Network Theory

Notes
FOR DIT-I STUDENTS

Prepared By: Asif Khan

APTECH INSTITUTE OF IT | G.T ROAD HASHTNAGRI PESHAWAR
Tel: 091-2565077 Mob: 0344-2044268
 Network Theory Notes (DIT-I)

Network
When two or more than two computers are connected with the help of some media and they share
resources, information is called network.

OR

Connecting multiple computers for the purpose of sharing data and resources

Types of Network

 Based on Geographical Boundary

o Local Area Network (LAN)
o Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
o Wide Area Network (WAN)
 Based on Role of Computers
o Peer to Peer / Workgroup
o Client / Server Model or Domain Based

Roles
Server Computer: Computer which provide services on Network is called server computer. E.g.
File Server, Print Server etc.

Client Computer: Computer which request for services on the network is called client computer.
E.g. for Print services, File Services etc.

Local Area Network

A network within small geographical area is known as local area network (LAN). E.g. Office,
Building, Campus etc. 1 km

LAN is also known as private network

LAN Technologies

 Ethernet
 FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
 Token Ring

*Ethernet is dominant LAN technology

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LAN Requirements

 Computers
 NIC in all computers
 Cable (Twisted Pair)
 RJ 45 Connector
 Switch or Wireless Access Point (wireless LAN)
 Clipping Tool (Optional)

Metropolitan Area Network

A network within a city is known as MAN. In MAN different LANs are connected within a city.
In MAN we can use the services of third party i.e. ISP/TSP

ISP = Internet Service Provider

TSP = Telecommunication Service Provider
(PTCL, WATEEN, World Call etc.)
MAN Technologies
 SMDS (Switched Multimegabit Data Services)
 FDDI
Wide Area Network

A network in which different cities, countries are connected is known as WAN. In WAN we use
the services of third party i.e. ISP/TSP

WAN Devices

Routers, CSU/DSU, Cable Modem, WAN Switches etc.

CSU = Channel Service Unit DSU = Data Service Unit

WAN Technologies

ISDN, DSL, x.25, Frame Relay, PPP, HDLC etc.

ISDN = Integrated Services Digital Network

DSL = Digital Subscriber Line
PPP = Point to Point Protocol

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HDLC = High Data Link Control

PAN = Personal Area Network
CAN = Campus Area Network

Peer to Peer / Workgroup

In this type of network computer act as server and also client. This type of network is suitable for
small office or fewer users. No dedicated server exist in this type. Maximum 10 computers can be
connected. Powerful hardware is required in computers.

Client/Server Model or Domain Based

In this type Client computers act as client and Server computers act as servers. A main server also
known as Domain Controller (DC) is configured. However, other member servers can also be
configured to assist main server. In server computer network operating system (NOS) is required
i.e. Win Server 2003, 2012, Linux, Novell Netware etc. Client/Server model is suitable for medium
to large size organization. Internet is based on Client/Server model. Furthermore, it is secure,
manageable, scalable etc. It require a dedicated administrator.

Internetworks

When two or more networks are connected they become an internetwork or internet. Individual
networks are joined together by the use of Internetworking Devices like Routers, Gateways etc.

 internet: Combination of Network

 Internet: Specific World Wide Network

History of Internet

In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were standalone devices.

Computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with one another. The
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DoD) was interested
in finding a way to connect computers so that the researchers they funded could share their
findings, thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of efforts. In 1967, at an Association
for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET, a small
network of connected computers. The idea was that each host computer (not necessarily from the

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same manufacturer) would be attached to a specialized computer, called an interface message

processor (IMP). The IMPs would be connected to one another. Each IMP had to be able to
communicate with other IMPs as well as with its own attached host. By 1969 ARPANET was a
reality. Four nodes, at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the University of
California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford Research Institute (SRI) and the University of Utah
were connected via the IMPs to form a network. Software called the Network Control Protocol
(NCP) provided communication between the hosts.

ARPANET NSFNET INTERNET

Bit Rate

In network the bit rate is the number of bits that pass a given point in a network in a given amount
of time, usually a second. Thus, a bit rate is usually measured in some multiple of bits per second,
for example, kilobits, or thousands of bits per second (Kbps). The term bit rate is a synonym
for data transfer rate (or simply data rate).

Baud Rate

Pronounced bawd, the number of signaling elements that occur each second. At slow speeds, only
one bit of information (signaling element) is encoded in each electrical change. The baud,
therefore, indicates the number of bits per second that are transmitted. For example, 300
baud means that 300 bits are transmitted each second (abbreviated 300 bps).
Peak Data Rate

Peak data rate is the fastest data transfer rate for a device, typically available in short bursts during
transfer activity, and not sustainable for long periods of time.

Bursty Data Rate

 Any relatively high-bandwidth transmission over a short period. For example, a download
might use 2 Mbit/s on average, while having "peaks" bursting up to, say, 2.4 Mbit/s.
 Transmission that combines a very high data signaling rate with very short transmission
times.

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 Burst transmission, however, enables communications between data terminal

equipment (DTEs) and a data network operating at dissimilar data signaling rates.

Subnet

A portion of a network that shares a common address component. On TCP/IP networks, subnets
are defined as all devices whose IP addresses have the same prefix. For example, all devices with
IP addresses that start with 192.168.0. would be part of the same subnet. Dividing a network into
subnets is useful for both security and performance reasons. IP networks are divided using a subnet
mask.

Topology
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically. The
Topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the links and
linking devices to one another.

Types of Topology

 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Tree Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. To find
the number of physical links in a fully connected mesh network with n nodes we first consider that
each node must be connected to every other node.

 No of Link = n(n -1) /2

 No of I/O = n-1

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Advantages
 Use of Dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own load. This
eliminates Traffic Problems as in case of Shared Link
 Mesh Topology is robust. If one link fails, it does not affect other links
 Security & Privacy due to dedicated links
 Point – to –Point links make Fault Identification easy

Disadvantages
 Amount of Cabling makes Installation & Reconfiguration difficult
 Sheer bulk of wiring can be greater than the available space
 Number of I/O Ports Required i.e. Hardware required to connect each link can be
prohibitively expensive

Star Topology
In star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller called
a hub. The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology a star topology
does not allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange. If one device
wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller which then relays the data to the
other connected device.

Advantages
 Easy to Install and Reconfigure
 Less Cabling
 Less Expensive than Mesh as each device needs only one link and one I./O Port
 Easy Fault Detection
Disadvantages
 One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole topology on one
single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole system is dead.

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 Although Cabling required is far less than Mesh Still each node must be connected to a
Hub so Cabling is still much more than some other Topologies

Tree Topology

A variation of Star Topology. Nodes in a Tree are linked to a central hub that controls the traffic
to and from network. Difference b/w star and tree is not all the devices plug directly into the
central HUB. Majority connects to secondary hub that is connected to central hub.

Central Hub in Tree Topology

Central Hub in a Tree is an Active Hub which contains a repeater. Repeater is a hardware device
that regenerates the received bit pattern before sending them out. Repeater strengthens TX. And
increases the distance a signal can travel.

Secondary HUB in Tree Topology

Secondary Hub in a Tree may be Active or Passive Hub. Passive Hub simply provides physical
connection between attached devices.

Advantages

 Because of Secondary Hub, More devices can be attached to a Central Hub and therefore
increase the distance a signal can travel
 Enables Differentiated Services: Allows to prioritize communication, e.g. computers
attached to one secondary hub can be given priority over others. Therefore, TIME
SENSITIVE data will not have to wait for access to the network
 Rest of the advantages are almost the same as STAR

Example Tree Topology: Cable TV

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Bus Topology

A bus topology on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the
devices in a network.

Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a connection running
between the device and the main cable. A tap is a connector that either splices into the main cable
or punctures the sheathing of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core.

Advantages

 Easy to install
 Backbone can be laid on the most efficient path and then rest of the nodes can be connected
using Drop Lines
 Less cabling than Mesh , Star or Tree

Disadvantages
 Difficult to add new devices. Adding new devices may require modification of backbone
 A fault or break in backbone can disable communication even on the same side of the
problem
 Damaged area reflects signals back in the direction of origin creating noise in both
directions

Ring Topology
In ring topology each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the two devices
on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to device, until

it reaches its destination. Each device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives
a signal intended for another device its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them along.

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Advantages

 Easy to Install and Reconfigure

 Only two connections to be moved to add or delete a device
 SIMPLE Fault Isolation
 Generally a signal is circulating at all times in a ring. If one device does not receive a
signal within a specified period, it can issue an alarm to tell network operator about the
problem and its location

Disadvantages

 Unidirectional Traffic
 A break in a ring i.e. a disabled station can disable the entire network
Can be solved by using: Dual Ring or A switch capable of closing off the Break

Hybrid Topology

A network can be hybrid i.e. several different topologies are combined in a large topology. E.g.
one department of a business may have decided to use a Bus while other has a Ring.

Network Devices

Node
Node refers to any computer or device on the network which is capable of sending and receiving
data on the network.

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NIC = Network Interface Card

NIC is used in computers for the purpose of network connectivity. It provide interface for
computers to connect on the network. NIC work as an entry and exit point for data in computers.

Types of NIC

 Wired NIC
 Wireless NIC

Every NIC has a unique address known as physical or MAC address. It is 48 Bits or 12
Hexadecimal Digits. IEEE keep NIC address unique by dividing the address into two parts of 24
bits each. First 24 bits are assigned by IEEE and is known as organizationally unique Identifier
(OUI) and remaining 24 bits are vendors specific. The address is burned in NIC circuit. To view
NIC address we can use the following command:

Open command prompt and then type ipconfig /all then enter

Hub

Hub is used to connect computers in LAN. Hub work on layer one of OSI reference model. When
hub receive data on its port it broadcast the receive data on all its active ports as it don’t has the
capability to learn the address of connected computers.

Types of Hub

 Passive Hub
 Active Hub

Passive Hub
A type of hub which is not capable of regenerating weak signals
Active Hub
A type of hub capable of regenerating weak signals of data before transmission

Modem

Modem is a network device used for modulation and de-modulation. It converts analog signals to
digital and digital to analog.

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Access Point (AP)

Access point is used to connect multiple computers on a wireless LAN or provide network/internet
connection facility for mobile (laptop) users.

Bridge

Bridge is used with hub based network to reduce broadcast and collision domain. Bridge record
physical address of all computers connected with hub. Bridge is a layer 2 device. Nowadays it is
not used.

Switch

A network switch is used to connect multiple computers in LAN environment. Switch create MAC
address table and make data forwarding decision as per its MAC address table. Switch is also a
layer 2 device. However, nowadays layer 3 switches are also present.

Router

Router is WAN device. It is used for the purpose of internetworking (routing). Router is layer 3
device. Router create routing tables of connected, neighbors network and make data forwarding
decision according to its routing table.

Media

Guided Unguided

Fiber Wireless
Copper
Optics Media

Twisted Single Multi

Co-Axial
Pair Mode Mode

Thin Net Thick Net UTP STP

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Guided Media

Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another, include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. A signal traveling along any of these media
is directed and contained by the physical limits of the medium.

Twisted Pair

A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper) each with its own plastic
insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other
is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the two. In addition
to the signal sent by the sender on one of the wires, interference (noise) and crosstalk may affect
both wires and create unwanted signals.

Categories of Twisted Pair

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Coaxial Cable

Coaxial cable carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in twisted pair cable, in
part because the two media are constructed quite differently. Instead of having two wires, coaxial
has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire enclosed in an insulating sheath which is in
turn encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid or a combination of the two. The outer
metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the second conductor which
complete the circuit. This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath and the whole
cable is protected by a plastic cover.

Coaxial Cable Standards

Coaxial cables are categorized by their radio government (RG) ratings. Each RG number denotes
a unique set of physical specifications including the wire gauge of the inner conductor, thickness
and type of the inner insulator, construction of the shield, size and type of outer casing. Each cable
defined by an RG rating is adapted for a specialized function.

Categories Coaxial Cable

Fiber Optics Cable

A fiber optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or plastic core is surrounded
by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The difference in density of the two materials must be
such that a beam of light moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being
refracted into it.

Propagation Modes

Current technology supports two modes for propagation light along optical channels each requiring
fiber with different physical characteristics.

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Mode

Signle
Multimode
Mode

Graded
Step Index
Index

Multimode

Multimode is so named because multiple beams from a light source move through the core in
different paths. How these beams move within the cable depends on the structure of the core.

Single Mode

Single mode uses step index fiber and a highly focused source of light that limits beams to a small
range of angles all close to the horizontal. Single mode fiber itself is manufactured with a much
smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber and with substantially lower density.

Fiber Optics Types

Unguided Media

Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type
of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast
through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in the following ways:

 Ground Propagation
 Sky Propagation

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 Line-of-Sight Propagation

Ground Propagation

In ground propagation radio waves travel through lowest portion of the atmosphere hugging the
earth. These low frequency signals emanate in all directions from the transmitting antenna and
follow the curvature of the planet. Distance depends on the amount of power in the signal.

Sky Propagation

In sky propagation higher frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere where they
are reflected back to earth. This type of transmission allows for greater distances with lower output
power.

Line-of-Sight Propagation

In line-of-sight propagation very high frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly
from antenna to antenna. Antennas must be directional facing each other and either tall enough or
close enough together not to be affected by the curvature of the earth. Line-of-sight propagation is
tricky because radio transmissions cannot be completely focused.

Bands

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Wireless
Transmission

Radio waves Microwaves Infrared

Radio Waves

Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 KHz and 1 GHz are normally called
radio waves. Radio waves are omnidirectional. When an antenna transmits radio waves they are
propagated in all directions. In sky mode they can travel for long distances, which makes radio
waves a good candidate for long distance broadcasting such as AM radio. They are used in AM,
FM radio, television, cordless phones etc.

Microwaves

Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwaves they can be narrowly
focused, which means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. Due to their
unidirectional properties microwaves are very useful when unicast communication is needed. They
are used in cellular phones, satellite network etc.

Infrared

Infrared waves with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz can be used for short range
communication. Infrared waves having high frequencies cannot penetrate walls. Infrared are used
with devices such as wireless keyboards, mice, PCs, printers, TV remote control etc.

OSI Model

International Standards Organization (ISO, 1947) is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide

agreement on international standards. An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection model. It was first introduced in the late
1970s.

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Open System: An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to
communicate regardless of their underlying architecture.

Purpose of OSI Model

The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between different
systems without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software. The OSI
model is not a protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture that
is flexible, robust, and interoperable.

Definition of OSI Model

A layered framework for the design of network systems that allows communication across all types
of computer systems regardless of their underlying architecture.

Advantages of OSI Model

 It divides network communication process in to smaller and simpler components, thus

adding components Development, design and troubleshooting
 It allow multi-vendor development through standardization of network components
 It encourage industry standardization by defining what functions occur at each layer of the
model

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 It allow various types of network hardware and software to communicate

 It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers, so it does not hamper
development

Headers and Trailers

 Control data added to a data parcel
 Sender appends header and passes it to the lower layer
 Receiver removes header and passes it to upper layer
 Headers are added at layer 6, 5,4,3,2. Trailer is added at layer 2.

Interface
 Each interface defines what information and services a layer must provide for the layer
above it
 Interface provides Modularity
 Each layer work a separate module
 Any modification or replacements can be made without changes in surrounding layers

Network Support Layers

 Deals with the physical aspect of moving data from one device to another
 Layers 1, 2, 3

User Support Layers

 Allows interoperability among unrelated software systems
 Layers 5, 6, 7

Organization of Layers
 Layer 4
 Ensures end-to-end reliable transmission
 Upper OSI Layers always implemented in Software
 Lower Layers are a combination of software and hardware
 Physical layer is mostly Hardware

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An Exchange Using the OSI Model

OSI Model Layers

Physical Layer
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical medium.
It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium.
It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform
for transmission to Occur.

Functions of Physical Layer

 Physical Characteristics of Interface & Media

 Defines characteristics of Interface b/w device and Tx Medium
 Interface is a pluggable connector that joins one or more signal conductors
 Also defines the type of transmission medium
 Representation of Bits/Encoding
 The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of 1’s and 0’s)
 To be transmitted the bits must be ENCODED into signals: Electrical or Optical
 Physical layer decides the type of ENCODING
 Data Rate / Transmission Rate
 Date Rate ( Bits per second) also decided by the Physical Layer

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 So , Physical layer defines the Duration of a Bit

 Means how long will a bit last
 Synchronization of Bits
 Sender and Receiver must be synchronized at the bit level
 Sender and Receiver clocks must be synchronized
 It is done by Physical layer
 Line Configuration
 Physical Layer is also concerned with Line Configuration
 Line Configuration represents the connection of device with the Medium
 Point-To-Point or Multipoint
 Physical Topology
 Mesh, Star, Ring, Bus etc.
 Transmission Mode
 Physical Layer also defines the direction of Transmission between the devices
 Simplex. Half Duplex, Full Duplex

Data Link Layer

The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link. It
makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer.

Functions of Data Link Layer

 Framing
The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.

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 Physical Addressing
If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link layer adds
a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is
intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver address is the address of
the device that connects the network to the next one.
 Flow Control
The data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect
and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate
frames. Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
 Access Control
When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are
necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.

Example

 Node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address 87
 Two nodes are connected by a link
 At Data Link level this frame contains physical address in the Header, the only address
needed at this level
 Rest of header contains other information as needed
 Trailer contains extra bits needed for error detection

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Network Layer

The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly
across multiple networks, whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet
between two systems on the same network. The network layer ensures that each packet gets
from its point of origin to its final destination.

Node-to-Node vs Source-to-Destination

If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer.
However, if the two systems are attached to different networks, there is often a need for the
network layer to accomplish source-to-destination delivery.

Function of Network Layer

 Logical Addressing
 Physical addressing implemented by Data link layer handles addressing problem
locally
 If a packet is going from one network to another, we need another addressing
system to help distinguish source & destination systems
 Network layer adds Header to the data coming from upper layers that among other
things include Logical Address of the sender and receiver
 Routing
 When independent networks or links are connected together to create an
“internetwork”, the internetworking devices route packets to their final destination
 Routers are those internetworking devices
 One of the functions of Network layer is to define this route

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Example
 We want to send data from a node with network address ‘A’ and physical address 10,
located on one LAN to A node with network address ‘P’ and physical address 95
located on another LAN
 Because the two nodes are present on two different networks, we cannot use physical
address only, we need a Network address that can pass us from the Network boundaries
 The packet therefore contains the logical address which remains the same from source
to destination
 The physical address will change when packet moves from one network to the other
 The box with R is a Router

Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. The
network layer oversees source-to-destination delivery of individual packets; it does not
recognize any relationship between those packets. It treats each one independently, as though
each piece belonged to a separate message. The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that
the whole message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error control and flow control
at the source-to-destination level.

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Functions of Transport Layer

 Service Point Addressing

 Computers run several programs at the same time
 Source-to-Destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the
other but also from a specific process on one computer to a specific process on the
other
 Transport layer header includes a type of address called Service Point Address or
Port Address
 Network layer gets each packet to the correct computer while Transport layer gets
entire message to the correct process on that computer
 Segmentation and Reassembly
 Message is divided into transmittable segments
 Each segment contains a sequence number
 These sequence no enable Transport layer at the receiving machine to reassemble
message correctly at the destination and to identify and replace lost packets
 Connection Control
 Transport layer can be either connection-less or connection-oriented
 Connectionless
o Treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the transport
layer of the destination m/c
 Connection-Oriented
o A connection is established first with Transport layer before delivering the
packet.
 After all data is Tx the connection is disconnected

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 Flow Control
 Like Data link layer, Transport layer is also responsible for Flow control
 Flow control is performed end-to-end rather than across a single link
 Error Control
 Like data link layer, Transport layer is responsible for the Error Control
 Error control is performed end-to-end
 This layer makes sure that entire message reaches Rx Transport layer w/o error
 Error can be a result of Lost, damaged or duplicated data and usually Re - Tx is
done

Session Layer

The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes
the interaction among communicating systems.

Functions of Session Layer

 Dialog control
 The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog.
 It allows the communication between two processes to take place in either half-
duplex or full-duplex mode.

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 Synchronization
 The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points to
a stream of data.
 If a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert checkpoints after
every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged
independently.
 In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages
that need to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523.
 Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.

Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between two systems.

Functions of Presentation Layer

 Translation
 The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging
information in the form of character strings, numbers, and so on.
 The information must be changed to bit streams before being transmitted.
 Because different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer
is responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods.
 The presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-
dependent format into a common format.
 The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into
its receiver-dependent format

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 Encryption
 To carry sensitive info a system must be able to assure privacy
 Encryption means that sender transforms original info to another form and sends
the resulting message out over the network
 Decryption reverses the original process to transform message back to its original
form
 Compression
 Data compression reduces the number of bits to be transmitted
 Data compression becomes particularly important in transmission of multimedia
such as text, audio and video

Application Layer

Enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It provides user interfaces
and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information services.

Functions of Application Layer

 Network Virtual Terminal

 NVT is a software version of physical terminal and allows a user to log on to a
remote host
 To do so the application created emulation of terminal at the remote host
 Users computer talks to the software terminal which in turn talks to the host & vice
versa

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 Remote host believes it is communication with one of its own terminals and allow
you to log on
 File Transfer, Access and Manage (FTAM)
 It allows a user to access file on the remote computers to make changes or read data
 The purpose of this access is to Retrieve files from a remote computer and to
manage or control files in that remote computer
 Mail Services
 This application provides the basis for email forwarding and storage
 Directory Services
 Provide distributed database sources and access for global info about various
objects and services

Summary of Layer Functions

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TCP/IP Protocol Suite

The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. It is used widely on the Internet.
The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network, internet,
transport, and application.

Physical and Data Link Layers (Network Access)

At the physical and data link layers, TCP/IP does not define any specific protocol. It supports all
the standard and proprietary protocols. A network in a TCP/IP internetwork can be a local area
network or a wide area network.

Network Layer (Internetwork Layer)

At the network layer (or, more accurately, the internetwork layer), TCP/IP supports the
Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four supporting protocols: ARP,RARP, ICMP, and
IGMP.

Transport Layer (Host to Host)

Transport layer was represented in TCP/IP by two protocols: TCP and UDP. IP is a host-to-host
protocol meaning that it can deliver a packet from one physical device to another. UDP and TCP

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are transport level protocols responsible for delivery of a message from a process to another
process.

Application Layer

The application layer in TCP/IP is equivalent to the combined session, presentation and application
layers in the OSI model. Many protocols are defined at this layer.

IP Addresses

IP addresses are logical addresses used to uniquely identified computers and devices on a network.
There are two types of IP addresses which are as under:

 IPv4
 IPv6

IPv4

IPv4 are 4 No’s or 32 Bits address. It is represented in dotted decimal. Every IP address can be
broken down into 2 parts i.e. the Network ID and the Host ID. All hosts on the same network must
have the same network id. Each of these hosts must have a host id that is unique in relation to the
network id. E.g. 40.0.0.100, 124.35.62.181 etc.

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Classes of IPv4

Class Range Network Portion Host Portion Subnet Mask

A 1 – 126 First 8 bits are for Remaining 24 bits 255.0.0.0
network portion are for host portion
B 128 – 191 First 16 bits are for Remaining 16 bits 255.255.0.0
network portion are for host portion
C 192 – 223 First 24 bits are for Remaining 8 bits are 255.255.255.0
network portion for host portion
D 224 – 239 Multicast address Range

E 240 -255 Reserved Address Range

IPv6

As already we knew that IPv4 has nearly run out of available IP addresses due to the large influx
of internet users and expanding networks. As a result, the powers that be had to create a new
addressing scheme to deal with this situation and developed IPv6. This new addressing scheme
utilizes a 128 bit address (instead of 32) and utilizes a hex numbering method in order to avoid
long addresses such as 132.64.34.26.64.156.143.57.1.3.7.44.122.111.201.5. The hex address
format will appear in the form of 3FFE:B00:800:2::C for example. The IPv6 equivalent of IPv4's
loopback address is 0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1. This can be abbreviated as ::1. Windows 7 supports both IPv4
and IPv6 through a dual-IP-layer architecture and both are installed and enabled by default. This
architecture enables you to tunnel IPv6 traffic across an IPv4 network in addition to tunneling IPv4
traffic across an IPv6 network.

Routed Protocols

Protocols used to support data traffic are called routed protocols. Examples are IP, IPv6 etc

Routing Protocols

Protocols that send route update packets are called routing protocols. Examples are RIP, RIPv2,
EIGRP, and OSPF.

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Types of Routing Protocols

 Distance Vector Routing Protocols

 Link State Routing Protocols

Cable Configuration

Straight Through Cable

It is used when dissimilar devices are connected on both side of the cable. E.g. PC to switch, switch
to Router

Cross Over Cable

It is used when similar devices are connected on both side of the cable e.g. PC to PC, Switch to
Switch, Router to Router (Ethernet port), PC to Router (Ethernet port)

Roll Over cable

It is used when PC is connected to Router over console port

Two Standards
EIA – 568A and EIA-568B

Straight Through Cable

Side A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
WOrange Orange WGreen Blue WBlue Green WBrown Brown
Side B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
WOrange Orange WGreen Blue WBlue Green WBrown Brown

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Cross Over Cable

Side A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
WOrange Orange WGreen Blue WBlue Green WBrown Brown
Side B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
WGreen Green WOrange Blue WBlue Orange WBrown Brown

Roll Over Cable

Side A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
WOrange Orange WGreen Blue WBlue Green WBrown Brown
Side B
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Brown WBrown Green WBlue Blue WGreen Orange WOrange

Note: All practical labs are performed as per BTE syllabus

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