied from the storage tank to the pump through an integral filter. The
pump has a single inlet and a number of delivery outlets to feed the distributors on the
airfoil leading edges.

The pump consists of a main casting which incorporates a pump body, a filter chamber,
and a gear casing. When the pump is incorporated in a system, the pump body and the
filter chamber are flooded with de-icing fluid which acts as a lubricant.

To protect the pump and the system from damage due to pipe blockage etc, the pump
incorporates a safety device which relieves abnormal pressure by reducing the flow.
There are two types of distributor for use with the system, i.e. strip and panel.

Figure 19 - Fluid systems.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

The panel distributors cover a large area of the airfoil leading edge, and are more
economical and efficient than strip distributors. They have the disadvantage of not being
suitable for surfaces with double curvature, e.g. fins where the strip distributor has to be
used.

The panel distributor is fitted over, or let into the leading edges of the mainplanes and
tailplane. It consists of a porous outer panel, a micro porous sheet, and a back plate. The
porous panel extends beyond the edges of the porous sheet, and screws passing through
the panel secure the distributor to the airfoil surface. An entry connector, which
accommodates a metering tube, passes through the back plate to which it is bolted.

De-icing fluid enters the connector from the main supply pipe, passes through the
metering tube, and enters the cavity between the back plate and the porous sheet. The
fluid then seeps through the porous sheet of the distributor, and is distributed over the
airfoil surfaces by the airstream. The strip distributors are inserted in the leading edge of
the airfoil, and are connected, in series to the main supply pipe.

De-icing fluid fills the primary feed channel and passes through the flow control tubes into
the secondary feed channel. The fluid in the secondary feed channel filters through the
porous metal side and onto the leading edge of the airfoil.

WINDSCREEN PROTECTION

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Windscreen Protection"

https://youtu.be/DPt3_mXzG2c

Windscreen protection is provided by fluid sprays, electrical heating, and cabin air may
be provided for de misting. Electrical heating may be within the main windscreen, or
added as an optional extra by means of a small heated glass panel fitted in front of the
windscreen. Wipers are also provided on some aircraft and these may be assisted by the
use of rain repellent systems.

WINDSHIELD OR WINDSCREEN WIPERS

Independent two speed wipers are usually provided for both pilots. They may be
electrically or hydraulically powered, with two operating speeds and some systems have
a parking facility. They should not be operated on a dry windscreen.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

Figure 20 - Aircraft windshield wipers.

WINDSCREEN WASHERS

This system sprays washer fluid into the windscreen panels, and is used in conjunction
with the wipers to clean the windscreens, a typical control panel is shown in the figure
below, where a single washer control button controls the fluid for both screens.

Typically the reservoir would contain about one gallon, located in one of the under floor
bays and have a slight gauge visible for replenishment. Fluid being routed from the pump
to four sprays nozzles. With manually operated flow distribution and control valves
located on the flight deck to provide selective flow to the windshields.

WINDSCREEN RAIN REPELLENT SYSTEM

The rain repellent system consists of four valve/timer nozzles, two for each screen and a
manifold which stores and distributes the fluid to the nozzles. It is charged with repellent
fluid from an aerosol type disposable container which screws into the manifold.

A sight gauge displays a refill float when the fluid is low, and a pressure gauge with green
and red areas to indicate a go/no go condition. If the float is visible or the pressure gauge
indication is in the red area the container fluid is depleted.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

Figure 21 - Typical Washer, Wiper and Repellent Controls.

The rain repellent system is used with the wipers to improve visibility during heavy rain.
Rain repellent fluid is sprayed onto the respective windshield by momentarily pressing
the rain repellent button switch on the captain's or first officer's wiper control panel. Each
actuation of the switch opens the container valve for approximately one third of a second
regardless of how long the switch is held in.

Depending on airspeed and rain intensity, each actuation should be adequate for 2 to 5
minutes. A fully charged container holds about 75 applications, and repellent applied to
a dry windscreen will reduce visibility. The use of both systems simultaneously should be
avoided.

FLUID DE-ICING SYSTEM

The method employed in this system is to spray the windscreen panel with a methyl-
alcohol based fluid. The principal components of the system are a fluid storage tank, a
pump which may be a hand-operated or electrically operated type, supply pipe lines and
spray tube unit.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

Figure 22 - Typical windscreen fluid de-icing system.

The figure above illustrates the interconnection of components based on a typical aircraft
system in which fluid is supplied to the spray tubes by two electrically operated pumps.
The system may be operated using either of the pumps or both, according to the severity
of icing.

ELECTRICAL ANTI-ICING SYSTEM

This system employs a windscreen of special laminated construction heated electrically

to prevent, not only the formation of ice and mist, but also to improve the impact
resistance of the windscreen at low temperatures.

The film-type resistance element is heated by alternating current supplied from the
aircraft's electrical system. The power required for heating varies according to the size of
the panel and the heat required to suit the operating conditions. The circuit embodies a
controlling device, the function of which is to maintain a constant temperature at the
windscreen and also to prevent overheating of the vinyl interlayer which would cause
such permanent damage as vinyl 'bubbling and discoloration.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

Figure 23 - Electrical anti-icing system.

In a typical anti-icing system, shown schematically in the figure above, the controlling
device is connected to two temperature sensing elements laminated into the windscreen.

The elements are usually in the form of a fine wire grid, the electrical resistance of which
varies directly with the windscreen temperature. One sensing element is used for
controlling the temperature at a normal setting and the other is used for overheat
protection.

A system of warning lights and, in some cases, magnetic indicators, also forms part of
the control circuit and provides visual indications of circuit operating conditions, e.g.
'normal', 'off or 'overheat'.

When the power is applied via the system control switch and power relay, the resistance
element heats the glass. When it attains a temperature pre-determined for normal
operation the change in resistance of the control element causes the control device or
circuit to isolate, or in some cases, to reduce the power supply to the heater element.
When the glass has cooled through a certain range of temperature, power is again
applied and the cycle is repeated. In the event of a failure of the controller, the glass
temperature will rise until the setting of the overheat sensing element is attained.

At this setting an overheat control circuit cuts off the heating power supply and illuminates
a warning light. The power is restored and the warning light extinguished when the glass
has cooled through a specific temperature range. In some systems a lock-out circuit may
be incorporated, in which case the warning light will remain illuminated and power will
only be re-applied by cycling the system control switch to 'OFF' and back to 'ON'.

• In addition to the normal temperature control circuit it is usual to incorporate a

circuit which supplies more heating power under severe icing conditions when heat
losses are high. When the high power setting is selected, the supply is switched
to higher voltage output tappings of an auto transformer which also forms part of

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

an anti-icing system circuit thus maintaining the normal operating temperature.

The temperature is controlled in a manner similar to that of the normal control
temperature circuit.

• b) For ground testing purposes, the heating power supply circuit may also be
controlled by landing gear shock-strut micro-switches in such a way that the
voltage applied to the resistance elements is lower than that normally available in
flight.

PROPELLER PROTECTION SYSTEMS

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Propeller Protection"

https://youtu.be/fWRP0BXLBv4

Ice formation on a propeller blade produces distortion to the airfoil section, causing a loss
in efficiency, possible unbalance and destructive vibration. The build-up of ice must be
prevented and there are two systems in use.

Protection is provided either by an anti-Icing fluid system, or by an electrically powered

thermal de-Icing system.

Figure 24 - Propeller de-icing system.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

The fluid system provides a film of de-icing fluid to the propeller blade surfaces during
flight which mixes with the water or ice and reduces the freezing point of the mixture.

Fluid is distributed to each propeller blade from a slinger ring which is mounted on the
back of the propeller hub. The fluid is pumped into this ring through a delivery pipe from
a supply tank. Some propellers have rubber overshoes fitted to the blades to assist the
distribution of the fluid.

On this type of installation fluid is fed from the slinger ring to a small trough, which is part
of the overshoe, and is then forced by centrifugal action along longitudinal grooves in the
overshoes.

On propellers which are not fitted with overshoes, fluid is fed from the slinger ring through
a pipe to the root of the blade and is then distributed by centrifugal action. The fluid may
be pumped to the slinger ring from the supply tank by an independent electrically driven
pump but air pressure is sometimes used.

The electric pump may be controlled by a switch and, in some installations, the pump
speed may be varied by means of a rheostat. Check valves are sometimes provided to
prevent loss of fluid when the pump is not operating, the supply pressure is typically 10
PSI. Where air pressure is used to supply fluid, a relief valve is usually fitted to the air
supply line and a control valve provided to regulate the fluid flow.

Figure 25

In electrical systems, the basis for effective de-icing is formed by resistance wire heating

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

elements bonded to the leading edges of the propeller blades; in the case of turbine
engine propellers, wire woven or sprayed elements are also bonded to the front shell of
the spinner.

Depending on the type of aircraft, the power for heating the elements is either direct
current or alternating current and is applied in a controlled sequence by a cyclic timer
unit.

In turbo-propeller engine installations, the propeller heating circuit forms part of a power
unit de-icing and anti-icing system, and the cyclic control is integrated with the engine air
intake heating circuit

CONSTRUCTION

The construction of the elements, or overshoes as they are sometimes called, varies
between propeller types. In one commonly used propeller, the heating element wires are
interwoven with glass threads which form a glass cloth base, this in turn, being cemented
between sheets of rubber.

A protective guard of wire gauze is cemented beneath the outer rubber covering. The
overshoe is shaped to fit around the blade leading edge and is cemented to it. In some
cases, the overshoe is cemented in a rebate machined in the leading edge, so that it lies
flush with the blade surfaces.

POWER SUPPLIES

The power required for heating is conveyed to the elements via cables, slip rings and by
brushes contained within a brush block housing. The slip rings are normally mounted at
the rear of the propeller hub or on a starter ring gear, and the brush housing on the engine
front casing, but in some systems the method of mounting may be the reverse way round.
The cables are of sufficient length and are positioned so as to allow for movement of the
blades throughout their designed pitch range.

HEATING CONTROL

Efficient operation of these systems necessitates a relatively high consumption of

electrical power. This is, however, controlled by employing a cyclic de-icing technique
whereby a short unheated period allows a thin film of ice to build up on the leading edges
of the propeller blades.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

Figure 26 - Propeller schematic circuit.

Before this film builds up sufficiently to interfere appreciably with the aerodynamic
characteristics of the blades, the cyclic control applies heating power. The ice already
deposited then acts as thermal insulation, and as the ice in contact with the blade
surfaces melts, the main ice catch is carried away under the action of centrifugal and
aerodynamic forces.

MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS
In addition to the major items already covered there is the possibility that heating may be
required on any or all of the following items:

• Pitot heads or Probes.

• Alpha Probes.
• Q Feel Probes.
• P1 Probes.
• Waste Water Drain Horn.
• Total Air Temp Heads.
• Aerials.
• Water Pipes "In Line" Heaters.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

ACTIVITY NO. 1
TRUE OR FALSE

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

6. Answer the following questions completely.

7. On the first page of your output, attach your signature over your printed name on the honesty
clause box shown below.
8. You can “save as pdf” or either print then scan the following pages of this activity and write
your answers on the space provided. Minimize your erasures.
9. Submit and upload your output in pdf file. Any paper size will do and you can use any
orientation regarding the layout.
10. If you have further questions, ask it only to your Instructor.

HONESTY CLAUSE

As a student of Philippine State College of Aeronautics, I hereby pledge to act ethically and
uphold the values of academic integrity, honor and excellence. I certify on my honor that I
have neither given nor received assistance from anyone in completing this assessment.

I understand that suspected misconduct on given assignments, activities and examinations

will be reported to the appropriate office and if established will result in disciplinary action in
accordance with the rules, policies and procedures by the College.

_______________________________
Signature over Printed Name

______ 1. Frost deposits can be removed by placing the aircraft in a warm

hangar or by using a deicing fluid.

______ 2. Control surfaces become unbalanced or frozen due to the buildup of

ice.

______ 3. For the most part, general aviation aircraft equipped to fly in icing
conditions use thermal or electric anti‐icing systems that are controlled
automatically to prevent the formation of ice.

______ 4. The deice control valve is normally energized and releases air from
the vacuum pump overboard.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

______ 5. Some modern large aircraft are using electrical thermal anti‐icing
systems.

______ 6. Engine driven air pumps are available in a wet and a dry type and
used with turbine engines.

______ 7. The rain repellant system should not be operated on dry windows
because heavy undiluted repellant will restrict window visibility.

______ 8. Clear ice forms a smooth sheet of solid ice.

______ 9. Radio reception is hampered and engine performance is affected due

to the buildup of ice.

______ 10. Ice buildup causes destructive vibration, and hampers true instrument
readings.

______ 11. A chemical anti‐icing is strictly an anti‐icing system to prevent the

formation of ice and cannot be utilized as a de‐icing system.

______ 12. Air pressure for a pneumatic wings de-icing system is supplied by the
vacuum pump.

______ 13. Large transport category aircraft are equipped with advanced deicing
boots.

______ 14. Most general aviation aircraft are equipped with a dry‐type of pump.

______ 15. Rime ice has a white appearance.

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 PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

ACTIVITY NO. 2
MULTIPLE CHOICE

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

1. Answer the following questions completely.

2. On the first page of your output, attach your signature over your printed name on the honesty
clause box shown below.
3. You can “save as pdf” or either print then scan the following pages of this activity and write
your answers on the space provided. Minimize your erasures.
4. Submit and upload your output in pdf file. Any paper size will do and you can use any
orientation regarding the layout.
5. If you have further questions, ask it only to your Instructor.

HONESTY CLAUSE

As a student of Philippine State College of Aeronautics, I hereby pledge to act ethically and
uphold the values of academic integrity, honor and excellence. I certify on my honor that I
have neither given nor received assistance from anyone in completing this assessment.

I understand that suspected misconduct on given assignments, activities and examinations

will be reported to the appropriate office and if established will result in disciplinary action in
accordance with the rules, policies and procedures by the College.

_______________________________
Signature over Printed Name

______ 1. Ice buildup increases _________ and reduces ___________.

A) drag and lift
B) lift and drag
C) drag and temperature

______ 2. How do deicer boots help remove ice accumulations?

A) By preventing the formation of ice
B) By breaking up ice formations
C) By allowing only a thin layer of ice to build up

______ 3. Thermal wing anti‐ice systems for business jet and large transport
category aircraft will typically use?
A) ram air from a combustion heater
B) air from engine exhaust heat exchangers
C) bleed air from turbine engine compressor
D) bleed air from turbine engine combustion section

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

______ 4. What type of valve controls the flow of bleed air from the pneumatic
system to the wing anti‐ice ducts?
A) bleed air valve
B) wing anti‐ice valve
C) cross feed valve

______ 5. What are three methods of anti-icing aircraft windshields?

A) Blanket type heating system
B) An electric heating element in the windshield
C) Heated air circulating system
D) Hot water system

______ 6. A pneumatic de‐icing system removes the ice after it has formed on the
leading edge surface.
A) true
B) false
C) only in flight
D) only on the ground

______ 7. Pneumatic de‐icing systems (boots) are used on?

A) general aviation aircraft
B) transport category aircraft
C) general aviation and transport category aircraft
D) helicopters

______ 8. Some aircraft are protected against airframe icing by heating the leading
edges of the airfoils and intake ducts. When this type of anti-icing system usually
operated during flight?
A) Continuously while the aircraft is in flight.
B) In symmetric cycles during icing conditions to remove ice as it
accumulates.
C) Whenever icing conditions are first encountered or expected to
occur.

______ 9. Why is an oil separator necessary in a de‐icing outfitted with a wet pump?
A) to improve lubrication of the pump
B) to improve vacuum pressure
C) to remove the oil from the air

______ 10. On modern aircraft the deicer boots are __________________ to the
leading edge of a wing.
A) riveted with flush rivets
B) bolted with rivnuts
C) bonded with an adhesive

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 PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

CASE STUDY NO. 1

USAir Flight 405

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

This Case Study will be done by pair or by two (2) individuals, but if there are some instances that a student wants to
comply it individually then he/she will be allowed to do that.

On an A4 document, create a case study regarding the subject matter indicated. Place the honesty clause and your
signatures at the beginning of your work or after the title page. It should contain the electronic signatures of all members
otherwise no credit will be given to the member who has not signed. All submissions should be in pdf file. Sample format
and rubrics will also be provided to you.

If there are some questions that were not discussed in this module, you can browse other references, books or materials.
Do not just rely on the summarized contents of the module.

Use this case study format for this output.

1) Executive Summary
 Outline the purpose of the case study.
 Describe the field of research.
 Outline the issues and findings of the case study without the specific details.
 Identify the theory that will be used.

2) Findings
 Identify the problems found in the case by analyzing the problem, supporting your findings with facts
given in the case, the relevant theory and course concepts; and searching for the underlying problems.

3) Discussion
 Summarize the major problem/s.
 Identify alternative solutions to this/these major problem/s.
 Briefly outline each alternative solution and evaluate its advantages and disadvantages.
 There is no need to refer to theory or coursework here.

4) Conclusion
 Sum up the main points from the findings and discussions.

5) Recommendations
 Choose which of the alternative solutions should be adopted.
 Briefly justify your choice explaining how it will solve the major problem/s.
 This should be written in a forceful style as this section is intended to be persuasive.
 Integration of theory and coursework is appropriate.

6) Implementation
 Explain what should be done, by whom and by when.
 If appropriate, include a rough estimate of costs (both financial and time).

7) References
 Make sure all references are cited correctly.

8) Appendices (if any)

 Attach any original data that relates to the study but which would have interrupted the flow of the main body.

(Source: https://www.monash.edu/rlo/quick-study-guides/writing-a-case-study)

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

Topic/Subject Matter:
Provide an in-depth study and analysis regarding USAir Flight 405, a Fokker F28 Series
4000 airplane that crashed on March 22, 1992, killing 21 people including the captain and
a member of the cabin crew out of 51 people on board.

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 PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

CASE STUDY NO. 2

China Eastern Airlines Flight 5210

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

This Case Study will be done by pair or by two (2) individuals, but if there are some instances that a student wants to
comply it individually then he/she will be allowed to do that.

On an A4 document, create a case study regarding the subject matter indicated. Place the honesty clause and your
signatures at the beginning of your work or after the title page. It should contain the electronic signatures of all members
otherwise no credit will be given to the member who has not signed. All submissions should be in pdf file. Sample format
and rubrics will also be provided to you.

If there are some questions that were not discussed in this module, you can browse other references, books or materials.
Do not just rely on the summarized contents of the module.

Use this case study format for this output.

1) Executive Summary
 Outline the purpose of the case study.
 Describe the field of research.
 Outline the issues and findings of the case study without the specific details.
 Identify the theory that will be used.

2) Findings
 Identify the problems found in the case by analyzing the problem, supporting your findings with facts
given in the case, the relevant theory and course concepts; and searching for the underlying problems.

3) Discussion
 Summarize the major problem/s.
 Identify alternative solutions to this/these major problem/s.
 Briefly outline each alternative solution and evaluate its advantages and disadvantages.
 There is no need to refer to theory or coursework here.

4) Conclusion
 Sum up the main points from the findings and discussions.

5) Recommendations
 Choose which of the alternative solutions should be adopted.
 Briefly justify your choice explaining how it will solve the major problem/s.
 This should be written in a forceful style as this section is intended to be persuasive.
 Integration of theory and coursework is appropriate.

6) Implementation
 Explain what should be done, by whom and by when.
 If appropriate, include a rough estimate of costs (both financial and time).

7) References
 Make sure all references are cited correctly.

8) Appendices (if any)

 Attach any original data that relates to the study but which would have interrupted the flow of the main body.

(Source: https://www.monash.edu/rlo/quick-study-guides/writing-a-case-study)

45 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 7: Ice and Rain Protection Systems

Topic/Subject Matter:
Provide an in-depth study and analysis regarding China Eastern Airlines Flight 5210, a
Bombardier CRJ-200ER airplane that fell from the sky and crashed into a lake next to the
airport on November 21, 2004, killing all 53 people on board and two more on the ground.

46 | P a g e
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

LEARNING MODULE 08
Aircraft Oxygen
Systems and
Emergency/Safety
Equipment

AE 221 – AIRCRAFT SYSTEMS

1|Page
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page
I. Aircraft Oxygen Systems 5
Introduction 5
Time Of Useful Consciousness 6
Available Oxygen Systems 7
Continuous Flow Oxygen System 8
Diluter Demand System 9
Narrow Panel System – Normal Operation 11
Emergency Regulating Oxygen System (EROS) / Quick Donning
11
Crew Masks
Passenger Oxygen System 14
Chemical Oxygen Generators 15
Portable Oxygen Systems 17
Crew Portable Oxygen Systems And Smoke Hoods 18
Safety Precautions 19
II. Aircraft Emergency/Safety Equipment
Introduction 21
Public Address 21
Emergency Lighting 22
Emergency Exit Lights - In A Typical Installation 25
Megaphones 27
Torches 28
Emergency Exit Descent Devices 29
Overwing Escape Hatches 31
Overwing Escape Straps 31
Cut-In-Areas 32
Doors / Emergency Exits 33
Escape Slides 35
Rafts/Dinghies 37
Personal Flotation Equipment 39
Locator Beacons 42
First Aid Equipment 43
Ancillary Equipment 43
Extract From EASA Operations Regulations – Subpart K 44
Activity No. 1 60
Activity No. 2 61
Activity No. 3 63

2|Page
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

TABLE OF REFERENCES

References No.
Khan, O. (2016) Aircraft Structures and Systems, EASA Module 13,
Aviation Maintenance Technician Certification Series 1
https://cutt.ly/0nrt7MK
Moir, I., Seabridge, A. (2008) Aircraft Systems: Mechanical, Electrical, and
Avionics Subsystems Integration, 3rd Edition 2
https://cutt.ly/SnrtERp
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. (2016).
Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. Washington, D.C.
3
:The Administration : [Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O., distributed]
https://cutt.ly/dnruhVH
U.S Federal Aviation Administration. (2018). Aviation Maintenance
Technician Handbook – Airframe Volume 1, US Department of Transportation 4
https://cutt.ly/UnruFCI
Federal Aviation Administration. (2018). Aviation Maintenance
Technician Handbook – Airframe Volume 2, US Department of Transportation 5
https://cutt.ly/cnruMst
Jeppesen; A Boeing Company. (2011). A&P Technician Airframe Textbook
6
https://cutt.ly/lnrybrz

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 PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Course Learning Outcomes [CLO]

Module Learning Outcomes [MLO]
CLO 1. Understand the Topic Learning Outcomes [TLO]
fundamental technical MLO 1. Identify the
aspects, principles of provision, fitting, marking and
operation, design features use of emergency/safety TLO 4. Analyze and explain
and construction of different equipment as governed by the process in which oxygen
airframe systems and its many requirements regarding goes through to maintain
components. regulatory standards. proper breathing for humans
inside the cabin during flight.
CLO 2. Interpret the design MLO 2. Define the minimum
principles and operation of regulatory requirements for TLO 5. Discuss the operation
different airframe systems to first-aid oxygen and and description of the
the context of inspection, supplemental oxygen for passenger oxygen system,
service, repair and pressurized and non- crew oxygen system,
maintenance of these pressurized airplanes. portable oxygen system and
systems. other examples of safety
equipments.
CLO 3. Identify the purpose
and operation of the different
airframe systems in an
aircraft based in the
approved manufacturer’s
manual and regulatory
standards.

CLO 4. Describe correct

maintenance procedures of
different airframe systems
based on the inspection
intervals established by the
authority and manufacturer.

CLO 5. Identify and apply the

principles of function and
safe operation of aircraft
cabin atmospheric control
systems, ice & rain protection
systems, fire protection &
warning systems, fuel
systems and their
components when operating
and maintaining an aircraft
using the manufacturer’s
service manuals, acceptable
industry practices and
applicable regulatory
standards.

4|Page
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Before you start on this module, kindly watch first this animated in-flight safety demonstration
of an international airline and observe each instructions specified in this video presentation:

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Safety Video - Turkish Airlines"

https://youtu.be/VTU8hdMb8hE

I. AIRCRAFT OXYGEN SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

In order for the body to function satisfactorily it requires oxygen which it extracts from
oxygenated blood provided by the lungs. Insufficient oxygen is known as hypoxia. The
importance of aircrew being able to recognize hypoxia cannot be overstated.

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Introduction - Oxygen Systems"

https://youtu.be/LRDWT-Ws6DU

Knowledge of the signs and symptoms and early identification of the problem will allow
the correct drills to be carried out before anyone is placed in jeopardy but it is important
that these drills are well learnt and easily accomplished.

The drills to overcome this can be summarized as:

 Provide oxygen.
 Descend to a level where atmospheric oxygen is present in sufficient quantities to
meet the body's needs.

Aircrew must familiarize themselves with the appropriate oxygen drills for the aircraft they
are flying before venturing above an altitude at which hypoxia can occur at altitudes above
10,000 feet.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

The symptoms of hypoxia can be summarized as follows:

 Apparent personality change  Memory impairment

 Impaired judgement  Sensory loss
 Muscular impairment

Impairment of consciousness can cause confusion, semi-consciousness, un-

consciousness and finally death.

TIME OF USEFUL CONSCIOUSNESS

This is the time available for a pilot/flight engineer to recognize the development of
hypoxia and do something about it.

It is not the time to unconsciousness but the shorter time from a reduction in adequate
oxygen until a specific degree of impairment, generally taken to be the point when the
individual can no longer take steps to help himself/herself.

Pressurized aircraft are therefore fitted with oxygen systems to provide the crew with
oxygen:

 If the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 13,000 feet, or more than 30 minutes at
cabin pressure altitudes of between 10,000 feet and 13,000 feet.
 If hazardous fumes enter the flight deck.
 If the cabin pressure altitude exceeds 15,000 feet, to provide all the passengers
with oxygen, above 14,000 feet 30% of passengers and above 13,000 feet 10%
of passengers.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

AVAILABLE OXYGEN SYSTEMS

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Flight Crew Supplemental Oxygen - Oxygen

Systems"

https://youtu.be/y-u_mbfQpU8

Portable oxygen sets are provided in addition for therapeutic use by passengers and for
use by cabin staff during emergencies. Special smoke sets may also be provided for crew
use.

In unpressurized aircraft, oxygen equipment will be installed for the use of passengers
and crew if the aircraft is to fly above 10,000 feet with portable oxygen sets being
provided if no fixed installation exists.

Crew oxygen is stored in high pressure gaseous form whereas passenger supplies may
be of high pressure gas or be chemically generated. Gaseous oxygen systems are
generally of the diluter demand type for crew use and the continuous flow type for
passenger use, although some smaller aircraft may have the continuous flow type for
crew use as well. In both systems the gas is stored in cylinders at 1,800 psi, the pressure
being reduced to a suitable level for use.

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Airbus A320 Crew Oxygen servicing"

https://youtu.be/azRHrHpud54

Quantity (pressure) indication is provided by a gauge on the flight compartment. In the

event of an over-pressure the cylinder is vented to atmosphere through a safety (bursting)
disc.

Indication of this fact is given by a discharge indicator located on the outer skin of the
aircraft adjacent to the oxygen storage bottles. The cylinders are fitted with “shut-off
valves” to enable them to be removed from the aircraft for maintenance purposes.

7|Page
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

CONTINUOUS FLOW OXYGEN SYSTEM

Figure 1 - A continuous flow oxygen system.

When the shut-off valve and line valve are turned on, high pressure oxygen will flow from
the charged cylinder to the pressure reducing valve (PRV).

At the PRV the pressure is reduced to 80-100 psi for supply to the mask connection
points, where the pressure is further reduced by the fitting of a calibrated orifice. This
ensures that oxygen is supplied at the correct pressure for breathing at a continuous rate
when required.

The mask connection points may be of the normal plug-in type or of the drop out type
where, in the case of pressurization failure, the masks are presented automatically and
oxygen flow will commence when the passenger puts on the mask.

Continuous flow regulators of the hand adjustable and automatic type may be installed
for crew and passenger oxygen supply respectively.

The hand adjustable regulator delivers a continuous stream of oxygen at a rate that can
be controlled. The system usually has a pressure gauge, a flow indicator and a manual
control knob used to regulate the flow according to the cabin altitude. The gauge indicates

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

the pressure in the cylinder in psi and the flow indicator is calibrated in terms of cabin
altitude.

The user adjusts the manual control knob until the altitude of the flow indicator
corresponds to the cabin altimeter setting. Most flow indicators, however, just show that
oxygen is flowing through the regulator. They do not show how much is flowing or if the
user is being supplied with sufficient oxygen.

DILUTER DEMAND SYSTEM

This type of system is provided in most aircraft for flight crew use and is separate and
additional to the passenger system.

Figure 2 - A diluter demand oxygen system.

Oxygen is diluted with air and supplied as demanded by the users’ respiration cycle and
the oxygen regulator. There is a mask connection point for each crew member and the
supernumerary crew position.

A typical regulator operates as follows:

9|Page
PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

 With the oxygen supply 'ON' and NORMAL' oxygen selected, diluted oxygen will
be supplied to the crew members mask as he/she inhales. As the cabin altitude
increases and cabin air pressure decreases the percentage oxygen increases
until, at 32,000 feet cabin altitude, 100% oxygen is supplied.
 100% oxygen will be supplied, regardless of altitude, if the crew member selects
100% oxygen, on the regulator control panel.
 Selecting 'EMERGENCY' on the regulator will provide protection against the
inhalation of smoke and harmful gases by supplying 100% O 2, at a positive
pressure.
 When ‘TEST' is selected, oxygen at a high positive pressure is supplied to check
masks for fit and other equipment for leakage.

Figure 3 - An oxygen regulator in a diluter demand oxygen system.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

NARROW PANEL SYSTEM – NORMAL OPERATION

For normal operation the supply lever is set to "on", the oxygen selection lever to "normal"
and the emergency lever is in the "off" position. When the user inhales a differential
pressure is created across the demand diaphragm, causing the demand valve to open
supplying oxygen to the mask.

This pressure differential exists during the user's inhalation cycle. After passing through
the demand valve, the oxygen is mixed with air that enters through the air inlet port. The
mixture ratio is determined by an aneroid controlled air metering valve which provides
high air ratio at low altitudes and a high oxygen ratio at high altitudes. Airflow begins at
the same time as oxygen flow through the air inlet valve.

Moving the oxygen selector lever to 100% cuts off the air supply through the inlet port
from the flight compartment. This prevents fumes etc. from entering the mask.

Selecting the emergency lever to the “ON” position mechanically loads the demand
diaphragm to provide positive pressure.

EMERGENCY REGULATING OXYGEN SYSTEM (EROS) / QUICK

DONNING CREW MASKS

These are combined masks and regulators fitted at each crew station to provide the flight
crew with diluted or 100% oxygen. They are stowed in a panel mounted box in such a
way that the regulator controls and the feed hose protrude through apertures in the
stowage doors.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Figure 4 - A pilot wearing an emergency regulating oxygen system (EROS) crew oxygen mask
or also known as quick donning mask.

When the mask/regulator is stowed and the box doors closed, oxygen flow to the mask
is prevented by a shut-off valve inside the box, this valve being held closed by the Reset-
Test Lever on the left door. The flow indicator is visible with the doors open or closed.
The pneumatic harness that holds the mask to the face is deflated when stowed.

The harness fits all head sizes. It is a requirement by the authority that these quick
donning masks must be provided for the flight deck crew on all aircraft that have a
maximum operating altitude above 25,000 feet.

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Zodiac Aerospace Eros Oxygen Mask

Training Video"

https://youtu.be/5tkjAB820Pw

CONTROL

The control for normal or 100% oxygen flow is on the front of the regulator, marked
N and 100% PUSH. 100% oxygen is obtained by pushing in on the end of the control
marked 100% push.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

The “EMERGENCY” control knob changes the flow from diluter demand to steady
flow if it is rotated to the emergency setting.

OPERATION

The mask is withdrawn by grasping the red release grips between thumb and
forefinger. This action initiates inflation of the harness, the inflated condition
assisting its rapid donning.

Subsequent release of the grips bleeds pressure from the harness, which will now
form fit the head. The masks include radio/telephony communication facilities and
can be modified to include a mask ventilation feature which, when selected, will
provide ventilation to the smoke goggles in order to overcome misting problems.

The ventilation switch should be in the closed (up) position when the smoke goggles
are not being used.

TESTING

The emergency knob is also marked “PRESS TO TEST”. When pressed together
with the “RESET-TEST” lever, it allows oxygen to flow into the mask. Flow is
checked on the flow indicator.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

PASSENGER OXYGEN SYSTEM

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Passenger Supplemental Oxygen - Oxygen

Systems"

https://youtu.be/e_-mR50izHQ

Provides an emergency oxygen supply to the passengers and cabin attendants and is of
the continuous flow type supplied either by a high pressure gaseous system or a chemical
generator system.

The masks are stowed in the passenger service units (PSU), the doors of which will open
automatically by a barometrically controlled release mechanism if the cabin altitude
reaches 14,000 feet or by manual selection from the flight by the crew at any altitude
below this. The release mechanism is actuated electrically for the chemical generator
system and pneumatically for the gaseous system.

Figure 5 - Passenger oxygen masks dropped from the passenger service units (PSU).

When the PSU doors open the masks drop to the half-hung position. Pulling the mask

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

towards the face initiates the oxygen flow by opening a check valve on the gas supplied
system or operating the electrical or percussion cap firing mechanism on the chemical
generator. The masks are now ready for use.

CHEMICAL OXYGEN GENERATORS

Figure 6 - Chemical oxygen generator is located above every row of seat.

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Truth About Oxygen Masks On Airplanes"

https://youtu.be/6SOnnYTslXQ

The generators are located in each passenger, cabin attendants and lavatory service
units. Oxygen is generated by the chemical reaction of sodium chlorate (NaCIO 3) and
iron (Fe). The complete reaction is NaCIO3 + Fe = (NaCl + FeO) +O2. The sodium chlorate
and iron core is shaped to provide maximum oxygen flow at starting.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Figure 7 - A chemical oxygen generator.

A filter in the generator removes any contaminates and cools the oxygen to a temperature
not exceeding 10°C above cabin ambient temperature. A relief valve prevents the internal
pressure in the generator exceeding 50 psi the normal flow pressure is 10 psi. Sufficient
oxygen is supplied from the generator to meet the requirements of descent in emergency
conditions (minimum of 15 minutes). There has now been developed a chemical
generator which lasts for a period of 22 minutes.

Once the chemical reaction has started, it cannot be stopped. Surface temperatures of
the generator can reach 232°C (450°F). A strip of heat sensitive tape or paint changes
color, usually to black, when the generator is used and provides visual indication that the
generator is expended. Chemical generators have a shelf/installed life of ten years.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

PORTABLE OXYGEN SYSTEMS

Supplemental Video Presentation

“First Aid Oxygen - Oxygen Systems"

https://youtu.be/D2C6nXOPYVA

First aid and sustaining portable oxygen cylinders are installed at suitable locations in the
passenger cabin. They consist of a cylinder containing normally 120 liters of oxygen at a
pressure of 1,800 psi in a carrying bag with straps.

Figure 8 - A portable aircraft oxygen system.

It is usually possible to set one of two flow rates depending on requirement. These are
normal and high which correspond to flow rates of 2 and 4 liters per minute. At these
rates a 120 liter bottle would last 60 or 30 minutes respectively. 310 liter bottles with four
way manifolds for multiple supplies are available with high or medium rates as above.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

CREW PORTABLE OXYGEN SYSTEMS AND SMOKE HOODS

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Protective Breathing Equipment - Oxygen

Systems"

https://youtu.be/US7hzKBSxR8

Standard portable oxygen bottles can be used by the crew to enable them to move about
the cabin during reduced cabin pressure situations but for use when harsh environmental
conditions exist portable sets with a full face smoke mask will be used.

Figure 9 - Crew portable oxygen.

They may be standard cylinders or may be special smoke sets with built in generators
which produce oxygen for 15 minutes once initiated. Special training is required prior to
use and they are not suitable for passengers.

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PHILIPPINE STATE COLLEGE OF AERONAUTICS
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Figure 10 - Smoke hoods / drager

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

The following general safety precautions apply to all oxygen systems. Specific
precautions for individual aircraft types are contained in the appropriate aircraft manual
and flight crew should familiarize themselves with the safety precautions for the type.

 Oxygen is a non-flammable heavier than air gas which supports combustion as

well as life. Any flammable material will burn more fiercely in the presence of
oxygen than in air. Smoking is therefore banned in oxygen rich atmospheres and
all combustible materials should be removed from the area of oxygen recharging
operations.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

 No oil or grease should be allowed to come into contact with oxygen as there is
the possibility of a severe chemical reaction and spontaneous combustion. This
means that tools, protective clothing, etc. must be free from oil and grease.

 Any moisture present will react with gaseous oxygen and can cause corrosion and
the possibility of valves freezing. The oxygen will probably smell "bad" when used.
It is therefore essential that aircraft are replenished only with oxygen approved for
aviation use.

 During replenishment or maintenance of oxygen systems the surrounding area

must be adequately ventilated. Remember that oxygen is heavier than air and will
fill low lying areas such as servicing pits, aircraft bilges, etc.

 Only lubricants specified in the maintenance manuals may be used. (Example:

graphite).

 Oxygen cylinders are identified by their color. American and European cylinders
are green, and British cylinders are black with a white neck.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

II. AIRCRAFT EMERGENCY/SAFETY EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION

The provision, fitting, marking and use of safety equipment is governed by many
requirements and regulation standards. These notes have the general aim of giving an
overall view of the positioning and use of this variety of emergency/safety equipment. The
notes and diagrams in this module may be type specific of various aircraft. However,
reference should always be made to the specific Flight/Operations Manual.

The Emergency/Safety equipment described in this section is laid out in the order it may
be used during an envisaged ditching/crash landing situation.

All equipment must be readily accessible for emergency use. The location of the
equipment must be obvious, directly accessible and protected from inadvertent damage.

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Emergency Equipment - Emergency Systems

& Equipment"

https://youtu.be/-v0juLlp9R8

PUBLIC ADDRESS

When required at least one microphone to be available for use by the flight attendant
(cabin staff) at each floor level exit in the passenger compartment. It is usual for all flight
crew members to be able to use the public address either through a hand microphone or
their normal headset communications.

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Flight Attendant Public Address and Safety

Demonstration"

https://youtu.be/-QFoH_xKfjg

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Figure 11 - A flight attendant conduction public address using the cabin interphone.

EMERGENCY LIGHTING

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Emergency Lighting - Emergency Systems &

Equipment"

https://youtu.be/3iYbEVJzxd4

An emergency lighting system independent of the main lighting system must be installed.
The system must include:

 Illuminated emergency exit marking and location signs, sources of general cabin
illumination, internal lighting in emergency exit areas and floor proximity escape
path marking.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Figure 12 - Exit Sign Above an Emergency Exit Door on an Airplane.

 External emergency lighting.

Figure 13 - Boeing 747 external emergency lightings.

 Exit signs must have red letters on a white electrically or self-illuminated

background. General illumination must be provided along the center line of the
main passage aisles to the emergency exits.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Figure 14 - Emergency exit sign inside an airplane.

 Floor proximity emergency escape path illumination must be provided when other
means of illumination are more than 4 feet above the cabin aisle floor to enable
passengers to leave their seats, visually identify escape routes and exits.

Figure 15 - Aircraft emergency escape path markings.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

The design of the system must be such that it is:

 Operable from the flight station or passenger compartment.

 Capable of providing the crew with a warning light if not armed.
 The crew compartment must have a three position switch marked ON-OFF-
ARMED and a means must be provided to prevent inadvertent operation
(guarded). The cabin staff will also have a means of control but this switch will
have ON and OFF only.
 Capable of providing illumination to the areas on the wing and ground where an
evacuee is likely to make his first step or contact.
 The capacity of the emergency batteries must be such that they are capable of
providing emergency lighting for a period of at least 10 minutes.

EMERGENCY EXIT LIGHTS - IN A TYPICAL INSTALLATION

Clearly marked exit lights are located throughout the passenger cabin to indicate the
approved emergency routes. All of the lights are powered by individual Nicad batteries
with a charging, monitoring and voltage regulator circuit.

The system is controlled by a switch on the overhead panel. The switch has three
positions, OFF, ARMED and ON and is guarded to the ARMED position. With the switch
in the ARMED position the emergency exit lights will normally be extinguished. If electrical
power to 28 volt DC bus No.1 fails or if AC power has been turned off, the emergency
lights will illuminate automatically.

The emergency exit lights may also be illuminated by a switch on the attendant's panel.
The switch has two positions, NORMAL and ON and is guarded to the NORMAL position.

With the switch in the NORMAL position the lights are controlled from the cockpit. With
the switch in the ON position the cabin attendant may override the cockpit controls and
illuminate all the emergency lights. Control from this panel is available in the event of the
failure of the automatic control.

Interior emergency exit lights are located:

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

 In the bullnose of the stowage bins to illuminate the aisle.

 Over the entry/service and overwing emergency hatches to indicate the door and
hatch exits.
 In the ceiling to locate the exits and provide general illumination in the area of the
exits. Self-illuminating exit locator signs are installed at the forward, the middle and
the aft end of the passenger cabin.

Figure 16 - Emergency lights in the cabin.

Floor proximity emergency escape path lighting consists of locator lights spaced at
approximately 40 inch intervals down the aisles. Lighted arrows point to overwing exits
and a lighted "EXIT" indicator is near the floor by each door and overwing exit. Escape
path markings are provided for visual guidance for emergency cabin evacuation when all
sources of cabin lighting more than four feet above the aisle floor ate totally obscured by
smoke.

Exterior emergency lights illuminate the escape slides. The fuselage installed escape
slide lights are adjacent to the forward and aft service entry doors. Two lights are also
installed on the fuselage to illuminate the overwing escape routes and ground contact
area.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Whenever these switches are ON the Emergency Exit Lights are being powered by their
own individual Nicad batteries and last approximately 20 minutes, in this particular
installation.

MEGAPHONES

These are located at strategic points in the cabin specifically on the front and rear, upper
and lower decks and are for use by the cabin staff. Their purpose is for passenger
information in the event of normal aircraft power failure just in case no public address
system available.

Figure 17 - A flight attendant holding a megaphone in an emergency situation.

They are battery powered and must be checked prior to flight. This is carried out by
pressing the transmit switch and listening for an audible "click" or the illumination of a
green neon light on the megaphone body.

Megaphones are fitted as per scale below for each passenger deck:

Passenger Seats Available Number of Megaphones

61-99 1
100 or more 2

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

TORCHES

It is a legal requirement that torches are carried on public transport aircraft. These are
positioned at each crew station including the flight deck and adjacent to each floor level
exit which is intended for normal or emergency disembarkation.

Figure 18 - Emergency torch.

Torches are affixed by each intended exit by a velcro strap and are not able to be re-
charged from the aircraft electrical supply. Indication of serviceability is by a flashing red
neon light situated on the body of the torch.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

EMERGENCY EXIT DESCENT DEVICES

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Emergency Exit Provisions - Emergency

Systems & Equipment"

https://youtu.be/7huIXfmJvpo

Varying equipment must be provided with the evacuation process. These could include
any of the following: a simple rope, a slide, an inertial reel or a tape.

It is possible to find fully inflatable escape slides which are rigid and double as slide rafts,
apron slides which need human effort to keep them taut, this would be provided by the
first two escapees, who would probably descended down a rope or by using the slide as
a rope.

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Cockpit Emergency Escape Rope"

https://youtu.be/6T9OWQBh0jk

Crew escape methods still include simple rope systems and extend to inertial reel
systems on some larger aircraft when the crew member has to hang onto a handle and
slide over the side when they will be lowered at a controlled rate to the ground providing
of course that they are capable of hanging onto the handle!

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Figure 19 - Aircraft slide/raft.

An inflatable slide may double for use as a life raft. Such slides are usually stored inside
the door and as such have to be engaged (set to ENGAGE) for emergency
deployment/door operation, or selected to disengaged (DETACH) for normal door
operation. Instructions for setting the door controls are often issued by the flight crew over
the Public Address System.

Flotation equipment requirements are promulgated in the regulation standards. Briefly if

the aircraft will be operating more than 120 minutes flight time or 400 miles from land
then rafts and jackets are required to be carried. If the aircraft takes off or lands over
water then life jackets would need to be carried on that account.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

OVERWING ESCAPE HATCHES

Supplemental Video Presentation

“Airbus A320 series overwing exit"

https://youtu.be/RCFzEg-t_Bk

Escape hatches are located in the passenger cabin over the wings. These are plug-type
hatches and are held in place by mechanical locks and airplane cabin pressure. The
hatches can be opened from the inside or from the outside of an airplane by a spring-
loaded handle at the top of the hatch. A seat-back blocking an exit may be pushed forward
by applying force to the top of the seat-back. For safety reasons, hatches should not
be removed in flight.

On some aircraft, hatch removal illuminates the overwing emergency exit lights on the
same side, provided the cockpit emergency Exit Light Switch is in the ARMED position.

Warning: Do not remove hatches in flight preparation for passenger evacuation. For
emergency evacuation on the ground or in water, remove hatch and place so as not to
obstruct egress. The hatch may be thrown out onto the wing, placed on the seat armrests,
or placed in any other suitable location as indicated by the conditions at the time of
airplane evacuation.

OVERWING ESCAPE STRAPS

Supplemental Video Presentation

“B737 Overwing Escape Rope"

https://youtu.be/0m1N_gUzr4g

Escape straps are installed above each emergency escape hatch frame. The overwing
escape hatches must be removed to expose the straps. One end of the strap is attached
to the hatch frame. The remainder of the strap is stowed in a tube extending into the cabin
ceiling.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

The escape strap can be used as a hand hold in a ditching emergency for passengers to
walk out on to the wing and step into a life raft.

CUT-IN-AREAS

In the event that the nominated emergency exits are blocked or are unable to be opened,
a supplementary escape route, which can be broken from outside the aircraft, must be
available.

Figure 20 - Aircraft cut-in-areas.

These will take the form of cut-in-areas and are mandatory on public transport aircraft
over 3600 kg airframe unit weight. They are rectangular in shape, marked by right angled
corners and red or yellow in color and outlined in white if a contrast is required.

Cut-in-areas are not weak points on the fuselage structure, but areas under which no
control runs, electrical looms or multi stringers exist.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

DOORS / EMERGENCY EXITS

Figure 21 - Airbus A320 L2 door.

Aircraft doors, depending on the size of the aircraft, may be electrically or manually
operated. In the case of the former there must be a manual override system in the event
of electrical failure e.g. crash/ditching.

Apart from the obvious purpose of entry to an aircraft, doors may act as emergency exits.
However, if this is the case they must be outlined externally by a 3 cm band in a
contrasting color. This requirement applies to any opening designated as an emergency
exit.

There are many requirements laid down in respect of doors the main ones are listed
below:

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

 If a lockable door is fitted to the flight crew compartment, then suitable emergency
exits must be provided so that neither passengers nor crew members need to use
the door in order to reach their designated emergency exits.

 There must be a means to lock and safeguard each door against opening in flight.
Each door must be operable from both inside and outside.

 The means of operation must be simple and obvious and so arranged that it can
be located and operated in darkness.

 All doors must be fitted with warning lights in order to alert the crew when it is not
fully closed and locked.

 Interlocks may be fitted between the door locks and the aircraft's pressurization
system.

 If the aircraft capacity is over 20 seats then there must be one exit and one top
hatch in the flight crew area.

 Emergency exits located at points other than above the wing more than 1.83
meters above the ground with the aircraft standing on its landing gear must have
an approved means to assist the occupants in descending to the ground (i.e. a
self-supporting slide).

 All exits must be clearly marked with details of method of access and operation
and also be recognizable from a distance equal to the width of the cabin.

 A means must be provided to assist the occupants in locating the exits in

conditions of dense fog, smoke or darkness (Emergency Lighting).

 Each passenger emergency exit must be indicated by a sign visible to the

occupants approaching along the main aisle or aisles.

 All doors and emergency exits must be kept clear of any obstruction during flight.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

ESCAPE SLIDES

Figure 22 - Aircraft escape slide.

Supplemental Video Presentation

“A350 Slide Raft Deployment"

https://youtu.be/Ol7DdRpcW_Q

When an emergency dictates, rapid evacuation of the aircraft like crash/ditching will be
necessary. To this end actuation of the emergency escape slides will take place. The
slides are inflatable rubber/nylon units which are stowed in compartments on the bottom
inner face of entrance and service doors.

The slides incorporate a retainer (girt) bar which is normally stowed in stowage hooks on
the compartment cover. Escape slides are of two types: fully automatic and semi-
automatic.

Fully automatic slides have a Detach/Engage lever on the inner face of the
passenger/service door. When selected to Engage the door close circuit (electrical) is

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

armed on the ground. The girt bar floor is armed on the ground. The girt bar floor fittings
are raised to connect the bar to the floor when the door is closed. On selecting Detach
the door open circuit is armed and the girt bar Floor Fittings are raised to detach the bar
when the door is opened.

Figure 23 - Electrically operated door / automatic slide.

On semi-automatic installations the girt bar is attached and detached to the Floor Fittings
manually. In either case, fully or semi-automatic, with the girt bar engaged in the floor
fittings, opening the door for emergency evacuation will deploy the escape slide and
automatically inflate it, normally with carbon dioxide. Should auto-inflation fail a red
manual inflation handle is provided.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Figure 24 - Manual door / semi-automatic slide

RAFTS/DINGHIES

Many large aircraft utilize the escape slide as a survival raft with accommodation for up
to 60 persons, B747. When the slide has been released from the aircraft, by detaching
the girt bar, it can be used in this mode.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Figure 25 - Raft.

The raft has a secondary floor which drops onto the primary floor and can be inflated to
provide buoyancy. A center mast and protective canopy can also be rigged. Typical
survival equipment may be carried in the raft may include repair kits, flares, sea markers,
compass and torches. Emergency rations and water sachets can also be included in the
equipment.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Figure 26 - Dinghy

Aircraft dinghies can be internally or externally stowed. In the case of the latter their
inflation is automatic, normally via internal release levers. Their capacities are dependent
on design, 30 being a representative figure. The equipment provided in dinghies can vary
but it is similar to that found in rafts. Sufficient life rafts must be carried to accommodate
all the occupants of the aircraft if the largest capacity raft/dinghy is lost.

PERSONAL FLOTATION EQUIPMENT

The personal equipment is the lifejacket or life preserver, there are numerous types of
jacket and the information contained here is of a general nature and does not apply to
any particular make, model or type.

They will be designed as lightweight items of equipment and should be treated with care
at all times avoiding dropping or the placement of heavy loads on them. They are normally
stowed in special packs or containers for ease of handling and protection, stowage in this
manner will ensure that the jacket is maintained correctly folded to ensure easy and rapid
fitting if required for use. If there is any evidence of mishandling or immersion in sea water
they should be rejected for operational use.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Instruction for fitting are printed on the container and or jacket and included on the safety
leaflet which all are asked to read prior to take off. The normal stowage is under the seat
for passengers and in any easily reached stowage for the crew. The stowages will be
inspected for damage, cleanliness, security and ease of release on a regular basis.

Jackets used for demonstration purposes are usually marked Demo Only or Dummy
and should not be kept in normal stowages. If real jackets are used for demonstrations
they must be returned for servicing prior to being returned for operational use.

Figure 27 - Lifejacket

All the jackets are basically similar in design. Buoyancy is achieved by inflating the jacket
with carbon dioxide gas which is stored under pressure in a small bottle or cylinder and
released manually by the operation of a red toggle or lever. Once operated the gas will
pass through a NRV into the jacket and cannot be stopped.

A standby or top up method of inflation by mouth (Oral) is available and this manual
inflation tube usually contains a valve which can be operated by a key if it is desired to

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

lower or release the pressure in the jacket. They are colored either brilliant yellow or flame
red as an aid to identification and may contain any or all of the following equipment. Crew
life jackets must be checked for serviceability prior to flight.

 A whistle  A Heliograph (mirror)

 A lifeline  Sea water dye
 A sea water activated light  Shark repellant

A crew jacket may contain communications equipment or a Search and Rescue Beacon
also known as PLB or SARBE.

Global Positioning System (GPS) search and rescue beacon for civil and military air
crew. Called the SARBE-GPS, the system offers rescuing aircraft two locating options, a
satellite- generated latitude and longitude position or a conventional swept-tone signal on
the VHF/UHF frequencies. The SARBE-GPS weighs 0.8 kg and is compatible with
current life- preservers. It has a five-year battery shelf life and is water-proofed to 10
meters.

The lifejacket is usually constructed of rubberized fabric and contains a single air
chamber which covers the chest and extends round either side of the neck to form a
cushion at the back of the neck.

The jacket is secured by tapes which are tied around the body prior to inflation. For
children the tapes should be tied over the jacket and it is possible to have special jackets
for children under three, when the regulations allow the jacket to be without a whistle.

Flotation cots for infants may be provided on certain services and these will provide
protection from the elements to keep the child dry. Adult jackets should only be slightly
inflated by mouth prior to leaving the aircraft or the bulk of a fully inflated by mouth prior
to leaving the aircraft or the bulk of a fully inflated jacket on an adult may cause a problem
when leaving the aircraft through an escape hatch.

When correctly fitted and fully inflated the jacket will turn an unconscious person on to
their back and support them at about 45° with their face clear of the water.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

LOCATOR BEACONS

The locator beacon is a self-buoyant, dual frequency, 243.0 or 121.5 Mhz, radio distress
beacon transmitter with an 80 mile range. It provides at least 48 hours continuous
transmission on the Civil and Military International aviation distress frequencies. The
beacon can be operated on land, or it can be thrown into the sea.

Figure 28 - Locator beacon.

The beacon is operated by pulling on the red toggle, which in turn releases the “Velcro”
straps holding the aerial. Release of the aerial will lift the aerial from its position parallel
to the cylinder switches on the radio transmitter.

The aerial will lift to the vertical position, a neon lamp on top of the beacon will
continuously pulsate indicating the beacon is transmitting. The volume, weight and shape
of the cylinder are such as to provide sufficient buoyancy to maintain the aerial in a
vertical position above the water.
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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

FIRST AID EQUIPMENT

Three types of First Aid Kit are normally carried in larger aircraft:-

 First Aid Holdalls - These are not sealed and are designed for use by cabin crew
for the treatment of minor emergencies and ailments. Information, contents list and
Survival booklets are inside.

 Slide/Raft Kits - This First Aid Kit is situated in the survival pack of the slide/raft
and includes a survival booklet.

 Emergency First Aid Kits - The kit is split into two parts, one for cabin crew use
and the other half for use by qualified doctors only. The half for use by cabin may
contain various tablets such as Ventolin, Arret and Isordil. The part available for
use by qualified personnel contains sophisticated medical equipment and
controlled drugs and must be provided for aircraft with more than 30 seats if any
part of the planned route is more than 60 minutes flying time at normal cruising
speed from an aerodrome at which qualified medical assistance could be expected
to be available. These can only be used with the authority of the captain and must
be checked prior to flight for serviceability.

ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT

FIRE-PROOF GLOVES

A pair of fire-proof gloves are usually stowed on the flight deck for use in handling
overheated equipment. They are normally made of Nomex with silver heat resistance
coating.

FIRE AXE OR JEMMY

One fire axe or jemmy will be stowed on the flight deck whilst one or more may be stowed
in a secure place in the cabin out of view of the passengers. These are used for levering
and lifting hot panels or access doors to fight a fire beneath with a hand held extinguisher.
Fire axes are generally being phased out in favor of the jemmy.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

EXTRACT FROM EASA OPERATIONS REGULATIONS (EU-OPS) –

SUBPART K

The following information in EU-OPS 1 Subpart K is the EASA requirement for the
carriage of safety equipment and the requirement for emergency oxygen is
recommended reading for all students.

FIRST AID KITS

(a) An operator shall not operate an airplane unless it is equipped with first-aid kits,
readily accessible for use, to the following scale:

Number of passenger Number of First - Aid Kits

seats installed required

0 to 99 1

100 to 199 2

200 to 299 3

300 and more 4

(b) An operator shall ensure that first-aid kits are:

(1) Inspected periodically to confirm, to the extent possible, that contents are
maintained in the condition necessary for their intended use; and

(2) Replenished at regular intervals, in accordance with instructions contained on

their labels, or as circumstances warrant.

EMERGENCY MEDICAL KIT

(a) An operator shall not operate an airplane with a maximum approved passenger
seating configuration of more than 30 seats unless it is equipped with an emergency
medical kit if any point on the planned route is more than 60 minutes flying time (at normal

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

cruising speed) from an aerodrome at which qualified medical assistance could be

expected to be available.

(b) The commander shall ensure that drugs are not administered except by qualified
doctors, nurses or similarly qualified personnel.

(c) Conditions for carriage

(1) The emergency medical kit must be dust and moisture proof and shall be carried
under security conditions, where practicable, on the flight deck; and

(2) An operator shall ensure that emergency medical kits are:

(i) Inspected periodically to confirm, to the extent possible, that the contents
are maintained in the condition necessary for their intended use; and

(ii) Replenished at regular intervals, in accordance with instructions contained

on their labels, or as circumstances warrant.

FIRST-AID OXYGEN

(a) An operator shall not operate a pressurized airplane above 25,000 feet when a cabin
crew member is required to be carried unless it is equipped with a supply of undiluted
oxygen for passengers who, for physiological reasons, might require oxygen following a
cabin depressurization.

The amount of oxygen shall be calculated using an average flow rate of at least 3 liters
Standard Temperature Pressure Dry (STPD)/minute/person and provided for the entire
flight after cabin depressurization at cabin pressure altitudes of more than 8000 feet for
at least 2% of the passengers carried, but in no case for less than one person. There
shall be a sufficient number of dispensing units, but in no case less than two, with a
means for cabin crew to use the supply.

(b) The amount of first-aid oxygen required for a particular operation shall be determined
on the basis of cabin pressure altitudes and flight duration, consistent with the operating
procedures established for each operation and route.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

(c) The oxygen equipment provided shall be capable of generating a mass flow to each
user of at least four liters per minute, STPD. Means may be provided to decrease the
flow to not less than two liters per minute, STPD, at any altitude.

SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN - PRESSURIZED AIRPLANES

(a) General

(1) An operator shall not operate a (pressurized airplane at pressure altitudes

above) 10,000 feet unless supplemental oxygen equipment, capable of storing and
dispensing the oxygen supplies required by this paragraph, is provided

(2) The amount of supplemental oxygen required shall be determined on the basis
of cabin pressure altitude, flight duration and the assumption that a cabin
pressurization failure will occur at the pressure altitude or point of flight that is most
critical from the standpoint of oxygen need, and that, after the failure, the airplane
will descend in accordance with emergency procedures specified in airplane Flight
Manual to a safe altitude for the route to be flown that will allow continued safe flight
and landing.

(3) Following a cabin pressurization failure, the cabin pressure altitude shall be
(considered the same as the airplane pressure) altitude, unless it is demonstrated
to the Authority that no probable failure of the cabin or pressurization system will
result in a cabin (pressure altitude equal to the airplane pressure altitude. Under
these circumstances, the demonstrated maximum cabin pressure altitude] may be
used as a basis for determination of oxygen supply.

(b) Oxygen equipment and supply requirements

(1) Flight crew members

(i) Each member of the flight crew on flight deck duty shall be supplied with
supplemental oxygen in accordance with Appendix 1. If all occupants of flight
deck seats are supplied from the flight crew source of oxygen supply then they
shall be considered as flight crew members on flight deck duty for the purpose

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

of oxygen supply. Flight deck seat occupants, not supplied by the flight crew
source, are to be considered as passengers for the purpose of oxygen supply.

(ii) Flight crew members not covered by sub-paragraph (b)(1)(i) above, are to
be considered as passengers for the purpose of oxygen supply.

(iii) Oxygen masks shall be located so as to be within the immediate reach of

flight crew members whilst at their assigned duty station.

(iv) Oxygen masks for use by flight crew members in pressurized airplanes
operating at pressure altitudes above 25,000 ft shall be a quick donning type
of mask.

(2) Cabin crew members, additional crew members and passengers

(i) Cabin crew members and passengers shall be supplied with supplemental
oxygen in accordance with (Appendix 1, except when sub- paragraph (v)
below applies. Cabin crew members] carried in addition to the minimum
number of cabin crew members required and additional crew members, shall
be considered as passengers for the purpose of oxygen supply.

(ii) Airplanes intended to be operated at pressure altitudes above 25,000 ft

shall be provided sufficient spare] outlets and masks and/or sufficient portable
oxygen units with masks for use by all required cabin crew members. The
spare outlets and/or portable oxygen units are to be distributed evenly
throughout the cabin to ensure immediate availability of oxygen to each
required cabin crew member regardless of his location at the time of cabin
pressurization failure.

(iii) Airplanes intended to be operated at pressure altitudes above 25,000 ft

shall be provided an oxygen) dispensing unit connected to oxygen supply
terminals immediately available to each occupant, wherever seated. The total
number of dispensing units and outlets shall exceed the number of seats by at
least 10%. The extra units are to be evenly distributed throughout the cabin.

(iv) Airplanes intended to be operated at pressure altitudes above 25,000 feet

or which, if operated at or below 25,000 feet, cannot descend safely within 4

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

minutes to 13,000 feet, and for which the individual certificate of airworthiness
was first issued on or after 9 November 1998, shall be provided with
automatically deployable oxygen equipment immediately available to each
occupant, wherever seated. The total number of dispensing units and outlets
shall exceed the number of seats by at least 10%. The extra units are to be
evenly distributed throughout the cabin.

(v) The oxygen supply requirements, as specified in Appendix 1, for airplanes

not certificated to fly above 25,000 feet, may be reduced to the entire flight
time between 10,000 feet and 13,000 feet cabin pressure altitudes for all
required cabin crew members and for at least 10% of the passengers if, at all
points along the route to be flown, the airplane is able to descend safely within
4 minutes to a cabin pressure altitude of 13,000 ft.

SUPPLEMENTAL OXYGEN - NON-PRESSURISED AEROPLANES

(a) General

(1) An operator shall not operate a non- pressurized airplane at altitudes above
10,000 feet unless supplemental oxygen equipment, capable of storing and
dispensing the oxygen supplies required, is provided.

(2) The amount of supplemental oxygen for sustenance required for a particular
operation shall be determined on the basis of flight altitudes and flight duration,
consistent with the operating procedures established for each operation in the
Operations Manual and with the routes to be flown, and with the emergency
procedures specified in the Operations Manual.

(3) An airplane intended to be operated at pressure altitudes above 10,000 feet shall
be provided with equipment capable of storing and dispensing the oxygen supplies
required.

(b) Oxygen supply requirements

(1) Flight crew members. Each member of the flight crew on flight deck duty shall
be supplied with supplemental oxygen in accordance with Appendix 1. If all

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

occupants of flight deck seats are supplied from the flight crew source of oxygen
supply then they shall be considered as flight crew members on flight deck duty for
the purpose of oxygen supply.

(2) Cabin crew members, additional crew members and passengers. Cabin crew
members and passengers shall be supplied with oxygen in accordance with
Appendix 1. Cabin crew members carried in addition to the minimum number of
cabin crew members required, and additional crew members, shall be considered
as passengers for the purpose of oxygen supply.

CREW PROTECTIVE BREATHING EQUIPMENT

(a) An operator shall not operate a pressurized airplane or, after 1 April 2000, an
unpressurized airplane with a maximum certificated take-off mass exceeding 5700 kg or
having a maximum approved seating configuration of more than 19 seats unless:

(1) It has equipment to protect the eyes, nose and mouth of each flight crew member
while on flight deck duty and to provide oxygen for a period of not less than 15
minutes. The supply for Protective Breathing Equipment (PBE) may be provided by
the supplemental oxygen required by JAR-OPS 1.770(b)(1) or JAR-OPS
1.775(b)(1).

In addition, when the flight crew is more than one and a cabin crew member is not
carried, portable PBE must be carried to protect the eyes, nose and mouth of one
member of the flight crew and to provide breathing gas for a period of not less than
15 minutes; and

(2) It has sufficient portable PBE to protect the eyes, nose and mouth of all required
cabin crew members and to provide breathing gas for a period of not less than 15
minutes.

(b) PBE intended for flight crew use must be conveniently located on the flight deck and
be easily accessible for immediate use by each required flight crew member at their
assigned duty station.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

(c) PBE intended for cabin crew use must be installed adjacent to each required cabin
crew member duty station.

(d) An additional, easily accessible portable PBE must be provided and located at or
adjacent to the hand fire extinguishers required by JAR- OPS 1.790(c) and (d) except
that, where the fire extinguisher is located inside a cargo compartment, the PBE must be
stowed outside but adjacent to the entrance to that compartment.

(e) PBE while in use must not prevent communication where required by JAR-OPS 1.685,
JAR-OPS 1.690, JAR-OPS 1.810 and JAR-OPS 1.850.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

HAND FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

An operator shall not operate an airplane unless hand fire extinguishers are provided for
use in crew, passenger and, as applicable, cargo compartments and galleys in
accordance with the following:

(a) The type and quantity of extinguishing agent must be suitable for the kinds of fires
likely to occur in the compartment where the extinguisher is intended to be used and, for
personnel compartments, must minimize the hazard of toxic gas concentration;

(b) At least one hand fire extinguisher, containing Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifluoro-
methane, CBICIF2), or equivalent as the extinguishing agent, must be conveniently
located on the flight deck for use by the flight crew;

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

(c) At least one hand fire extinguisher must be located in, or readily accessible for use in,
each galley not located on the main passenger deck;

(d) At least one readily accessible hand fire extinguisher must be available for use in each
Class A or Class B cargo or baggage compartment and in each Class E cargo
compartment that is accessible to crew members in flight; and

(e) At least the following number of hand fire extinguishers must be conveniently located
in the passenger compartment(s):

Maximum approved
Number of
passenger seating
Extinguishers
configuration

7 to 30 1

31 to 60 2

61 to 200 3

201 to 300 4

301 to 400 5

401 to 500 6

501 to 600 7

601 or more 8

When two or more extinguishers are required, they must be evenly distributed in the
passenger compartment.

(f) At least one of the required fire extinguishers located in the passenger compartment
of an airplane with a maximum approved passenger seating configuration of at least 31,
and not more than 60, and at least two of the fire extinguishers located in the passenger
compartment of an airplane with a maximum approved passenger seating configuration
of 61 must contain Halon 1211 (bromochlorodifluoromethane, CBrCIF2), or equivalent as
the extinguishing agent.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

CRASH AXES AND CROWBARS

(a) An operator shall not operate an airplane with a maximum certificated take-off mass
exceeding 5700 kg or having a maximum approved passenger seating configuration of
more than 9 seats unless it is equipped with at least one crash axe or crowbar located on
the flight deck. If the maximum approved passenger seating configuration is more than
200 an additional crash axe or crowbar must be carried and located in or near the most
rearward galley area.

(b) Crash axes and crowbars located in the passenger compartment must not be visible
to passengers.

MARKING OF BREAK-IN POINTS

An operator shall ensure that, if designated areas of the fuselage suitable for break-in by
rescue crews in emergency are available on an airplane, such areas shall be marked as
shown below. The color of the markings shall be red or yellow, and if necessary they shall
be outlined in white to contrast with the background. If the corner markings are more than
2 meters apart, intermediate lines 9 cm x 3 cm shall be inserted so that there is no more
than 2 meters between adjacent marks.

MEANS FOR EMERGENCY EVACUATION

(a) An operator shall not operate an airplane with passenger emergency exit sill heights:

(1) Which are more than 1.83 meters (6 feet) above the ground with the airplane on
the ground and the landing gear extended; or

(2) Which would be more than 1.83 meters (6 feet) above the ground after the
collapse of, or failure to extend of, one or more legs of the landing gear and for
which a Type Certificate was first applied for on or after 1 April 2000, unless it has
equipment or devices available at each exit, where sub-paragraphs (1) or (2) apply,
to enable passengers and crew to reach the ground safely in an emergency.

(b) Such equipment or devices need not be provided at overwing exits if the designated
place on the airplane structure at which the escape route terminates is less than 1.83

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

meters (6 feet) from the ground with the airplane on the ground, the landing gear
extended, and the flaps in the take-off or landing position, whichever flap position is higher
from the ground

(c) In airplanes required to have a separate emergency exit for the flight crew and:

(1) For which the lowest point of the emergency exit is more than 1.83 meters (6
feet) above the ground with the landing gear extended; or,

(2) For which a Type Certificate was first applied for on or after 1 April 2000, would
be more than 1.83 meters (6 feet) above the ground after the collapse of, or failure
to extend of, one or more legs of the landing gear, there must be a device to assist
all members of the flight crew in descending to reach the ground safely in an
emergency.

MEGAPHONES

(a) An operator shall not operate an airplane with a maximum approved passenger
seating configuration of more than 60 and carrying one or more passengers unless it is
equipped with portable battery-powered megaphones readily accessible for use by crew
members during an emergency evacuation, to the following scales:

(1) For each passenger deck:

Passenger seating Number of

configuration Megaphones

61 to 99 1

100 or more 2

(2) For airplanes with more than one passenger deck, in all cases when the total
passenger seating configuration is more than 60, at least 1 megaphone is required.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

EMERGENCY LIGHTING

(a) An operator shall not operate a passenger carrying airplane which has a maximum
approved passenger seating configuration of more than 9 unless it is provided with an
emergency lighting system having an independent power supply to facilitate the
evacuation of the airplane. The emergency lighting system must include:

(1) For airplanes which have a maximum approved passenger seating configuration
of more than 19:

(i) Sources of general cabin illumination;

(ii) Internal lighting in floor level emergency exit areas; and

(iii) Illuminated emergency exit marking and locating signs

(iv) For airplanes for which the application for the type certificate or equivalent
was filed before 1 May 1972, and when flying by night, exterior emergency
lighting at all overwing exits, and at exits where descent assist means are
required

(v) For airplanes for which the application for the type certificate or equivalent
was filed on or after 1 May 1972, and when flying by night, exterior emergency
lighting at all passenger emergency exits.

(vi) For airplanes for which the type certificate was first issued on or after 1
January 1958, floor proximity emergency escape path marking system in the
passenger compartment(s).

(2) For airplanes which have a maximum approved passenger seating configuration
of 19 or less and are certificated to JAR-23 or JAR- 25:

(i) Sources of general cabin illumination;

(ii) Internal lighting in emergency exit areas; and

(iii) Illuminated emergency exit marking and locating signs

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

(3) For airplanes which have a maximum approved passenger seating configuration
of 19 or less and are not certificated to JAR-23 or JAR-25, sources of general cabin
illumination.

(b) After 1 April 1998 an operator shall not, by night, operate a passenger carrying
airplane which has a maximum approved passenger seating configuration of 9 or less
unless it is provided with a source of general cabin illumination to facilitate the evacuation
of the airplane. The system may use dome lights or other sources of illumination already
fitted on the airplane and which are capable of remaining operative after the airplane’s
battery has been switched off.

AUTOMATIC EMERGENCY LOCATOR TRANSMITTER

(a) An operator shall not operate an airplane unless it is equipped with an automatic
Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) attached to the airplane in such a manner that, in
the event of a crash, the probability of the ELT transmitting a detectable signal is
maximized and the possibility of the ELT transmitting at any other time is minimized.

(b) An operator must ensure that the ELT is capable of transmitting on the distress
frequencies prescribed in ICAO Annex 10.

LIFE JACKETS

(a) Land airplanes. An operator shall not operate a land airplane:

(1) When flying over water and at a distance of more than 50 nautical miles from
the shore; or

(2) When taking off or landing at an aerodrome where the take-off or approach path
is so disposed over water that in the event of a mishap there would be a likelihood
of a ditching, unless it is equipped with life jackets equipped with a survivor locator
light for each person on board.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

Each life jacket must be stowed in a position easily accessible from the seat or berth
of the person for whose use it is provided. Life jackets for infants may be substituted
by other approved flotation devices equipped with a survivor locator light.

(b) Seaplanes and amphibians. An operator shall not operate a seaplane or an

amphibian on water unless it is equipped with life jackets equipped with a survivor locator
light, for each person on board.

Each life jacket must be stowed in a position easily accessible from the seat or berth of
the person for whose use it is provided. Life jackets for infants may be substituted by
other approved flotation devices equipped with a survivor locator light.

LIFE-RAFTS AND SURVIVAL ELTS FOR EXTENDED OVERWATER FLIGHTS

(a) On overwater flights, an operator shall not operate an airplane at a distance away
from land which is suitable for making an emergency landing, greater than that
corresponding to:

(1) 120 minutes at cruising speed or 400 nautical miles, whichever is the lesser, for
airplanes capable of continuing the flight to an aerodrome with the critical power
unit(s) becoming inoperative at any point along the route or planned diversions; or

(2) 30 minutes at cruising speed or 100 nautical miles, whichever is the lesser, for
all other airplanes, unless the equipment specified in sub- paragraphs (b) and (c) is
carried.

(b) Sufficient life-rafts to carry all persons on board. Unless excess rafts of enough
capacity are provided, the buoyancy and seating capacity beyond the rated capacity of
the rafts must accommodate all occupants of the airplane in the event of a loss of one
raft of the largest rated capacity. The life-rafts shall be equipped with:

(1) A survivor locator light; and

(2) Lifesaving equipment including means of sustaining life as appropriate to the

flight to be undertaken and

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

(c) At least two survival Emergency Locator (Transmitters (ELT(S)) capable of

transmitting on the distress frequencies prescribed in ICAO Annex 10, Volume V, Chapter
2.

SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

An operator shall not operate an airplane across areas in which search and rescue would
be especially difficult unless it is equipped with the following:

(a) Signaling equipment to make the pyrotechnical distress signals described in ICAO
Annex 2;

(b) At least one ELT(S) capable of transmitting on the distress frequencies prescribed in
ICAO Annex 10, Volume V, Chapter 2; and

(c) Additional survival equipment for the route to be flown taking account of the number
of persons on board, except that the equipment specified in sub- paragraph (c) need not
be carried when the airplane either:

(1) Remains within a distance from an area where search and rescue is not
especially difficult corresponding to:

(i) 120 minutes at the one engine inoperative cruising speed for airplanes
capable of continuing the flight to an aerodrome with the critical power unit(s)
becoming inoperative at any point along the route or planned diversions; or

(ii) 30 minutes at cruising speed for all other airplanes,

(2) For airplanes certificated to JAR- 25 or equivalent, no greater distance than that
corresponding to 90 minutes at cruising speed from an area suitable for making an
emergency landing.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

SEAPLANES AND AMPHIBIANS - MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT

(a) An operator shall not operate a seaplane or an amphibian on water unless it is

equipped with:

(1) A sea anchor and other equipment necessary to facilitate mooring, anchoring or
maneuvering the aircraft on water, appropriate to its size, weight and handling
characteristics; and

(2) Equipment for making the sound signals prescribed in the International
Regulations for preventing collisions at sea, where applicable.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

ACTIVITY NO. 1
TRUE OR FALSE
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

1. Answer the following questions completely.

2. On the first page of your output, attach your signature over your printed name on the honesty clause box
shown below.
3. You can “save as pdf” or either print then scan the following pages of this activity and write your answers
on the space provided. Minimize your erasures.
4. Submit and upload your output in pdf file. Any paper size will do and you can use any orientation
regarding the layout.
5. If you have further questions, ask it only to your Instructor.

HONESTY CLAUSE

As a student of Philippine State College of Aeronautics, I hereby pledge to act ethically and
uphold the values of academic integrity, honor and excellence. I certify on my honor that I
have neither given nor received assistance from anyone in completing this assessment.

I understand that suspected misconduct on given assignments, activities and examinations

will be reported to the appropriate office and if established will result in disciplinary action in
accordance with the rules, policies and procedures by the College.

_______________________________
Signature over Printed Name

______ 1. Gaseous oxygen systems are used in commercial aircraft and LOX (liquid oxygen) oxygen
systems are primarily used in military aircraft.
______ 2. Most oxygen storage cylinders are painted blue, but yellow & white may be used as well.
______ 3. Demand‐flow systems are used most frequently by the crew on high performance and air
transport category aircraft.
______ 4. The solid chemical oxygen generators used in most airliners are activated automatically by
depressurization or manually by a switch operated by the flight crew.
______ 5. The cabin pressurization system must maintain the cabin pressure altitude below 10,000 ft.
______ 6. Continuous flow regulators are more conservative of oxygen than diluter type.
______ 7. An oxygen cylinder is recommended to be used until the pressure gauge reads 0 psi
______ 8. Commercial oxygen can be used to service aircraft oxygen systems.
______ 9. Oxygen system in unpressurized aircraft are generally of the portable bottle type only.
______ 10. Oxygen used in aircraft systems is at least 99.5% pure and is practically water free.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

ACTIVITY NO. 2
MULTIPLE CHOICE

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

1. Answer the following questions completely.

2. On the first page of your output, attach your signature over your printed name on the honesty clause box
shown below.
3. You can “save as pdf” or either print then scan the following pages of this activity and write your answers
on the space provided. Minimize your erasures.
4. Submit and upload your output in pdf file. Any paper size will do and you can use any orientation
regarding the layout.
5. If you have further questions, ask it only to your Instructor.

HONESTY CLAUSE

As a student of Philippine State College of Aeronautics, I hereby pledge to act ethically and
uphold the values of academic integrity, honor and excellence. I certify on my honor that I
have neither given nor received assistance from anyone in completing this assessment.

I understand that suspected misconduct on given assignments, activities and examinations

will be reported to the appropriate office and if established will result in disciplinary action in
accordance with the rules, policies and procedures by the College.

_______________________________
Signature over Printed Name

______ 1. Portable oxygen cylinders are normally charged to?

A) 1,200 psi C) 2,000 psi
B) 1,800 psi D) 2,500 psi

______ 2. In a continuous flow oxygen system, oxygen is supplied:

A) When the mask is plugged C) On passenger inhaling into the
into the socket. mask.
B) Only when the supply has D) All of the above are correct.
been regulated by the pilot.

______ 3. If oxygen is not being supplied in normal flight conditions, the cabin altitude must be?
A) Below 10,000 feet. C) At a maximum of 12,000 feet.
B) At or below 8,000 feet. D) At 15,000 feet.

______ 4. The critical altitude for oxygen requirement is approximately?

A) 4,000 feet. C) 38,000 feet.
B) 25,000 feet. D) 40,000 feet.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

______ 5. Oxygen equipment must be carried by aircraft capable of flying above.

A) 4,000 feet. C) 10,000 feet.
B) 8,000 feet. D) 15,000 feet.

______ 6. A chemical oxygen generator has a supply duration of at least?

A) 15 minutes C) 5 minutes
B) 30 minutes D) 25 minutes

______ 7. If an aircraft suddenly drops pressure at 14, 000 feet:

A) Attendant must drop masks. C) Passenger must get mask from
B) Masks drop manually. overhead stowage.
D) Masks drop automatically.

______ 8. What is the principle of an oxygen generator?

A) Sodium chlorate and iron mixed by an electronic detonator.
B) Sodium chlorate and iron using a mechanical detonator producing oxygen when
mixed with air.
C) Sodium chloride and iron mixed by an electronic detonator.
D) All of the answers are correct.

______ 9. Portable oxygen bottles are fitted with?

A) A demand regulator. C) An over temperature indicator.
B) An overpressure indicator. D) A non-return valve.

______ 10. How many fire extinguishers are required on an aircraft with 501 passengers?
A) 5 C) 7
B) 6 D) 8

______ 11. Attendant call is achieved by pressing a button on the passenger service unit (PSU). To
reset the light:
A) The button is pushed again.
B) The button is pulled out.
C) A reset switch on the attendant’s panel is operated.
D) No button needs to be pushed.

______ 12. After a successful ditching, the life rafts deployment will?
A) Be briefed by the cabin crew
B) Have detailed instructions in a booklet in a seat pocket.
C) Be rapid and obvious with easily and readily displayed instructions adjacent to
the life/rafts.

______ 13. Life jackets are inflated with cylinders of?

A) Air C) Nitrogen
B) Oxygen D) Carbon dioxide

______ 14. Aircraft emergency escape slides are usually pressurized with?
A) Air C) Nitrogen
B) Oxygen D) Carbon dioxide

______ 15. How often are life jackets inspected?

A) In accordance with the manufacturers specification.
B) In accordance with the aircraft maintenance manual.
C) Every 12 months.
D) Every 7 days.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
Learning Module 8: Aircraft Oxygen Systems and Emergency/Safety Equipment

ACTIVITY NO. 3
ESSAY

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS

1. Write your answer on a clean sheet of paper. Minimize your erasures.

2. On the first page of your output, attach your signature over your printed name on the honesty clause box
shown below.
3. Submit and upload your output in pdf file. Any paper size will do and you can use any orientation
regarding the layout.
4. If you have further questions, ask it only to your Instructor.

HONESTY CLAUSE

As a student of Philippine State College of Aeronautics, I hereby pledge to act ethically and
uphold the values of academic integrity, honor and excellence. I certify on my honor that I
have neither given nor received assistance from anyone in completing this assessment.

I understand that suspected misconduct on given assignments, activities and examinations

will be reported to the appropriate office and if established will result in disciplinary action in
accordance with the rules, policies and procedures by the College.

_______________________________
Signature over Printed Name

1. In regards to passenger oxygen system during aircraft depressurization, why is it important to put
on your oxygen mask first before assisting to put the mask of others?

2. Can the passenger doors and the overwing escape hatches be opened during flight or when the
aircraft is at cruising altitude? Explain your answer.

3. Why do you think megaphones that will be used by the cabin staff for passenger information and
emergency situations are not required for airplanes having a passenger seats of 60 and below?

4. Will the airplane still authorized to fly if the fire-proof gloves and jimmy/crowbar are missing on
board the plane? Explain your answer.

5. Will the airplane still authorized to fly if there is one (1) slide raft that is inoperative in one of the
passenger cabin doors? Explain your answer.

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