Prepared by Farirayi D.T.

(0736243049/0775957748)
TOPICS

 DATA PRESENTATION

 MEASUREMENTS

 FORCE

 MECHANICAL SYSTEMS

 ENERGY

 MAGNETISM

 ELECTRICITY

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DATA PRESENTATION

WAYS OF PRESENTING DATA

- Data is any information such as facts and statistics gathered by scientist during
experiment or during a research.
- Scientists interpret data (i.e. understand and explain the meaning of) and it to make
conclusions about their experiment.
- Data gathered need to be presented in a certain way which is not time consuming e.g.
visual or graphic.
- Data can be qualitative data (observations) or qualitative data (statistical data).

Tallies

- Tally marks are a unary numeral system. They are a form of numeral used for
counting. They are most useful in counting or tallying ongoing results, such as the
score in a game or sport, as no intermediate results need to be erased or discarded.

- However, because of the length of large numbers, tallies are not commonly used for
static text.

- Tally marks are typically clustered in groups of five for legibility. The cluster size 5
has the advantages of easy conversion into decimal for higher arithmetic operations
and avoiding error, as humans can far more easily correctly identify a cluster of 5 than
one of 10.

- Tallies are done as follows

A tally of mass of form one learners

Mass (kg) Number of learners tally

31 – 35 1 I
36 – 40 6 IIII I
41 – 45 11 IIII IIII I
46 – 50 8 IIII III
51 - 55 4 1111

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Tables

- Presenting data in a table helps to make it clear and easy to read and understand.
- Tables should always have a descriptive heading
- Each column and row should be labelled and can have a unit of measurement
representing all data on the column if applicable. For example;

Favourite fruit types for form one learners

Types of fruit Number of learners

Banana 14
Mango 6
Marula 9
Apple 1
Bar graphs
- A bar graph is a visual display of data on a graph. Bar graphs have vertical bars of
different heights on a pair of axes.
- Bar graphs are used when the data is in groups or categories e.g. days of the week,
types of transport, type of fruits e.t.c.
- We can use the information presented in the table above to draw a bar graph

Graph for favorite fruit type

16

14

12
numberof learners

10

0
Banana Mango Marula Apple

- The heights of the bars shows the values represented in the table
- From the graph we can see that bananas are the most popular fruit and apples are the
least popular.

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STRAIGHT LINE GRAPHS

- Shows a variable that change with time e.g. temperature change as water is heated,
- It has x-axis and y-axis
- Points to note when drawing a line graph include;
 Draw the lines to show the x-axis and y-axis
 Label the axis
 Select suitable scale for both the x-axis and y-axis
 Mark points accurately using the following mark ● or +
 Draw a smooth line to join the points i.e. draw a line of best fit using a sharp
pencil

A line graph showing temperature changes with time

 With such a straight line we can conclude that the temperature is directly
proportional to the time. As time increases temperature also increase
 The graph can be used to find the temperature at 3 and 7 minutes

Examples 2 A student carried out an investigation the effect of height on pressure of a

liquid. Table below shows results obtained from the experiment.

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 depth/cm 10 20 30 40 50
height/cm 0.5 1.0 1.5 1.8 2.5

a) Plot a graph of height against the depth

b) Find , using the graph, the height at depth of 24cm
c) Describe, from the graph, the relationship between height and depth

Example 3 An experiment was done to investigate the relationship between the distances
travelled over the time taken for a car to move along a track. The following
data was collected.

Time/s 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance/m 0 5 10 15 20 25

(a) Plot a graph of distance travelled against time taken.

(b) What is the relationship between the variables

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MEASUREMENT

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

Estimating Quantities

- An estimate is a guess very close to actual based on knowledge or rough calculations

and it can be done before actual measurement. Different people produce different
estimates for a given quantity.
- Estimate the length of the following and record your estimations in metres
(a) Width of the classroom door
(b) The length of the classroom walls
(c) Height of your desk
- Estimate and record estimates in kg / g of mass of the following
(a) A science textbook
(b) A pen
(c) A beaker
- Estimate and record your estimations in oC of temperature of
(a) Cold water
(b) Warm water
(c) Hot water
- Estimate and record your estimation in seconds or minutes of time it takes to
(a) Walk the length of the class
(b) Take your book out of your satchel and place it on your desk
(c) To boil 100ml of water
- Record all observations in the table below
Item Estimation Actual Measurement Accurate /not accurate

ERRORS IN MEASUREMENT

- Errors occur in all physical measurements and there are two common errors that could
occur when taking measurements i.e.

Parallax error

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 - It is an error in reading an instrument due to the incorrect position of the eye.
- To avoid parallax error, the person taking measurement must make sure that their line
of sight is directly in line with the instrument’s pointer and scale.

Zero error

- Is caused by incorrect positioning of the zero point.

- The pointer on the instrument must be exactly positioned near to zero on the scale

PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND SI UNITS

- Physical quantity is a property of an object or other substance that can be measured

using an appropriate measuring instrument.
- Each type of measurement is done in a special unit, set as a standard to be used by
scientists and other people so that they communicate effectively amongst themselves.
- SI units stand for international system of units.
- The International System (SI) units of measurements are used to measure physical
quantities.

Reading an instrument scale

- It is important to be accurate when taking measurements.

- Errors in measurement can be minimised to ensure accurate measurement
- The eye must be correctly positioned in order to take correct readings
- In diagram below position 2 will give correct reading. Position 1 will give a reading
that is less than the actual measurement and position 3 will give a reading that is
greater than the actual measurement.

- To read the scale properly, count the number of divisions between zero and one. For
example, in the scale below, there are ten divisions between zero and one. Divide 1

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 by the number of subdivisions to find out what each subdivision measures, in this
case, each subdivision represents 0.1cm.

- Therefore reading at position A is 0.6cm; at position B is 1.4cm and position C is

2.2cm

Units including SI Units

Physical quantity SI unit Instruments

Length Metre (m) Metre rule, measuring tape

Mass Kilogram (kg) Balance

Time Second (s) Clock, stop watch

Temperature Kelvin (K) Thermometer

CONVERTING UNITS

Prefixes of SI units

 Kilo- (k) 1000

 Milli- (m) 0.001
 Centi- (c) 0.01

Length

- The SI unit is the metre and other units include centimetre (cm) and millimetres
(mm).
100cm = 1m
10mm = 1cm
- When converting;
(a) Metre to centimetre multiply metres by 100

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 (b) Centimetre to metres divide by 100
(c) Millimetre to centimetre divide by 10
(d) Centimetre to millimetre multiply by 10

Mass

- The SI unit is the kilogram and other units include the gram and the milligram
1kg = 1000g
1g = 0.001kg
- When converting;
(a) Kilograms to grams multiply by 1000
(b) Grams to kilograms divide by 1000

Time

- SI unit is the second. The other units include minutes and hours
1h = 60mins
1min = 60s
1h = 360 s
- When converting;
(a) Hour to minutes multiply by 60
(b) Minutes to hours divide by 60
(c) Seconds to minutes divide by 60
(d) Minute to seconds multiply by 60

Temperature

- SI unit is the Kelvin. The other units include degrees Celsius (°C) and degrees Fareh
(°F)
0°C = 273K
- When converting;
(a) Degrees Celsius to Kelvin add 273
(b) Kelvin to degrees Celsius subtract 273

MEASURING PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

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Measuring mass of liquid

- A liquid cannot be weighed directly without placing it in a container.

- The mass of an empty beaker is found on a balance.
- A known volume of the liquid is transferred from a measuring cylinder into the
beaker. The mass of the beaker plus liquid is found.
- Therefore the mass of liquid is obtained by subtraction as follows.
mass of water = mass of beaker and water − mass of empty container

Volume of irregular objects

- Volume of an irregular object can be found by displacement method.

- When a solid is immersed in water, it displaces its own volume of liquid in which it is
immersed.
- Fill the overflow can so that water is level with the bottom of the spout. Then place
the object in the can, collecting the water which overflows.
- Measure its volume; this equals the volume of the object.

- If the displacement can is unavailable, use a measuring cylinder instead. Fill it about
half-full with water; read and record the volume of water. (initial volume)
- Put the object in water so that it is completely covered; read and record the total
volume of water and object (final volume)
- Calculate the volume of the object
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

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 Original volume of water = 50cm3

Final volume of water = 70cm3

Volume of stone = 70𝑐𝑚3 − 50𝑐𝑚3 = 20𝑐𝑚3

Mass of small object

- If the object is very small, it is very difficult to measure its mass e.g. the mass of one
bean seed or drawing pin.
- Measure the mass of a large number of the objects and then divide the mass by
number of objects to get mass of one object
mass of seeds
mass of one seed =
number of seeds

Volume of small objects

- Fill a measuring cylinder with water and record the volume.

- Place a large number of objects e.g. 50seeds into the water in the measuring cylinder.
Record the new volume.

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 - Calculate the volume of the large number of the objects by subtracting the volume of
water from that of water and seeds.
- Calculate the volume of one object by dividing the volume by number of objects

Volume of water = 14cm3

Volume of water + 50seeds = 26cm3
Volume of 50seeds = 26 – 14 = 12cm3
Volume of 1 seed = 12/50 = 2cm3

Thickness of small objects

- Separate the cover of the book from the rest of the pages
- Press together the pages and then count the number of sheets in your book.
- Measure the thickness of the sheets.
- Divide the thickness of the sheet by number of sheets to get thickness of one sheet.
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑠
𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡 =
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑡𝑠
- Since the thickness of one sheet is so small you can convert cm to mm

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Example 1 A pile of exercise books without covers is 20cm high. There are 30 exercise
books each with 46 pages. What is the thickness of one sheet of paper?

Number of pages = 30 x 46 = 1380

1380
Number of sheets = = 690
2
20𝑐𝑚 𝑥 10𝑚𝑚 200
Thickness of one sheet = = =0,29mm
690 690
DENSITY

- Density is mass per unit volume of a substance

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑚)
Density (D) = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑉)

- Units can be g/cm3 or kg/m3

Example 1 Calculate the density of glass if 120cm3 of glass has a mass of 300g

Example 2 A cylinder of aluminium has a radius of 7cm and a height of 20cm. The mass
of the cylinder is 8.316kg. Calculate the density of aluminium

Example 3 A beaker has a mass of 48g. When 120cm3 of copper sulphate solution are
poured into the beaker it is found to have a mass of 174g. Calculate the density
of the copper sulphate

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FORCE

EFFECTS OF FORCES

- A force is a push or a pull; a squeeze or a twist

- Effects of forces include;
 Distortion or deformation (change in shape and size) – a force can change the
shape of a solid object e.g. when you squeeze a cool drink can, the force
exerted on the can by the hand causes the can to change shape.
 Change in speed – a force can cause the speed of a moving object to change. It
can cause the object to accelerate and move faster or decelerate and moves
slower e.g. when riding a bicycle the harder and faster you pedal, the greater
the force and the faster the bicycle goes.
 Change direction – a force can cause a moving object to change direction e.g.
a tennis ball approaching a tennis player, the player hits the ball and it changes
direction because the racket exerts a force on the ball to change direction
 Change in position – a force can cause a stationery object to move and change
position e.g. if a soccer ball is kicked, the foot exert the force on the ball and
the ball moves forward.

Types of force

- There are two main types of forces i.e. contact and non-contact forces
- Contact forces are forces that are in direct contact with each other e.g. pulling,
pushing and twisting forces (mechanical forces) that are directly applied to an object.
 Weight – is the force acting on mass due to gravity
 Mechanical force – caused by the movement of objects e.g. falling water
 Friction – force that opposes motion. It occurs between two objects that are
moving against each other. It slows down a moving object or causes it to stop.
- Non contact forces that not in direct contact with each other. Effect of the force can be
observed e.g.
 Gravitational force – that pulls objects towards the centre of the earth.
 Magnetic force – force exerted by magnets to attract or repel materials
 Electrostatic force – produced by rubbing and can attract or repel objects

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MEASURING FORCE

- Is measured in Newtons (N) using a force meter or spring balance

- A forcemeter is made of a spring with a hook attached to it. The large the force
applied, the longer the spring stretches and the greater the reading. The scale of a
forcemeter is in Newtons.
- A spring balance is a type of forcemeter that measures how much a spring stretches
when an object is hung from it. This is the object’s mass. The mass reading on a
spring balance can be converted to weight by multiplying the mass by the force of
gravity(about 10N per kg) weight is measured in Newtons

100g = 1N
1kg = 10N

BALANCED AND UNBALANCED FORES

- If two equal sized forces acting in opposite direction are balanced, no movement will
occur thus the forces are in equilibrium.
- If two forces are unbalanced then movement will occur in the direction of the larger
force.

Resultant force

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 - Is the sum or difference of all forces acting along the same line
 When forces act along the same line and in the same direction their resultant is the
sum of the individual forces

 When forces acting in the same line but in opposite direction their resultant is the
difference of the individual forces.

 The resultant force on a body causes movement in its direction. If the resultant is
zero, the body is at equilibrium and does not move i.e. equal force in opposite
directions.

- Direction in which the force is acting is shown by arrows and if drawn to scale they
indicate the size of the force.
- The resultant force on a body cause movement in its direction

Example 1 A small cart is pulled by 2 oxen pulling with 200N. The force of friction
between the cart and the ground is 50N and between the wheel and axle is
75N. Find the resultant force.

Example 2 A wheelbarrow is pushed along a force of 150N. The force of friction between
wheel and the ground is 30N. Draw a diagram to show the forces acting and
hence find the resultant force.
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MOMENT OF A FORCE

- Moment is the turning effect of a force about a fulcrum (pivot)

- It depends on both the size of the force and how far it is applied from the pivot
- It is measured by multiplying the force by the perpendicular distance of the line of
action of the force to the fulcrum.
- In the diagram below, the moment, M, of the force P is given by 𝐌 = 𝐅𝐱

𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

- Moment is measured in Newton metres (Nm)

- The greater the force and the distance from the fulcrum, then the greater the turning
effect.

Examples Calculate the clockwise and the anticlockwise moments for each of the
following examples below.

The principle of Moments

- The principle is about objects balancing when the moments of all the forces acting are
balanced.

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 - The principle states that for a body to be in equilibrium (balanced), the sum of the
moments about any point is zero i.e. clockwise moment = the anticlockwise moments
𝐹 𝑥 𝑑 (𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒) = 𝐹 𝑥 𝑑 (𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒)

Example 1 Mutsa who has a mass of 40kg, sits at one end of a see-saw that is 3m long.
The see-saw pivots at its centre point. Where must Masimba, who has a mass
of 50kg, sit to balance Mutsa.

By the law of moments,

Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
∴ 40kg × 1.5m = 50kg × Xm
40×1.5
∴X= = 1.2m
50

Example 2 Use the principle of moments to calculate the unknown quantities in examples
below. In all cases, the beam is balanced.

FRICTION

- Friction is a force that opposes motion (movement) when two surfaces are in contact
with each other. Friction occurs between two objects that are moving against each
other
- An object remains stationary if frictional force is greater than pushing force
- An object only moves if pushing or pulling force is greater than friction.

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Measuring friction

- Tie a string around a brick and hook the forcemeter to the string. Use the string to pull
the brick.
- Start with a small force and continue to increase the force, noting the reading on the
scale of the forcemeter as you increase the pulling force. Record the maximum force
reached before the brick starts moving.
- Continue to pull the brick so that it slides with minimum force. Record the reading on
the forcemeter while the block is moving.
- As the brick is pulled forward, it didn’t start moving as soon as it is started pulling.
Another force acting backwards occurs at the same time i.e. friction which exists
between two surfaces that are in contact.
- This opposing force has a maximum size for any two surfaces in contact such that
when this size is exceeded, the object starts moving.
- The maximum force recorded by the forcemeter just before the brick starts moving is
called static friction.
- As soon as the brick starts moving a smaller force is required to keep brick moving.

Application of frictional forces

Nature of surface – the rougher the surface, the greater the friction it will cause.
Road surfaces – are rough to improve friction

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Car breaking systems – the force of the foot on the brake pedal is multiplied by the breaking
system. There is a large force at the brake pads against the wheel and the force of friction
stops the car.
Tyre threads – the threads on tyres provide a rough surface to improve friction between the
wheel and the road surface. This improve grip on the road and prevents skidding.
Shoe soles – are rough to increase friction and give a better grip
- All these increase the roughness of surfaces to control motion and remain safe
- Friction can be reduced by
 Lubricating
 Use of rollers
 Use of ball bearings
 Polishing surfaces
 Adding wheels

SIMPLE MACHINES

- A machine is a device that helps us to do work easier e.g. levers, pulleys, inclined
planes, gears, wheel and axle.
- A machine is anything that magnifies a small force into a large force that is able to do
work.
- Machines are energy convertors

Levers

- A lever is a device which can turn about a pivot

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 - In a working lever a force called the effort is used to overcome a resisting force called
the load. The pivotal point is called the fulcrum
- If we use a crow bar to move a heavy boulder, our hands apply the effort at one end of
the bar and the load is the force exerted by the boulder on the other end.
- A lever changes the force applied on one end of the lever to an opposite force on the
other side

Classes of lever

 First class: fulcrum is between the load and effort e.g. crowbars, scissors, claw
hammer, pliers.
 Second class: load is between the fulcrum and effort e.g. wheelbarrow, nutcracker,
bottle opener
 Third class levers: effort is between the fulcrum and load e.g. a hoe, fishing rod,
tongs, a spade

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ENERGY

EFFECTS OF ENERGY

- Energy is the ability to do work

- Effects of energy are things that can be seen as a result of energy e.g.
 Heating magnesium – burns brightly i.e. gives off much light
 Squashing a spring – springs changes shape i.e. becomes shorter
 Pulling elastic band and pluck it – elastic vibrates and make sound
 Bouncing a ball – ball changes direction i.e. up and down
 Blowing a whistle – sound comes out
 Closing switch on an electric motor – motor turns
 Clapping hands, sound is produced
 Lighting a torch, chemical energy is converted to light energy
 Raising a brick, chemical energy is converted to kinetic energy and potential
energy
 Car engines release stored energy and convert it into motion

Sources of Energy
- A source of energy can supply the energy that can be used to do work.
- Source of energy include
1. Renewable sources i.e. wind, bio-fuels, solar, hydropower
2. Non-renewable i.e. fossil fuels, nuclear energy

FORMS OF ENERGY

Kinetic energy

- Energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion e.g. when kicking or bouncing a
ball, energy is used to move the ball. The ball has kinetic energy. All moving objects
have kinetic energy. The faster it moves the more kinetic energy it has.

Heat energy

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 - Heat energy is also called thermal energy and is the final fate of other forms of
energy. Heat energy causes a change in the internal energy. It is transferred by
conduction, convection or radiation. The greater the heat energy of a substance is, the
higher its temperature.

Electrical energy

- Energy formed when electrons flow through a conductor. It can be changed into many
other forms like heat and light energy. It is produced by energy transfers at power
stations and in batteries

Chemical energy

- Chemical energy is energy released if a chemical reaction takes place. The energy of
food is released by chemical reactions in our bodies during respiration. Fuels cause
energy release when they are burnt. Batteries are compact sources of chemical energy,
which in use is converted to electrical energy.

Potential energy

- Potential energy is the energy a body has because of its position or condition e.g.
water stored in a reservoir has potential energy stored in the form of gravitational
potential energy. It is therefore stored up energy that can be released to do work
- There are different types of potential energy i.e.
 Gravitational potential energy – is the energy stored in a body due to its
relative position to the earth. For example, water stored behind a dam wall, it
has more potential energy than water at lower level. When released, the water
loses potential and gains kinetic which can used to drive machinery which
generate electricity
 Elastic potential energy – is the energy stored by a stretched or squeezed
body. For example, a stretched bow or catapult has elastic potential energy
which can be used kinetic energy to a missile. Similarly, a wound up spring
can drive a watch. The more an object is stretched or squeezed, the greater its
elastic potential energy.
 Chemical potential energy – is the energy within objects that will be converted
if a chemical reaction takes place. Food and fuels are stores of chemical

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 energy. Foods release energy as a result of chemical reactions in the body.
When fuels are burnt they release energy mainly as heat. The heat is used to
drive an engine.

Light energy

- Light energy is the energy that enables us to see and is important for green plants to
make food by photosynthesis. Main source is the sun.

Sources of light energy

- Sun
- Moon
- Fire
- Electric bulb
- Candle
- LEDs

Transmission of Light

- A ray of light is a narrow stream of light and is shown by straight lines with arrows
showing the direction in which the light is travelling.

- A beam of light is a stream of light usually represented by a number of rays. A beam

can be parallel, divergent or convergent as shown below

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Production of shadows

- A shadow is an area in which light does not fall

- Shadows are formed because some (opaque) objects do not allow light to pass through
them and that light travel in a straight lines. Sharpness of the shadow depends on the
size of the light source.
- If light is made to pass through a narrow hole, a straight ray of light is produced. This
ray has defined edges. This is because light travels in a straight.
- If the light is blocked by a figure with sharp edges, a sharp shadow of the object with
well defined edges is cast onto a screen.

Sound energy

- Sound energy is energy produced when an object or substance vibrates and it moves
through materials as sound waves.

Production of sound energy

- Sound is produced by vibrations.

- Vibrations are small but fast backward and forward movements.
- If an elastic band is plucked, it will be seen to vibrate and it will produce a humming
sound. The elastic band represents the tissue called the vocal chords found in the
throat which vibrate to produce sound.
- Musical instruments make sound waves when part of them or the air inside them
vibrates

Transmission of sound energy

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 - Sound waves are mechanical in nature in that they require a medium through which to
move which is usually air, liquids or solids.
- Sound are transmitted when particles of a medium vibrate back and forth in the same
direction
- When these molecules vibrate, they in turn cause the molecules around them to
vibrate causing the sound to be transmitted
- Diagram shows how a vibrating tuning-fork sends out a sound wave. When the tuning
fork moves to the right it compresses the air particles together. This disturbance is
then transmitted from particle to particle through the air, with the result that a pulse of
compression moves outwards.

- A series of compressions and rarefaction moves sound forwards, but the particles of
the medium only move backwards and forwards. This is why sound needs a medium
in order to be transmitted.

Experiment to show that sound requires a material medium for transmission

- The bell-jar experiment can be used to demonstrate that sound waves cannot pass
through a vacuum.
- Before starting the pump, switch on the electric bell. You can see the movement of
the striker and hear the sound at the same time.

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 - When the vacuum pump starts, the sound becomes fainter and fainter with time.
Finally it becomes so soft that you cannot hear it any more although the striker can
still be seen hitting the gong. If you let air into the bell jar, sound is heard again. This
shows that without a medium sound cannot be transmitted.
- Care must be taken that the bell should not touch the glass and the connecting wires
used must be thin to prevent any sound waves from being transmitted through them to
the outside of the jar as the striker vibrates vigorously

ENERGY CONVERSIONS

Conservation of energy

- The law of conservation of energy states that the total energy of a closed system is
constant i.e. energy is neither lost nor gained but simply transformed from one form to
another.
- The total energy of a closed system will be same before an interaction as after it
- When energy is transformed from one form to another either work is done or energy
is used.

Energy convertors

- Torch
- Dynamo
- Catapult
- Solar panel
- Bulb
- Green plants

Energy chains

- Energy chain is a diagram that shows energy conversion.

- Energy can be converted from one form to another

Green plants solar energy from the sun → chemical energy in carbohydrates

Catapult chemical energy → kinetic energy → potential energy → kinetic energy

Dynamo kinetic energy of dynamo → electrical energy → light energy

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Bulb electrical energy → heat and light energy

Torch chemical energy from cells → electrical energy → light enrgy

Solar panel solar energy → electrical → chemical energy in cells

WORK AND ENERGY

Energy

- Is the capacity to do work

- SI units is the Joule (J)
- The amount of work done should be equal to the amount of energy used.

Work

- Work is done when a force moves. It is a measure of the amount of energy transferred
- The amount of work done depends on the size of the force applied distance and
distance it moves
- Work is a measure of energy expended in moving an object.

Energy used = Work done

𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

- The unit of work is the joule (J) or Newton metre (Nm)

- One joule it is the work done when a force of one Newton (N) moves through one
metre
- For example; if you have to pull with a force of 50N to move a crate steadily 3m in
the direction of the force, the work done is
50𝑁 × 3𝑚 = 150𝑁 = 150𝐽

Example 1 How much work is done when a weight lifter lifts eight 100N boxes through a
height of 0.50m?

Example 2 A girl lifts a pile of books with a total mass of 5kg through a vertical distance
of 0.75m. How much work does she do?

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MAGNETISM

MAGNETS

- Magnetism refers to magnetic force caused by the unique properties of certain

materials.
- Are usually made of metal iron or steel

Properties of magnets

1. Can pick magnetic materials

2. Has two poles i.e. north and south pole
3. It has a magnetic field
4. Exerts repulsive and attractive force

Types of magnets

Bar magnet – consist of a straight bar of magnetic material with one end being north and the
other south pole. This shape may result in a weak magnetic force as the magnetic force is
weak on the sides and is concentrated at the ends of the bar magnet. Can be used in
refrigerator doors

Horse shoe magnet – are bar magnets that bent in a U-shape. The N and S poles point in the
same direction resulting in a strong magnetic force that is stronger around both poles.
Magnetic force of both poles is felt. It can be used for lifting any metal objects depending in
size and strength.

C magnets – are shaped like C, in an arc. They are used to create a magnetic force in a motor.
Used in washing machines, fridges, speakers, air conditioners, generators etc

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E (Electromagnets) – magnetic field is caused by an electric current. It consists of a coil wire
wound around a soft iron core. The wire is connected to a power source. When current flows
through, it causes a magnetic field that magnetises the iron core

The earth as a magnet

- If lines of force are plotted on a sheet of paper with no magnets near, a set of parallel
straight lines are obtained. They run roughly from S to N geographically and represent
a small part of the earth’s magnetic field in a horizontal plane.

- The earth has opposite poles i.e. the north-pole at the top of the globe and south-pole
at the bottom of the globe. It is surrounded by a magnetic field.
- The direction of the earth’s magnetic field lines is from the magnetic north pole to the
magnetic South Pole.
- The earth’s magnetic pole and geographical poles are opposite. The earth’s magnetic
south pole is where the geographical north pole is and the earth’s magnetic south pole
is where geographical north pole is

Magnetic from non magnetic materials

- Magnets can attract some objects. All materials attracted by magnets are called
magnetic materials e.g. iron, nickel, cobalt
- All materials that are not attracted by a magnet are called non magnetic materials e.g.
wood, rubber, plastic, glass, copper, aluminium.

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Magnetic poles

- Magnets have two poles i.e. north and south poles. Magnetism is concentrated around
the poles (ends) of a magnet.
- Poles of a freely suspended magnet that always rest pointing towards the north is the
north pole(N) while the one that points to the south is the south pole (S)

- Magnetic force acts mainly at the poles of a magnet

- To determine the polarity of bar magnets;
 Take one bar magnet and hang it freely on a retort stand
 Bring one pole of the second magnet close to the hanging magnet. Observe
what happens.
 Turn the second magnet so that the poles face the opposite and hold it close to
the hanging magnet. Observe what happens.

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 - If the N pole of a magnet is brought near the N pole of another magnet, repulsion
occurs. Two S (south seeking) poles also repel. By contrast, N and S poles always
attract.
- The law of magnetic poles summarises these facts and states:
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
- The force between magnetic poles decreases as their separation increases.
- To test whether an object is a magnet, bring one end of this object towards one end of
a suspended bar magnet. If repulsion occurs, the object is a magnet since repulsion
occurs between like poles
- A given sample is magnetic only if one of its ends repels a magnet. Attraction is not
used to verify a magnet because any magnetic material is attracted even if it is not a
magnet.

Magnetic fields

- A magnetic field is the region where magnetic force is exerted on any magnetic object
placed within the influence of the field.
- Magnetic field lines show the direction and strength of the magnetic field around a
magnet. The direction of magnetic field is always from North Pole to South Pole.
- Magnetic force is strongest at the poles of a bar magnet where field lines are most
concentrated that is at the poles.
- To show the pattern of a magnetic field around a bar magnet, place a sheet of paper on
top of a bar magnet and sprinkle iron filings lightly and evenly on to the paper. Tap
the paper gently with a pencil and the filings should form patterns showing the lines
of force. The iron filings will line up along the magnetic field lines.

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- The plotting compass can also be used to plot the combined magnetic field due to
neighbouring magnets or around a bar magnet.
- Lay a bar magnet on a sheet of paper. Place the plotting compass at appoint such as A,
near one pole of the magnet (north pole)
- Mark the position of the poles (n; s) of the compass by pencil dots. B,A
- Move the compass so that the pole s is exactly over B, mark the new position of n by
dot C
- Continue this process until the other pole of the bar magnet is reached. Join the dots to
give one line of force and show its direction by putting an arrow on it. By convention,
the field direction draws north to south.

- Plot other lines by starting at different points around a bar magnet as shown below

- Magnetic field gets weaker as the distance from the magnet increases – the lines are
further apart
- The field lines also help explain what happens as two magnets are brought together –
the field lines will interact with each other giving either repulsion or attraction,
depending on the direction of the interacting field lines

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ELECTRICITY

STATIC ELECTRICITY

Charges

- When a strip of polythene is rubbed with a cloth it becomes charged. If it is hung up

and another rubbed polythene strip is brought near, repulsion occurs. Attraction
occurs when a rubbed strip of Perspex is brought near.

- This shows that there are two kinds of electric charges i.e.
 positive (+) (on the perspex rod)
 negative (–) (on the polythene rod)
- It shows that like charges repel, while unlike charges attract.

The production of charges

- Atoms are made up of positively charged protons, negatively charged electrons and
neutrons that have no charge.
- If an object gains electrons, it will become more negatively charged and if it loses
electrons, it will become more positively charged.
- Rubbing a rod using a woollen cloth produces an electrical charge. The production of
charges by rubbing can be explained by supposing that electrons are transferred from
one material to the other. Either the electrons are removed from the rod or electrons
are added onto the rod.

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 - Rubbing polythene with a cloth makes it become negatively charged i.e. electrons are
added onto the rod
- Rubbing perspex with a cloth makes it become positively charged i.e. electrons are
removed from the rod.
 Note that it is only electrons which move; the protons remain fixed in the
nucleus.

CURRENT ELECTRICITY

Simple d.c. circuits

- It is important to draw simple and clear diagrams. The following diagrams gives a list
of special symbols that are used to represent common devices that are usually
employed in electric circuits

Circuit symbols

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Components of direct current circuit

- The cell is the source of electrical energy. The longer line is the positive terminal and
shorter and thicker line is the negative terminal of the cell.
- The switch breaks or completes an electric circuit, stopping or starting the current
flow. When switch is open, circuit is incomplete and current does not flow. When the
switch is closed the current flows since the circuit is complete.
- A resistor is a device that offers opposition to the flow of current. It restricts the flow
of current in circuits, slowing the current down.
- A light bulb is a resistor that changes electrical energy into light and heat energy.
- A fuse is a device that protects appliances and users from electrical shocks
- An ammeter is used to measure the amount of current
- A voltmeter is used to measure voltage of the circuit
- A variable resistor regulates or controls the current in a circuit i.e. it can increase or
decrease the amount of current.
- Connecting wires provide path for electric current
- Every circuit has a power source, switch and a load (all components that use the
electrical energy and convert it to other forms)

Representing some circuit diagrams using electric symbols

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Draw a standard circuit diagram using symbols for each of the circuits shown below

CONDUCTORS AND INSULATORS

- Conductors are materials that allow electricity to flow through it e.g. copper, carbon,
and salt water.

- Insulators are materials that does not conduct an electric current e.g. rubber, plastic,
wood, glass, pure water

- A solution that conducts electricity is called an electrolyte. The solution is chemically

changed by the current

- Conductors are generally used for transmission of electricity.

- Insulators generally protects people from electrocution

- Most metals are conductors while non metals are insulators except for graphite
(carbon).

- Gases are also very poor conductors of electricity

Experiment on conductivity of different materials

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 - Make a simple circuit using a battery connected to two wires and a light bulb as
shown in the diagram.
- Connect different materials using crocodile clips to find out which ones conduct or do
not conduct electricity. If they do conduct electricity the light bulb will light up.
- Record results in the table below
Material Observation Conclusion

CURRENT, VOLTAGE AND POWER

Current

- Is the flow of charge in an electric circuit

- An ammeter is used to measure current
- The unit of current is the ampere (A) or amps

Measuring current

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 - An ammeter is always placed in series with the resistance or other circuit components
through which the current is to be measured.
- Ammeters should therefore have low resistance compared with that of the rest of the
circuit, so that they do not introduce unwanted resistance

Voltage

- Is the measure of the ability of electrical energy to do work.

- It is measured in volts (v) using a voltmeter
- It is supplied by the cell or battery

Measuring voltage

- A voltmeter is always placed in parallel with the resistance or apparatus across which
the potential difference has to be measured.
- Voltmeter ought therefore to have a high resistance compared with the resistance
across which the voltage is to be measured, so that they take a comparatively
negligible current, and so disturb the circuit as little as possible.

Power

- Electrical power is the rate at which electrical energy is changed to other forms of
energy in an electric circuit.
- Power is measured in watts (W).
𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑥 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼
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Example 1 What is the power of an electric light bulb if it is drawing a current of 0.25A
from the mains electricity supply of 240V?

Example 2 What current is drawn by a 1.5kW heater which operates on a 240V mains
supply?

Example 3 What voltage is needed for a 0.5A current to pass through a 100W light bulb

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