The Relationship Between Parental Involvement in Education and Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study

Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, Vol. 11, No. 3, 2021 (pp.
50-66)
RESEARCH ARTICLE WWW.PEGEGOG.NET

The Relationship Between Parental Involvement in Education
and Academic Achievement: A Meta-analysis Study
Aysel ATEŞ
PhD, Ministry of Education, Turkey
A b s t r Ac t
The aim of this study is to examine the relationship between parental involvement and students’ academic achievement
using meta-analysis method. In the research, Proquest Digital Dissertations, Web of Science, ERIC, Council of Higher
Education Thesis Center and Turkish Academic Network and Information Center were scanned, and 53 studies in
accordance with the study criteria were included in the meta-analysis. Inclusion criteria includes research on the
relationship between parental involvement and academic achievement, having sufficient quantitative data such as
correlation value or regression coefficient, studies involving primary, secondary or high school students and their families.
The correlation values of the included studies were converted into Fisher z values. The average effect size was evaluated by
Comprehensive Meta Analysis V3 (CMA) Program. As a result of the study, it was seen that parental involvement affects
academic achievement. In addition, it was observed that the relationship between parental involvement and academic
achievement did not differ significantly according to course areas, school levels and geographical areas. In this context,
suggestions have been developed for ensuring parental involvement and for future researches.
Keywords: Parental involvement, academic achievement, school, teacher.
1. I ntroduct Ion For El Nokali, Bachman & Votruba-Drzal (2010), it is the set
of behaviors that parents display at school and at home in
What the factors that affect the academic achievement of
order to support the education of the child. Although different
students are among the most curious topics of educators,
definitions have been made for family participation, the
parents and researchers. It may be possible to separate these
definition is based on the fact that the family is an important
factors as in-school and out-of-school. The qualifications
factor in the education of the child.
of teachers and school administrators (Adams & Forsyth,
The reason for the different definitions of parental
2013; Anderson, 2012; Helvacı & Aygoğan, 2011), learning
involvement is that the researchers focused on different
environment and teaching methods (Straková, Simonová &
features of parental involvement. For example; Choi, Chang,
Greger, 2018) can be given as examples of in-school factors.
Kim & Reio (2015) and Epstein & Sheldon (2019) deal with
Out-of-school factors include the student’s socio-economic parental involvement on two grounds. The first of these
(Epstein & Sheldon, 2019; Sénéchal & Young, 2008; Stright is home-based parental involvement. Here, providing the
& Yeo, 2014) and physiological status (Underwood, 2011), necessary support and creating the structure for repeating
self-efficacy, and parental involvement (Epstein, 1991; Jurado, what has been learned at school at home. The second type is
2014; Partin, 2017; Roksa & Kinsley, 2019; Schnepf, Klinger, school-based parental involvement. This type of involvement
Volante & Jerrim, 2019) in education. Since students spend includes communicating with the teacher and participating in
a limited part of their time at school and most of their time school activities (Choi et al., 2015; Epstein & Sheldon, 2019).
outside of school, out-of-school factors are at least as important Hill, Witherspoon & Bartz (2018) talk about a separate type
as in-school factors in students’ achievement. Students spend
their time outside of school with their social environment Corresponding Author e-mail: [email protected]
and family. Therefore, it is expected to be related to family, https://orcid.org/orcid.org/0000-0001-7582-6243
parental involvement in school and academic achievement of How to cite this article: ATEŞ, A (2021). The Relationship
the student. For this reason, the relationship between parental Between Parental Involvement in Education and Academic
involvement in school and students’ academic achievement has Achievement: A Meta-analysis Study. Pegem Journal of Education
been determined as the subject of this study. and Instruction, Vol. 11, No. 3, 2021, 50-66
When the theoretical background of parental involvement Source of support: Nil
is examined, it is seen that there is no consensus on the
Conflict of interest: None.
definition of the concept (Fan & Chen, 2001). For example;
For Grolnick & Slowiaczek (1994), parental involvement is a DOI: 10.14527/pegegog.2021.00
selfless transfer of resources that parents have in line with their Submission : 02.01.2021 Revision: 04.05.2021
children’s needs; For LaRocque, Kleiman & Darling (2011), the Acceptence: 07.05.2021 Publication: 01.07.2021
investment of parents or caregivers in educational processes;
The Relationship Between Parental Involvement in Education and Academic Achievement: A Meta-analysis Study
of involvement called academic socialization. According to homework routine (You et al., 2015). In addition, families can
Hill et al. (2018), in academic socialization, the educational increase their academic achievement by going to centers where
expectations of the family are clear, the family talks with the learning is intensive such as libraries and museums, reading,
child about the educational processes, establishes a relationship watching scientific broadcasting and talking about them, and
between current issues and course subjects, discusses learning watching films in foreign languages (Dotterer & Wehrspann;
strategies with the child, supports his education dreams and 2016; Gubbinsa & Otero, 2016; Partin, 2017; Perkins et al., 2016;
plans his future. Zhang, 2018; You et al., 2015).
There are also different explanations as to why parental It is possible to define academic achievement in various
involvement is important for student success. One of these is ways. In this study, academic achievement was evaluated as
Bronfenbrenner’s (1979) ecological approach. According to the scores obtained by the students from the subject areas
Bronfenbrenner, there should be two-way interaction, unity (mathematics, science, reading and foreign language), the
of goals, sustainable trust and a balance of power between year-end general averages or test scores. It is not a clear concept
the environments or institutions in which the individual to define parental involvement as academic achievement. In
lives for his development. The two main institutions where some studies, parental involvement is defined as parent-teacher
students spend their lives are school and family. Therefore, communication (Deslandes, Royer, Turcotte & Bertrand,
two-way interaction between school and family, unity 1997), parents communication with children (Keith, Reimers,
of goals, sustainable balance of trust and power, and the Fehrmann, Pottebaum & Aubey, 1986), and voluntary time
quality of parental involvement are determinants of student spent at school (Okpala, Okpala & Smith, 2001) otherwise
success. Leichter (1974) explains why parental involvement is in some studies, It is defined as the parental involvement in
important for student success, by drawing attention to the fact school activities such as conferences (Miedel & Reynolds,
that families are also educators and families should be seen 1999), parents’ meetings dispose by school (Shaver & Walls,
as partners in the education and development of students. 1998) or helping the child with school-related activities such
According to him, when schools and teachers ask parents to be as homework (Shumow & Miller, 2001). In the light of the
partners for students’ education, they draw parents’ attention definitions given above, in this study, parental involvement is
to their children’s life at school, their mastery of skills and evaluated as the contribution of the family or caregivers tothe
learning abilities. Thus, the interaction between the school education of the child.
and the family increases and the positive effect of the family When the literature is examined, it is seen that there are
on the education of the child increases through this increase various meta-analysis studies examining the relationship
in interaction. Epstein, Galindo & Sheldon (2011) state that between parental involvement and academic achievement. The
this increasing interaction creates “schools like families” and first study was conducted by Fan and Chen (2001). Fan and
“families like schools”. Chen (2001) concluded that parental involvement is related
Studies show that parental involvement in education in to academic achievement. Mattingly, Prislin, McKenzie,
line with expectations increases student academic success and Rodriguez, and Kayzar (2002) is another synthesis study.
parental involvement is at least as important as school. For Contrary to Fan and Chen (2001), Mattingly et al. (2002)
instance; Epstein (1991), in a longitudinal study examining concluded that programs that support parental involvement
the effect of parental involvement on students’ mathematics are not related to academic achievement.
and reading achievements, found that parental involvement Jeynes, who has intensive studies on parental involvement,
has a positive effect on overall academic achievement. Jeynes conducted four (4) meta-analysis studies (2003, 2005, 2007,
(2007) showed that parental involvement increases academic 2012) on the subject. In each study, the researcher found that
achievement with his research. Similar findings have been two variables are related. In addition, Erion (2006), Patall,
obtained in other studies (Chang, Choib & Kim, 2015; Johnson Cooper, and Robinson (2008), Sénéchal and Young (2008), Hill
& Hull, 2014; Partin, 2017; Lam & Ducreux, 2013; Zhang, 2018). and Tyson (2009) supported the relationship between parental
Research also provides data on how parental involvement involvement and achievement with the research results. One
increases students’ academic achievement. For example; of the last studies on the subject belongs to Castro, Expósito-
parental involvement increases students’ homework rates Casas, López-Martín, Lizasoain, Navarro-Asencio and Gaviria
(Dumont, Trautwein, Nagy & Nagengast, 2014; You, Lim, No (2015). Castro et al. (2015) synthesized the results of research
& Dang, 2015), improves language skills (Gubbinsa & Otero, conducted in kindergartens, primary schools and secondary
2016; Perkins, Syvertsen, Mincemoyer, Chilenski, Olson, schools published in 2000-2013. The findings of the synthesis
Berrena et al., 2016), reducing absenteeism (Benner, Boyle & study showed that parental involvement has a moderate and
Sadler, 2016; Dotterer & Wehrspann; 2016; Gonida & Cortin, positive effect on academic achievement.
2014). Families can increase the rate of doing homework Studies whose results are cited show that the relationship
by helping children with their homework and by creating a between parental involvement and academic achievement is
Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, ISSN 2146-0655 51

a subject of research at different school levels, involvement 1. What is the average effect size of the relationship between
types and programs. The topic poses conceptual challenges parental involvement and academic achievement?
for researchers because parental involvement has different 2. Does the average effect size of the relationship between
definitions and types of involvement in the literature. This parental involvement and academic achievement
difficulty makes it difficult for a single or a few studies to address significantly differ according to the subject areas
all aspects of parental involvement. For this reason, meta- (mathematics, science, reading skills, foreign language
analysis studies on parental involvement show limited coverage. skills)?
For example; it is far from being comprehensive in that the 3. Does the average effect size of the relationship between
concept is not addressed in general, it does not cover all course parental involvement and academic achievement
areas (mathematics, science, reading, language skills) believed significantly differ according to school levels (primary
to represent academic achievement, does not examine school school, secondary school, high school)?
levels at the same time, or does not include research published in 4. Does the average effect size of the relationship between
a wide time period. For this reason, studies have limitations in parental involvement and academic achievement
revealing the general effect of parental involvement in academic significantly differ by geographic regions (Asia, Europe,
achievement. In this respect, it can be said that more inclusive Africa and America continents)?
studies are needed to reveal the relationship between parental
involvement and student achievement. As Fan & Chen (2001) Method
stated, most parental involvement studies were carried out Research Model
for homework, communication, family type, participation in
In this study, it was aimed to determine the average effect size
school activities or parental expectations, and reading activities
of the relationship between parental involvement and academic
with children. In addition, as Chen & Gregory (2010) pointed
achievement, and the meta-analysis method was used. The aim
out, the nature of parental involvement should be considered as
of using the meta-analysis method is to integrate independent
a holistic concept that combines behavioral and psychological
research results investigating the same subject at different time
perspectives. Integrating the results of independent research
intervals and to reach a general conclusion about the subject
can give an idea of the average effect size of the relationship
(Cohen, Manion & Morrison, 2011).
between parental involvement and the academic achievement
of the student, and can also answer questions about the
Data Collection
relationship between concepts.
In the light of the theoretical background that was tried The data of study were collected by the researcher between
to be explained above, the purpose of this study is to examine March 2020 - July 2020. It is also taken into account that
the average effect size of the relationship between parental the researches included in the study were published between
involvement and academic achievement in the light of the 2004 and July 2020, because the studies conducted until 2004
studies carried out between 2004-2020 according to school were either related to family participation types (Jeynes,
levels (primary, secondary and high school), course areas and 2012), a certain school level (Hill & Tayson, 2009) or a
geographical regions. With the time interval of the research, certain subject area (Sénécha & Young, 2008). The full text
more homogeneous theoretical conceptual diversity of parental of all studies included in the meta-analysis study has been
involvement was aimed. In addition, a meta-analysis study reached. In the included studies, 30.5% of the data collection
was conducted on the subject every year between 2001 and tools were developed by the researchers, 8.5% were adapted,
2003 and the results of the research conducted up to that day 28% were ready-made scales and 33% were information in
were integrated. However, post-2004 studies focused either the educational statistics centers of the countries. Campbell
on research conducted in certain regions (e.g. Jeynes, 2012) (1994), Fan (2001), Fantuzzu, Tighe & Childs (2000), Epstein,
or only on the results of research conducted at a school level Connors & Salinas (1993), Finn (1998), Lorenz & Wild (2007),
(e.g. Castro, et al., 2015; Jeynes, 2005, 2007; Hill & Tyson, Kohl, Lengua & McMahon (2000) and Grolnick, Ryan & Deci
2009) or It has integrated the results of research conducted (1991) were among read-made used and adapted data collection
for a type of involvement and subject area (Erion, 2006; Patall, tools. In all measurement tools used in studies, high score
Cooper & Robinson, 2008; Sénéchal & Young, 2008). For this means higher parental involvement.
reason, there was a need to integrate the results of the research
conducted between 2004-2020. This meta-analysis study is Validity
based on the relationship between parental involvement and The effect size obtained in meta-analysis studies is valid for
academic achievement, evaluating parental involvement with a the validity of the included studies (Petitti, 2000). It was
more holistic approach. Sub-problems were developed within determined that the validity of data collection tools was
this framework are as follows: ensured in all studies included in this study.
52 Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, ISSN 2146-0655

“Keywords” Used in Search theses and books. 513 studies were found to be significantly
While the researches to be included in the study are being associated with the topic of this meta-analysis study. Detailed
scanned in the relevant databases, “family involvement, examination of the researches was made according to the
family support, parent participation, parental participation, determined research criteria. 53 research including 48 articles,
household, educational outcomes, academic achievement, 1 master’s thesis and 4 doctoral dissertations were included in
parent support, parental involvement, family participation” the meta-analysis.
are used. Keywords are used in various combinations in
Inclusion Criteria
different searches.
The criteria used in the selection of studies included in the
Searched Databases study are:
The researches to be included in the meta-analysis study 1. Including sufficient quantitative data (including the
were reached by scanning databases such as Proquest Digital Pearson correlation coefficient or regression coefficient
Dissertations, Web of Science, ERIC, Council of Higher for the relationship between family participation and
Education Thesis Center and Turkish Academic Network and academic achievement),
Information Center. After the first search, more than 11,300 2. To be published between 2004 and July 2020 (the last date
studies were filtered, including articles, doctoral/master’s the research data were collected),
Fig. 1: Prisma Flow Diagram for Meta-analaysis

3. Researching the relationship between parental involvement program. (b) In studies where regression values were given,
and academic achievement, correlation values were reached by using Peterson and Brown’s
4. Surveys include primary, secondary or high school (2005) method. (c) The first research question was tested by
students or their families. 53 research including 48 converting these values and the correlation values of the
articles, 1 master’s degree and 4 doctoral dissertations in studies that do not separate academic achievement according
accordance with the inclusion criteria were included in to the course areas into Fisher z value.
the meta-analysis. The flow diagram regarding the For the second research question of the study (Does the
process of including primary researches in the study is average effect size of the relationship between parental
given in Figure 1. The total sample size of the articles was involvement and academic achievement significantly differ
202.937 and the total sample size of their theses was according to the course areas?), the correlation values of the
23.018. It was seen that the total sample size of the studies relationship between parental involvement and the four basic
included in the meta-analysis study reached a large course areas (mathematics, science, reading skills and language
sample of 225.955. In the studies included in the meta- skills) were used to test the second research question.
analysis study, the r: β + 0.05λ procedure suggested by Forthethirdresearchquestionofthestudy(Doestheaverage
Peterson & Brown (2005) was used in the imputation effect size of the relationship between parental involvement and
stage of beta coefficients. When β is positive, λ 1 is academic achievement significantly differ according to school
evaluated as λ while β is negative. The aim of the method levels?): school levels were evaluated in three groups as primary
is to include more studies in the meta-analysis study. school, secondary school and high school. For the last research
question (does the effect size of the relationship between parental
Coding Method involvement and academic achievement significantly differ
Detailed and clear coding forms were prepared for 53 studies according to geographical regions?): the countries where the
included in the meta-analysis. Three parts were created research was conducted were grouped as Asia, Europe, Africa
in the coding form: (a) The first part of the form is “Study and America according to their continents.
ID”. In this section, the sequence number, name, author (s),
publication year and type information of the research are Meta-analysis Process
included. (b) The second part of the form was “Study content”. The average effect size value of the meta-analysis study is
The “study content” section covered the course areas in which calculated with the data obtained from the researches whose
the relationship between parental involvement and academic quality is examined and included in the study. Which model
achievement was evaluated, the type of school and where the will be used in meta-analysis (fixed effects or random effects
research was conducted. (c) The third part of the form is “Study model) may vary depending on the result of the heterogeneity
data”. The “study data” section also included the correlation test applied to the data obtained. In this meta-analysis study,
coefficients and sample size information. Comprehensive Meta-Analysis V3 Program (CMA) was used
for heterogeneity test and statistical analysis. I2 and Chi-
Coding Protocol Reliability Square degree of freedom heterogeneity test (Q statistic) was
used to test the true heterogeneity between studies included
In the reliability calculation of the study, 30% (n = 17) of the
in the meta-analysis study. The heterogeneity test tests the
studies included in the coding form for inter-rater reliability
null hypothesis, which assumes that all studies show the same
were determined using random assignment method. The
effect (Higgins, Thompson, Deeks & Altman, 2003). At this
determined studies were coded into the coding form by a
stage, which model will be used in the meta-analysis study
second evaluator with a good level of English knowledge. becomes important and clear. In meta-analysis studies, it is
“Agreement rate”, which is the measure of inter-coder important to represent each research (whether it has a large
reliability, which belongs to Orwin & Vevea (2009), was used. or small sample) within the meta-analysis summary effect
Orwin & Vevea (2009) applied the formula of agreement rate (Ellis, 2010). Researchers such as Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins
(AR = number of observations agreed upon / total number & Rothstein (2009), Field & Gillett (2010), and Schmidt, Oh &
of observations) and it was determined that there was .90 Hayes (2009) find the conditions under which the fixed effects
reliability. model is suitable are limited, and the most basic assumption
of the model, a single real effect size assumption, is far from
Preparing Data for The Analysis reality. They recommend the use of random effects model
For the first research question of the meta-analysis study (What (Borenstein et al., 2009; Field & Gillett, 2010; Schmidt et al.,
is the average effect size of the relationship between parental 2009). In this meta-analysis study, random effects model was
involvement and academic achievement?): (a) the correlation used for the reasons stated. Microsoft Excel 2010 program was
values of the course areas were combined with the CMA used for data entry into coding form and SPSS 21.0 program

was used for descriptive statistics. In the analysis of the meta-

analysis study, the significance level was determined as .05
and the confidence interval in the calculations used for the
effect size was determined as 95%. For effect size calculations,
correlation values were converted to Fisher z values and
Standard Error
analyzes were performed. In order to interpret the effect size,
the values were converted into the correlation coefficient. For
the interpretation of the average effect size, Cohen et al. (2011)
used the following benchmarks:
0.00 ≤ effect size value ≤ 0.10 very weak
0.10 ≤ effect size value ≤ 0.30 weak effect
0.30 ≤ effect size value ≤ 0.50 moderate effect Fig. 2: Funnel plot
0.50 ≤ effect size value ≤ 0.80 strong level effect
Effect size ≥ 0.80 very strong effect explain why the studies are collected at the end of the funnel.
Although the funnel plot is used to determine publication bias,
In addition, funnel plot, Begg and Mazumdar Rank
Lau, Ioannidis, Terrin, Schmid & Olkin (2006) point out that the
Correlations Test, Rosenthal’s Safe N Test, Egger’s Linear
graph should be interpreted with caution and does not contain
Regression Test were used for publication bias.
statistical information. For this reason, Rosenthal’s Safe N, Begg
and Mazumdar (Begg and Mazumdar’s rank correlation test)
Publication Bias
Rank Correlations and Egger’s Linear Regression Test findings,
Before conducting the tests for publication bias, taking into which contain statistical information about publication bias, are
account the opinion of Card (2012), the researches included in included in Table 2.
the meta-analysis study were grouped as articles and thesis to
Table 2: Confidence Tests and Results Showing the
perform moderator analysis. The findings obtained as a result Publication Bias of the Sampled Studies
of the analysis are included in Table 1.
Confidence Tests Data of Confidence Tests
Table 1: Effect Sizes of Studies Regarding Publication Type and Z- value for observed 145.96700
Heterogeneity Test Results studies
the p-value for 0.00000
observed studies
Moderator QB %95 confidence interval Heterogeneity
Alpha 0.05000
Public Lo Up
ation n E.S. wer per df P Rosenthal’s Tails 2.00000
Artical 1,312 Fail-Safe N
48 0.377 0.35 0.39 1 0.25 Z for Alpha 1.95996
Theses 5 0.408 0.40 0.40 Number of observed 53.00000
studies
When Table 1 is evaluated, it is observed that QB = 1.312. Fail- Safe N (FSN) 13908.00000
The QB statistic value (QB = 1.312, p = 0.252) was observed to Tau 0.28302
be significant because it exceeded the critical value in the χ2 Tau for Z-value 2.99157
table at 1 degree of freedom (df: 1; χ2 (0.95) = 3.841) and 95% Begg and p-value (1 tailed) 0.00139
significance level, and it has been evaluated that there was no Mazumdar Rank
publication bias. Although it was observed that there was no Correlation
publication bias, funnel plot, Rosenthal’s Safe N, Begg and p-valur(2 tailed) 0.00278
Mazumdar (Begg and Mazumdar’s rank correlation test) Rank Standard Error 3.84111
Correlations and Egger’s Linear Regression tests were also 95% lower limit (2 –10.47287
applied. The funnel chart is shown in Figure 2. tailed)
When the funnel plot is examined, it can be said that the 95% upper limit (2 4.94982
studies are in an image close to a symmetrical distribution to the tailed)
right and left of the vertical line showing the average effect size. Egger’s Regression t-value 0.71894
The studies collected in the upper part of the funnel plot show Intercept
large sampled studies, while the studies in the lower part show df 51.00000
studies with small samples. The fact that the total sample size of p-value (1 tailed) 0.23773
the studies constituting the meta-analysis study is 225.955 may p-value (2 tailed) 0.47546

The value of p = 0.000 in Rosenthal’s Safe N Test, one of As a result of the heterogeneity test, it was seen that the Q
the publication bias tests in Table 2, can be interpreted as the value was statistically significant (Q: 19776.278; df (Q): 50; p:
statistical significance of the result of the meta-analysis study. 0.00). In the χ2 table, it is seen that it exceeds the value (df: 50; χ2
It is seen that 13908 studies are needed for the meta-analysis (0.95) = 67.505) with 50 degrees of freedom and 95% significance
study to lose its significance (p> 0.05). In other words, the level. In addition, the fact that the p value (p = 0.000) is less than
required number of studies is 13908 in order for the average 0.05 indicates that the effect size distribution is heterogeneous.
effect size of 0.387 to be statistically insignificant. This value The I2 statistic value, another statistic used in heterogenic tests,
can be interpreted as the average effect size reached is resistant was also examined because it is stated that the Q statistic is
to publication bias. Although there is no definite judgment not strong enough to accurately test the heterogeneity of the
about how much Rosenthal Safe N value should be, Mullen, studies included in the meta-analysis studies (Huedo Medina,
Muellereile & Bryant (2001) state that if the value reached in the Sánchez Meca, Marín Martínez, & Botella, 2006). Unlike the
result of N / (5k + 10) exceeds 1, the meta-analysis study result Q statistic, the I2 statistic is not sensitive to the effect size value
(s) may be resistant for future research. When the necessary and the number of studies included in the meta-analysis. It is
calculation is made [13908 / (53 * 5 + 10) = 50.574] it is seen clear that the I2 statistic with the value of 99.737 exceeds the
that the result is greater than 1. With the result achieved, it 75% value which can be accepted as the limit value. According
can be said that there is very low publication bias in the meta- to the classification of I², 75% (I² = 75) values indicates that the
analysis study. Since Kendall’s Tau coefficient (0.28302) and p heterogeneity is at a high level (Higgins & Thompson, 2002).
values (0.00139) are not statistically significant, result of Begg The value obtained determined that the inter-study variability
and Mazumdar Rank Correlations can be interpreted that or heterogeneity was at the level of 99.737%. According to the I²
the studies included are not biased. In addition, the result of classification, I² value 99.737% (I² = 99.737) can be interpreted
Egger’s Linear Regression Test (p = 0.47546> 0.05) with 95% as a sign of high level of heterogeneity. In summary, the
confidence interval can be considered as a sign that there is heterogeneity test result (Q = 19776.278, p <0.05, I² = 99.737)
no publication bias in the meta-analysis study. indicated that the effect size distribution is heterogeneous and
the random effects model should be used in the interpretation
F Ind Ings of the average effect size.
In this section, the analysis and findings of the average effect When Table 3 is examined, it is seen that the average effect
size of the relationship between parental involvement and size obtained in the fixed effects model is 0.460 and in random
student academic achievement and of other research questions effects model is 0.387. Fisher z values were used for effect
are included. sizes. When the Fisher z value (0.387) is converted into the
correlation value (0.369), it can be said that according to Cohen
Findings Regarding Effect Size Based on the Relation- et al. (2011) the average effect size of the relationship between
ship Between Parental Involvement and Academic parental involvement and student academic achievement is
Achievement moderate and positive. When the statistical significance of
It was stated in the previous sections that the random effects the analysis was evaluated according to the result of the z-test,
model will be used because the research on the relationship it was calculated as z = 8.904 and it was evaluated that the
between parental involvement and academic achievement is analysis was statistically significant with the value of p = 0.000.
included in the field of social sciences and the studies included The average effect size and the weights of the studies
in the study are carried out using different patterns, in different obtained as a result of the analysis made according to the
cultures and school levels (Başol, 2016). However, in order random effects model evaluating the relationship between
to determine which model (fixed effects model or random parental involvement and academic success are shown in the
effects model) will be used depending on the average effect forest plot in Figure 3. When the forest plot is examined, it
size distribution, heterogeneity test was applied to the data is seen that the research with the widest confidence interval
obtained within the scope of the study. is Gonida & Cortina (2014) and the research with the lowest
Table 3: Meta-Analysis of the Relationship Between Parental Involvement and Academic Achievement
Heterogeneity Test 95% confidence interval Test of null
Lower Upper
Model N E.S Limit Limit Z-value P-value Q value df (Q) P-value I2
Fixed 53 0.460 0.455 0.464 218.411 0.000 19776.278 50 0.000 99.737
Random 53 0.387 0.302 0.473 8.904

confidence interval is Gubbins & Otero (2016). It can be and Perkins et al. (2016). If the statistical results of the effect
said that the highest weight percentage among the studies is size are evaluated in general, it can be seen that all 53 studies
1.95%, and more than one study (such as Aikens & Barbarian, have a positive effect.
2008; Benner et al., 2016; Gravis & B. Wright, 2011; Roska & The appropriateness of combining the effect sizes of
Kinsley, 2018) has this weight. The lowest weight percentage the studies included in the meta-analysis study was also
is 38% and belongs to Núñez, Suárez, Rosário, Vallejo, Valle examined with the normal distribution chart. The normal
& Epstein (2015). When the effect sizes of the studies included distribution of the effect sizes of the studies is given in Graphic
in the meta-analysis study are examined, the biggest effect 1 below. In Graph 1, it is observed that the effect sizes of the
size with 1.256 was Ogwari, Simiyu & Kindiki (2014) and the studies are on both sides of the normal distribution line and
lowest effect size with 0.110 was Gonida and Cortina (2014) within confidence intervals. According to the evaluation of
Figure 3. Effect Size and Weights of the Studies

skills and least on the science subjects. However, it can be

accepted that parental involvement has a remarkable effect
on all learning areas. Subject areas heterogeneity test value
was determined as QB = 0.275. In the χ2 table, 3 degrees of
freedom at 95% significance level was observed with a value
of 7.81473 (χ2(0.95) = 7.81473). The QB value was determined at
0.275 and p = 0.000. On the other hand, the QB value (QB =
0.275; p = 0.000) is not significant because it is below the value
(χ2(0.95) = 7.81473) in the χ2 table with 3 degrees of freedom
and 95% significance level. Within the framework of the values
obtained, the heterogeneity hypothesis of the subject areas
was accepted in the fixed effects model. The average effect
sizes obtained according to the subject areas do not differ
Graphic 1: Normal Distribution of Effect Sizes of Studies statistically significantly.
Rosenberg, Adams & Gurevitch (2000), if the distribution is Findings Regarding Whether the Average Effect Size of
normal, it is statistically possible to calculate the effect sizes the Relationship Between Parental Involvement and
of the studies. Academic Achievement Differentiates According to
School Level (Primary School, Middle School and High
Findings Regarding Whether The Average Effect Size School)
of the Relationship Between Parental Involvement and The statistical analysis findings for the sub-problem “ Does
Academic Achievement Differentiates According to the average effect size of the relationship between parental
Subject Areas (Mathematics, Science, Reading Skills, involvement and academic achievement significantly differ
Foreign Language Skills) according to school levels (primary school, secondary school,
The statistical analysis findings for the sub-problem “ Does high school)?” are included in Table 5.
the average effect size of the relationship between parental In order to determine whether the relationship between
involvement and academic achievement significantly differ parental involvement and academic achievement differentiates
according to the subject areas (mathematics, science, reading according to the school level, school levels are grouped as
skills, foreign language skills)” are given in Table 4. primary school, middle school and high school. The effect sizes
Examining the subject areas in which the research was were observed as 0.437 for primary school, 0.368 for middle
conducted, it is seen that the average effect size according to school and 0.339 for high school according to Fisher z value.
Fisher z values of the relationship between parental involvement When Fisher z values are converted to correlation values, the
and academic achievement is 0.303 for mathematics, 0.188 for average effect size for school levels is 0.411 for primary school,
science, 0.402 for reading skills and 0.421 for foreign language 0.352 for middle school and 0.326 for high school (Cohen et al.,
skills. Transforming Fisher z values into correlation values, 2011). Heterogeneity test was conducted to determine whether
the average effect sizes of the subjects, according to Cohen et there is a significant difference between average effect sizes.
al. (2011), mathematics lesson has a weak effect with 0.294, As a result of the heterogeneity test, QB = 0.373; p = 0.723 was
science lesson has a weak effect with a value of 0.186, reading found. The QB value (QB = 0.373; p = 0.723) is not significant
skills has a moderate effect with a value of 0.382, and foreign since it is below the critical value (χ2 (0.95) = 5.99146) in the
language skills with a value of 0.398. When the effect sizes χ2 table at 2 degrees of freedom and 95% significance level.
of the subject areas are evaluated, it is seen that parental These findings indicate that the average effect size distribution
involvement has the greatest effect on foreign language should be accepted in the fixed effects model. According to
Table 4: Effect Size Differences by Subject Areas

Variable QB N E.S. 95% confidence interval Z-value P-value df(Q) P-value
Lower Upper
Subject 0,275
Matematics 20 0.303 0.248 0.358 10.746 0.000 3 0.000
Science 4 0.188 0.126 0.250 5.954 0.000
Reading 15 0.402 0.198 0.607 3.850 0.000
Foreign language 14 0.421 0.304 0.538 7.076 0.000

Table 5: Effect Size Differences by School Level

Variable QB N E.S. %95 confidence interval Z-value P-value df(Q) P-value
Lower Upper
School level 0,373
Primary 20 0.411 0.256 0.618 4.730 0.000 2 0.723
Middle 20 0.352 0.297 0.439 10.117 0.000
High 11 0.326 0.164 0.514 3.793 0.000
Table 6: Effect Size Differences by Geographical Regions

Variable QN N E.S. %95 confidence interval Z-value P-value df(Q) P-value
Lower Upper
Region 0,328
Asia 7 0.400 0.259 0.541 5.532 0.000 3 0.148
Europe 6 0.262 0.178 0.346 6.115 0.000
Africa 2 0.760 0.210 1.30 1.536 0.025
America 38 0386 0.281 0.491 7.187 0.000
the school level, there is no statistically significant difference was evaluated to determine whether the difference between
between the average effect sizes of the studies included in the the effect sizes was significant. Among the groups formed
meta-analysis study. according to geographical regions, the QB value (QB = 0.328;
p = 0.148) is not significant since it is below the critical value
Findings Regarding Whether the Average Effect Size of (χ2 (0.95) = 7.81473) in the χ2 table at 3 degrees of freedom and
the Relationship Between Parental Involvement and 95% significance level. Because of these findings, the average
Academic Achievement Differentiates According to effect size distribution should be accepted in the fixed effects
Geographical Regions (Asia, Europe, Africa and America) model. There is no statistically significant difference between
The statistical analysis findings for the sub-problem “Does groups of geographical regions.
the average effect size of the relationship between parental
involvement and academic achievement significantly differ c o n c lu s I o n And dIscussIon
by geographic regions (Asia, Europe, Africa and America In this meta-analysis study, which aims to determine the
continents)?” are included in Table 6. average effect size of the relationship between parental
In order to determine whether the relationship between involvement and academic achievement at the level of primary,
parental involvement and academic achievement differs secondary and high schools, it was observed that the average
according to geographical regions, geographical regions are effect size of the relationship between parental involvement
grouped according to the continents (Asia, Europe, Africa and academic achievement was positive and at the medium
and America) where the researches are carried out. When effect size level. It was obtained that the relationship between
the findings are evaluated, according to the Fisher z value parental involvement and academic achievement did not differ
the effect size value for the Asian continent is 0.400, 0.266 for significantly in terms of subject areas (mathematics, science,
the European continent, 0.760 for the African continent and reading and language skills). The effect size was found to be
0.386 for the American continent. When the effect size values weak for mathematics and science lessons, and moderate
are transformed into correlation values, the Asian continent for reading skills and foreign language. When the average
has a medium level of 0.380, the European continent has a effect size of the relationship between parental involvement
weak level of 0.256, the African continent has a strong level and academic achievement was examined by school level,
of 0.641, and the American continent has a moderate effect it was determined that the average effect size did not differ
size of 0.386. In addition, the effect size between variables at statistically. Another finding of the study was that the average
all geographical regions is positive. While the average effect effect size for all school levels (primary school, middle school
size of the geographical regions is 0.328 according to the and high school) was moderate. In addition, it was observed
Fisher z value, when this value is converted to the correlation that the average effect size of the relationship between parental
value, the average effect size is 0.316 and it has been observed involvement and academic achievement did not significantly
to be medium and positive. The heterogeneity test result differ according to geographical regions (Asia, Europe, Africa

and America continents). It has been determined that the parental involvement, which provides suitable materials
average effect size is moderate for the Asian and American and environment for learning, has a positive relationship
continents, strong for the African continent and weak for with academic success (Zhang, 2018). However, the parental
the European continent. When the results obtained from the involvement literature lacks empirical study data, and it is
study are evaluated, it can be said that there is a moderate unclear whether the types of parental involvement develop
relationship between parental involvement and academic prior to the child’s academic achievement or as a result of
achievement regardless of continent, school or course. academic achievement. Therefore, conducting experimental
The effect size finding of the relationship between parental studies on parental involvement can provide data to the field.
involvement and academic achievement of the study coincide In this study, it was observed that each of the mathematics,
with the study findings of Fan & Chen (2001), Jeynes (2003, science, reading and foreign language skills courses had
2005, 2007, 2012), Erion (2006), Senechal & Young (2008), a positive relationship with parental involvement and
Hill & Tyson (2009) and Castro et al. (2015). On the other generally had a moderate effect size. The studies of Aikens &
hand, Mattingly et al. (2002) and Patall et al. (2008) are not Barbarian (2008), Graves & B. Wright (2011) and Stylianides
compatible with the study findings. The similarity or difference & Stylianides (2011) support the finding of this meta-analysis
of the study findings can be explained by the complex structure study. In addition, Crosby, Rasinski, Padak & Yıldırım’s
of parental involvement (Roska & Kinsley, 2018). Within this (2015) research found that families’ reading activities at home
complexity, it is difficult to comment except that there is a with their children has a positive relationship with children’s
moderate relationship between parental involvement and reading skills. The findings of You et al. (2015) showed that
academic achievement. It is not clear whether a different increased parental involvement means increased mathematics
statement is the involvement of parent in school activities achievement. Particularly, parents talking about math and
or helping the child with homework at home is the source of math homework, having and using math materials at home are
this relationship. The reason for this is parental involvement among the important factors affecting math achievement (You
defined assorted in the studies included in the meta-analysis et al., 2015). Johnson & Hull (2014), Bhanot & Jovanovic (2009)
such as the hours the parents spend voluntarily at the school of and Zhang (2018) supported the relationship between parental
the child; involvement of parents in school activities, teacher- involvement and science achievement with their research.
parent communication; involvement in school activities such as Parents watching science/science-based programs with their
homework, at home; expectations related to the education level children, reading books about scientific discoveries, reading
of the child and talking to the child about school problems. It science-fiction content or watching movies can be shown as
is the fact that parental involvement was investigated in one activities that increase science success (Bhanot & Jovanovic,
or more dimensions intertwinedly, so other criteria could 2009; Johnson & Hull, 2014; Zhang, 2018). As a result, parental
not be determined in terms of subject, except that the articles involvement positively affects the academic achievement of the
investigated the relationship between parental involvement child for all courses.
and academic achievement. In this respect in determining Among the findings of the meta-analysis study is that the
the studies to be included in the analysis, the results obtained relationship between parental involvement and academic
without any other criteria in terms of subject, do not show achievement does not differ according to school levels. The
which dimension of parental involvement is moderately relationship between parental involvement and academic
related to academic achievement. At the same time, it is clear achievement has a moderate average effect size according to
that studies examining the relationship between parental school levels. This finding of the study showed that parental
involvement and academic achievement do not reflect the involvement is important for academic achievement at
causal relationship, and the data sets of the studies reflect only all school levels (primary school, middle school and high
the findings of the observed parts. This situation may explain school). Chang et al., (2015), Englund, Luckner, Whaley &
the different correlation values not only in meta-analysis Egeland (2004), Hayes (2012), Hughes & Kwok (2007), and
studies but also in other studies. Straight & Yeo (2014) studies show that the relationship
Finding the average effect size of the relationship between between parental involvement and academic achievement
parental involvement and academic achievement may require is positively related and meaningful. Contrary to popular
answering the question of how parental involvement affects belief, parental involvement does not decrease as the school
academic achievement. Parental involvement sends the level of the child increases (Azad & Semiyari, 2020). For
message to the child that he and his performance are important example; while parental involvement in primary school
(Wang & Sheikh-Khalil, 2014) and that encouragement and is reading and doing homework with the child, carving
support will be provided (Wong, Ho, Wong, Tung, Chow, and singing (Stylianides & Stylianides, 2010; Xu, Benson,
Rao et al., 2018). Support and encouragement are likely Mudrey-Camino & Steiner, 2010; You et al., 2015), this type
to bring high academic achievement. At the same time, of participation is not useful as child gets older. As the school

level of the child rises, parental involvement turns into high that many teachers have problems in communicating or in
academic expectations, supportive behaviors such as praising relationships with parents. (Deslandes, Barma & Morin, 2015;
effort and performance, and positively affects academic Ünal, Yıldırım & Çelik, 2010). de Bruïne, Willemse, D’Haem,
achievement. It is observed that the academic achievement Griswold, Vloeberghs & Van Eynde (2014) and Miller, Lines,
of children who have high level of communication with the Sullivan & Hermanutz (2013) attribute these problems teachers
parents is also high. The studies of Amponsah, Milledzi, experience to the inadequacy of the education they receive
Ampofo & Gyambrah (2018) and Zhang (2018) show that with regarding parental involvement. Based on this, it can be said
the increase of the child’s school level, the parents’s interest in that teacher training programs should be developed on how
academic performance increases and parents prefer academic to ensure parental involvement. Apart from this, teachers can
encouragement. Azad & Semiyari (2020) and Epsteine be encouraged to guide parents on how to help their children
(2005) stated in their research that the strong interaction at home and how they can be involved in school, to organize
and relationship between parent-child and parent-teacher, teacher-parent meetings, to make home visits, to cooperate to
parenting skills affect the success of children at every school support child learning.
level. It may be suggested that future research on parental Since parents are often dealing with teachers, the principal
involvement should focus on which factors of involvement is the key to ensuring parental involvement, although he is
have positive results for academic success and students. In the most important person in ensuring parental involvement.
addition, one of the areas that can be focused on is when Because it is the person who determines the policies
parental involvement should be. regarding school-parent relations, seeks an environment and
One of the findings of this meta-analysis study was that opportunity, solves problems when necessary, and becomes
the relationship between, parental involvement and academic a mediator. According to Sanders, Sheldon & Epstein (2005),
achievement did not differ statistically significantly at the school administrators’ ability and capacity to cooperate is an
geographical level. The average effect size of the geographical important indicator of parental involvement in schools. These
regions varied between weak level and strong level. It has been capacities of school administrators can act as a facilitator
determined that the African continent has a strong average for parental involvement. Professional networks can be
effect size, but two studies in accordance with the research established to develop these skills of school administrators
criteria determined in the African continent have been or administrators working in the same region can share
reached, so it can be said that more research is needed on this experiences by establishing expanded groups. Thus, solution-
continent. On the other hand, it can be said that the sample of based sharing can take place. According to Barr & Saltmarsh
primary studies included in the meta-analysis study constitutes (2014), school administrators can effectively direct one-to-one
a cultural mosaic (such as America, Thailand, Hong Kong, communication with parents by developing an atmosphere
Germany, Iran, Ghana, the Netherlands, Singapore, and Chile). of trust and compassion, and they can welcome and support
The positive relationship between parental involvement and parental involvement. As Epstein et al. (2011) stated, many
academic achievement in different geographies and cultures schools leave parents alone in how to involve in education.
is an important data in terms of directing the attention of In order to eliminate this loneliness, school administrators
schools to this field. can conduct regular meetings with teachers to determine
Based on the finding that there is a moderate relationship what kind of parental involvement is needed for student
between parental involvement and academic achievement, academic achievement. School administrators can try to get
which is the main finding of the study, it can be said that to know the parents one by one and invite them to attend the
the efforts of schools to improve parental involvement will education of their children. In this way, they can also have
contribute to the academic achievement of students and the the opportunity to be role models for teachers. They can
effectiveness of the school, albeit at a moderate level. Efforts mediate the development of school-parent partnership by
should be made in terms of parental involvement in schools displaying supportive and reflective behaviors for teachers
because when families are left to their own preferences to communicate with parents. In addition, working parents
regarding participation, it is seen that the involvement is cannot visit the school on days when the schools have parent
higher in families with a high socio-economic level and lower meetings (Altschul, 2011; Gonida & Cortina, 2014). School
in the opposite case (Epstein, 2005; Choi et al., 2015). In this administrators can ensure the involvement of parents in
context, although teacher practices at all school levels, politics the school by using the video conference method, electronic
and philosophy of the school significantly affect parental or printed information notes and messages for families in
involvement (Epstein et al., 2011; Jenkins, 2017; Partin, 2017), this situation. Parental involvement not only contributes
studies indicate that the main actor influencing parental to academic achievement but also it brings along school
involvement is teachers (Lewis, Kim & Bey, 2011; Murray, compliance (Chen, 2005), attendance and regular homework
McFarland-Piazza & Harrison, 2015). However, studies show habits (Dove, Neuharth-Pritchett, W.Wright & Wallinga,

2015), positive classroom behaviors (Hayes, 2012). When performance of senior high school students: the case of
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Pegem Journal of Education and Instruction, Vol. 11, No. 3, 2021 (pp.

RESEARCH ARTICLE WWW.PEGEGOG.NET

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Fig. 1: Prisma Flow Diagram for Meta-analaysis

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was used for descriptive statistics. In the analysis of the meta-

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Figure 3. Effect Size and Weights of the Studies

skills and least on the science subjects. However, it can be

Table 4: Effect Size Differences by Subject Areas

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Table 5: Effect Size Differences by School Level

Table 6: Effect Size Differences by Geographical Regions

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