HOLY ANGEL UNIVERSITY

School of Engineering & Architecture

Aeronautical Engineering Program
Instructional Material in AERODYNAMICS 1

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected]

AIRFOIL PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

The pressure distribution is normally expressed in terms of the pressure coefficient, Cp.
P − P∞ P − P∞
Cp = =
q∞ 1
ρ ∞ V∞ 2
2
At low speeds, according to the incompressible Bernoulli Equation,
2
 V 
Cp = 1 −  
 V∞ 

CRITICAL VELOCITY, Vcr

1
 (γ − 1)M 2 + 2  2
Vcr = Va ∞  ∞ 
 γ + 1 
FOR AIR, γ = 1.4.
1
 M 2 + 5 2
Vcr = Va ∞  ∞ 
 6 

CRITICAL PRESSURE, Pcr

γ
 (γ − 1)M + 2  γ −1
2
Pcr = P∞  ∞ 
 γ +1 
FOR AIR, γ = 1.4.
3.5
 M 2 + 5
Pcr = P∞  ∞ 
 6 

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected] 54

 HOLY ANGEL UNIVERSITY
School of Engineering & Architecture
Aeronautical Engineering Program
Instructional Material in AERODYNAMICS 1

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected]

CRITICAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENT, C P
cr
Pcr − P∞
C p cr =
q∞
 γ 

2   (γ − 1)M ∞ + 2  γ −1
2 
C p cr =   − 1 
γM ∞ 2   γ +1  
 
FOR AIR, γ = 1.4.
3 .5
 M 2 + 5
 ∞  −1
 6 
C p cr =  
0 .7 M ∞ 2

DESIGN OF AIRFOIL
To design an airfoil for any specific use, the following effects of airfoil geometry should
be noted:
1. Camber shape will affect mainly α0 and cm. Any increase in camber will make α0 and
cm more negative.
2. Thickness distribution will change the value of lift curve slope, a.c. location, and
center of pressure location.
3. The leading-edge shape has a pronounced effect on stall characteristics and on

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected] 55

 HOLY ANGEL UNIVERSITY
School of Engineering & Architecture
Aeronautical Engineering Program
Instructional Material in AERODYNAMICS 1

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected]

NACA AIRFOIL DESIGNATION

4 – digit airfoils : Example NACA 4412

4 = camber 0.04c
4 = position of camber at 0.4c from L.E.
12 = maximum thickness 0.12c
5 – digit airfoils: Example NACA 23015
2 = camber 0.02c
This design lift coefficient is 0.15 times the first digit for this series.
0.30
30 = position of camber at c = 0.15c
2
15 = maximum thickness 0.15c
6 – series airfoils: Example NACA 653-421
6 = series designation
5 = minimum pressure at 0.5c
3 = the drag coefficient is near its minimum value over a range of lift
coefficient of 0.3 above and below the design lift coefficient.
4 = design lift coefficient 0.4
21 = maximum thickness 0.21c
7– series airfoils: Example NACA 747A315
7 = series designation
4 = favorable pressure gradient on the upper surface from L.E. to 0.4c at the
design lift coefficient.
6 = favorable pressure gradient on the lower surface from L.E. to 0.7c at the
design lift coefficient.
A = a serial letter to distinguish different sections having the same numerical
designation but different mean line or thickness distribution.
3 = design lift coefficient 0.3
15 = maximum thickness 0.15c

AIRFOIL SELECTION
In selecting an airfoil for an airplane lifting surface (wing, tail, or canard) the following
considerations are important:
1. Drag (for example: to obtain the highest possible cruise speed)
2. Lift –to-drag ratio a values of cl important to airplane performance
3. Thickness (to obtain the lowest possible structural weight)
4. Thickness distribution (to obtain favorable span loading and/or high fuel volume)
5. Stall characteristics (to obtain gentle stall characteristics)
6. Drag-rise behavior (associated with item 1)

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 HOLY ANGEL UNIVERSITY
School of Engineering & Architecture
Aeronautical Engineering Program
Instructional Material in AERODYNAMICS 1

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected]

GEOMETRIC FACTORS AFFECTING AIRFOIL MAXIMUM LIFT AT LOW
SPEEDS
The main features of airfoil design which affect wing stall and hence, the maximum lift
coefficient, are:
1. THICKNESS RATIO
t
For a given thickness ratio, , C lmax very much depends on the leading-edge
c
radius. It seen that the new NASA LS = (Low speed airfoils, a thickness ratio of
about 13% will produce the best volume of maximum lift. For the newer LS airfoils
the maximum lift occurs at around 15% thickness.

2. LEADING EDGE RADIUS

Clmax depends not only on the thickness ratio, but also on the ratio of section
t t
thickness at 5% chord to the maximum thickness . The ratio is indicative of
c c
leading–edge radius. Therefore, a relatively large leading-edge radius is beneficial to
producing large C lmax at low speeds.

3. CAMBER AND LOCATION OF MAXIMUM THICKNESS

The addition of camber is always beneficial to C lmax and the benefit grow with
increasing camber. The increment to maximum lift due to camber is least for
sections with relatively large leading edge radius (i.e., the benefit of camber grows
t
with reducing ; and camber is more effective on thin sections than on thick
c
sections). In addition, a forward position of maximum camber produces higher
values of C lmax For example, the NACA 23012 airfoil (with 2% maximum camber at
0.15 chord) has a C lmax of 1.79 as compared with 1.67 for NACA 4412 (with 4%
camber at 0.4 chord but the same thickness distribution) at a Reynolds number of 9 x
106

4. REYNOLDS NUMBER
For airfoils with moderate thickness ratio, there is a significant because increase
in C lmax with increasing Reynolds number. On the other hand, for thin airfoils the
effect of Reynolds number is relatively significant. In general, these Reynolds
number effects are less for cambered than for symmetrical sections. At low
Reynolds number, the effect of camber is more insignificant. The opposite is true at
Reynolds number greater than 6 x 106, where camber losses some of its effects.

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 HOLY ANGEL UNIVERSITY
School of Engineering & Architecture
Aeronautical Engineering Program
Instructional Material in AERODYNAMICS 1

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected]

5. EFFECT OF HIGH LIFT DEVICES ON AIRFOIL MAXIMUM LIFT
TRAILING –EDGE FLAPS
Plain Flaps
1. Formed by hinging the rear-most part of the wing section about within the contour.
2. The main effect produced by the flap deflection is an increase in the effective
camber of the wing.
3. The optimum flap angle is approximately 0.25.
4. The optimum flap angle is approximately 60o.
5. Leakage through gap 1330th of the chord resulted on a loss of 0.35 in C lmax .
6. The maximum achievable increment is C lmax is approximately 0.9.
Split Flaps
1. The unusual split flaps is formed by deflecting the aft portion of the lower surface
about a hinge point on the surfaces of the forward edge of the deflected portion.
2. The optimum flap chord ratio is approximately 0.3 for 12% thick airfoils,
increasing to 0.4 or higher for thicker airfoils.
3. The optimum flap angle is approximately 70o
4. The maximum achievable increment in C lmax is approximately 0.9.
5. The optimum thickness ratio is approximately 18%.

Slotted Flaps
1. Slotted flaps provide one or more slots between the main portion of the wing
section and the deflected flap.
2. The optimum flap chord ratio is approximately 0.9
1. The optimum flap angle is approximately 40o for single slots and 70o for double-
slotted flaps.
2. The optimum thickness ratio is approximately 16%
3. The maximum achievable increment in C lmax is approximately 1.5 for single slots
and 1.9 for double slotted flaps.

Fowler Flaps
The Fowler Flaps uses the same principles as the slotted flap, except that the flap also
moves backwards in addition to a downward deflection. Thus, the effective wing area is
increased!

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected] 58

 HOLY ANGEL UNIVERSITY
School of Engineering & Architecture
Aeronautical Engineering Program
Instructional Material in AERODYNAMICS 1

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected]

LEADING –EDGE DEVICES
Slats
Leading –edge slats are airfoils mounted ahead of the leading edge of the wing such as to
assist in turning the air around the leading edge at high angle of attack and thus delay
leading-edge stalling. They may be either fixed in position of retractable. The use of slats
may increase C lmax by as much as 0.5.

Slots
When the slots is located near the leading edge, the configuration differs only in detail from
the leading edge slat. Additional slots may be introduced at various chordwise stations.
The effectiveness of the slot derives from its BLC (= Boundary Layer control)effect. At low
angle of attack, the minimum profile drag may be greatly increased with such slots.

Leading –Edge Flaps

A leading flap may be formed by bending down the forward portion of the wing section to
form a droop. Other types of leading –edge flaps are formed by extending a surface
downward and forward from the vicinity of the leading edge (Kruger flap) Leading Edge
flaps reduce the severity of the pressure peak ordinarily associated with high angle of attack
and thereby delay separation.

BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL

Higher maximum lift coefficient can also be achieved by boundary layer control (BLC).
The idea may involve injecting high-speed for parallel to the wall (called “blowing”), removing
the low energy boundary layer flow by “suction”, or both. Blowing is done to re-energize the
boundary layer flow to delay the separation, while suction is equivalent to eliminating the low
energy shear layer.

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected] 59

 HOLY ANGEL UNIVERSITY
School of Engineering & Architecture
Aeronautical Engineering Program
Instructional Material in AERODYNAMICS 1

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected]

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected] 60

 HOLY ANGEL UNIVERSITY
School of Engineering & Architecture
Aeronautical Engineering Program
Instructional Material in AERODYNAMICS 1

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected]

LEADING-EDGE DEVICES

Prepared by: Engr. Roberto R. Renigen | [email protected] 61