JICA-SMEDA

ENERGY EFFICIENCY MANAGEMENT PROJECT FOR

INDUSTRIAL SECTOR IN PAKISTAN

ESCO MANUAL

December, 2016

Prepared by

Energy Efficiency Management Project, JICA

Content
Chapter No. Title Page
1 Energy Audit for Factories 2
2 Power Receiving and Distribution Facilities 13
3 Application of Inverters 19
4 Harmonics 25
5 Lighting Part1: Artificial light 32
6 Lighting Part2: Natural sky light 36
7 Cooling Water system 39
8 Power generator diesel engine 48
9 AC Arc Welder 54
10 Steam boiler and steam system 57
11 Compressed air system 67
12 ABC of combustion of gas fuel 76
13 Industrial furnace and Energy saving 82
14 Electroplating and Energy Saving 89
15 Enforcement of Thermal Insulation 96

Chapter 1 Energy audit for factories

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1. Introduction
Energy audit for factories (hereinafter referred to as Factory) is to clarify the energy
utilization situation in Factory firstly, improve energy utilization efficiency and reduce
energy loss by strengthening energy management, remodeling the equipment and
changing the process.
In order to grasp to the energy utilization situation in Factory, it is necessary to get
the following data, such as the consumption amount of the fuel and the electricity, the
temperature of materials be heated and the element of exhaust gas etc. And it is possible
to be read and recorded by the measurement instrument in Factory. However, in some
Factories, though the measurement instrument to measure the production and operation
is installed, the measurement instrument concerning energy management is not installed
fully. And in the energy audit, it is necessary to offer measuring data gained from
Factory to the audit team and obtain all data from measurement instrument in the
Factory. In the measurement period of Factory, it is necessary to obtain accurate
measurements within a limited time, and it is very important to install measurement
instruments and sensors, confirm and record the data, and confirm the reliability of the
data.
This audit and measurement section includes mainly procedure of energy auditing of
Factory, measurement technology for Factory, analysis technique of the data, method to
conduct the audit report. It is expected that the engineer in Pakistan is able to promote
the energy conservation by referring to this manual.

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 2. Procedure of energy audit

Figure 2.1 shows the general procedure of energy audit for Factories.

Figure 2.1 Flow chart of energy audit for Factory

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2.1 Outline of Factory
The auditor must understand the matter described as follow; the scale, production, and energy
consumption of Factory, etc. through questionnaire before energy audit (Table 2.1 2-2). At the
same time, the auditor must grasp the manager’s stance for energy conservation, current approach,
problems and basic strategy of the Factory.

(1) Outline of the Factory

a. Outline of the Factory (Name, category, capital, sales, number of employees,

organization, share in their filed and locations, etc.)

b．Production of the main product in past five years

c．Energy consumption in past five years

d．Manufacturing process charts of the main products

e．Capacity and operation situation of the main energy consumption equipment such as
boilers

f. Energy flow in the factory

g. Chart of single-line diagram for electrical system and the situation of the power
receiving equipment specifications

h．Layout of the factory

i. Problems of the factory and request of audit items

j．Past implemented items for energy conservation

k. Implementation plan for energy conservation in the future

l. Condition of the factory and the same industrial filed, as well as the obstruction
factors of energy conservation

2.2 Conduct the energy audit plan

(1)Preparation of checklist

The auditor lists up the items to be measured and investigated in the Factory firstly, so
that the deficit of information should not occur; and should make the checklist based on
the preliminary auditing sheet and the data be obtained from the Factory manager by prior
interviewing. The checklist is distributed to the member of audit team (sector specialist of
process, heat, electricity and measurement), and the policy and the work participation of
the measurement and the audit are discussed at an internal meeting. Table 2.1 and Table

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 2.2 show the example of the energy audit check items of the factory and the commercial
buildings

(2) A general inspection is done by hearing the explanation of the Factory. At the same time,
the follwing contents should be grasped by the preliminary auditing sheet and the record
data on the production and consumption of energy.
・ Problems in equipment and operation

・ Point which should be given priority in energy audit

・ Technical level of factory

・ Level of aging and maintenance of equipment

・ Fluctuation of operation rate

・ Energy intensity and its trend

(3) Determination of energy audit program

The auditor should revise and add the content in the checklist according to the
above-mentioned, then accept some advice from the audit team and decide the following
contents
・ Measurement and auditing schedule

・ Equipment or process which should be given priority in energy audit

・ Measuring point, measuring items, measuring schedule

・ Work participation

(4) The audit plan is explained to the Factory and the following cooperation is requested also
from the Factory.
・ Adjustment with production plan

・ Preparation of the hole to insert measuring sensor and collect sample.

・ Power supply preparation

・ Attendance person's nomination of the Factory

2.3 The measurement and investigation are executed based on the audit plan.

・ Selection and arrangement of measurement instruments

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 ・ Setting of measurement condition in the measuring instrument

・ Check the proceeding of datacollection

・ Investigation of detailed structure and dimention of equipments by equipment

drawing or actual measurement

・ Grasping problem by observation of operation

・ Hearing from engineers

・ Investigation on the necessary data to evaluate economic effect of

improvement measures（energy prices, fund, and cost, etc.）

2.4 When the measurement result and the investigation data are collected, energy conservation
measures in the future are analysed. And the measures are explained to the Factory and to be
finalised.

2.5 Study of improvement measures

Based on the following information such as the data in the checklist, the measurement record
form, the data logging memory (SD card, CDR, and USB memory, etc.) and the drawings, etc,
the heat management and the electric management analyses such as the calculation of heat
balance, heat transfer and the fluid conveying power are made. The energy conservation
measures by the modification or the addition of equipment should be made. The most reasonable
measures should be decided.

At the same time, the economic analysis for each improvement measures and the expected
effect is estimated. Based on the above estimation results, the economy for each improvement
measure is evaluated by using a common index and method. And their practicability and priority
are clarified.

Moreover, the environmental influence with the improvement measure execution is examined
and the point to be noted in execution should be shown.

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3 Check list for energy audit

Table3.1 Check List for Energy conservation audit in Factory

(1) General management items

1. Energy management system l Development of organizational structure and human resource
education
l Goals for energy conservation and investment budget
l Establishment of management standards
l Implementation status of energy conservation
l Annual plans, and medium-and long-term plans
l PDCA management cycle
2.Implementation status of l Status of installation of measuring equipment and its operation
measurement and recording l Status of maintenance of measuring equipment and its inspection
l Status of implementation of measurement and recording
l Status of introduction of measurement and control systems
3. Management of energy l Status of recording of daily report
consumption l Daily consumption and daily load curve
l Visualization
l Monthly consumption
l Comparison with previous fiscal year
4. Maintenance management of l Periodical inspection and daily check
equipment l Management of equipment performance
l Leak repair (water, air, and steam)
l Cleaning of filters and strainers
l Management of system performance
l Heat retention, heat insulation
5. Management of specific l Management of specific consumption (consumption/production)
energy consumption l Management of cost (cost/production)
l Specific consumption and cost by process
l Specific consumption and cost by product
6. Management related to the l Status of implementation of global warming prevention measures
environment l Status of implementation of CO2 emission reduction measures
(2) Air conditioning and refrigerating facilities
1. Operation management of air l Optimization of preset temperature and humidity
conditioning facilities l Control of outdoor air intake volume
l Multiple Unit control of heat source equipment
l Changing the setting of chilled water outlet temperature
l Scheduled operations
l Status of shielding of the outdoor air and ventilation
l Shielding of radiation heat released from high-temperature
equipment
2. Energy-saving measures for l Heat insulation reinforcement of buildings and solar radiation
air conditioning system shading
l Utilization of outdoor air
l Satratified air conditioning and reduction of air conditioning
volume
l Rotation speed control of conveying equipment (pumps and air
blowers)
l Recovery and utilization of waste heat, and heat pumps
l Local cooling and local exhaust

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3. Operation management of l Motors for refrigerating equipment
cooling facilities l Refrigerant inlet and outlet pressure
l Water inlet and outlet temperature and pressure
4. Operation management of l Motors for cooling towers
auxiliary cooling facilities l Water quality control (electrical conductivity)
l Pump operation control（water volume and pump head）
5. Cold storage and refrigerating l Management of entrance and exit
facilities l Heat retention management
l Efficiency improvement
(3) Pumps, Fans and Compressors
1. Operation management of l Status of opening and closing of valves
pumps and fans l Improvement of routes (pipe fittings and ducts)
l Control of rotation speed and multiple unit control
l Flow rate and operating pressure
l Check of design margin
2. Operation management of l Review of types
compressors l Matching of capacity and types
l Reduction of discharge pressure and terminal working pressure
l Segmentation of high/low pressure lines
l ventilating facilities and ambient air temperature
l Review of pipe diameters and piping routes
l Installation of air receivers
(4) Boilers, industrial furnaces , steam systems, heat exchangers, waste heat, and waste water
1. Combustion control of l Management of air ratio and exhaust gas
furnaces l Burners, fuels, and ventilation systems
l Combustion control devices
2. Operation and efficiency l Load factor and status of start-Up/ shutdown
management l Multiple unit control
l Heat efficiency, heat balance, and heat distribution
l Water quality management, and blow control
3. Heat insulation / retention and l Temperature of exterior furnace surface and ducts
prevention of heat loss l Heat insulating materials
l Sealing of the opening and furnace pressure
4. Exhaust gas temperature l Exhaust gas temperature
control and waste heat l Heat recovery (water feed and air preheat)
recovery l Exhaust gas circulation
5. Operation management of l Dryness and carry-over
steam systems l Preset steam pressure and temperature of facilities
l Steam flowrate
6. Management of steam leak l Piping system and tanks
and heat retention l Load systems
7. Optimization of piping l Routes and pipe size
systems l Removal of unnecessary piping
l Integration of multiple steam systems
8. Steam load leveling l Installation of accumulators
l Load-side measures
8. Steam pressure, and recovery l Drain-off recovery units and recovery systems
and use of drain-off l Use of flash steam
l Steam trap management
9. Management of heat l Appropriateness of the model
exchangers l Appropriateness of usage and heat media
l Maintenance condition (contamination and pressure loss)
l Heat media and heated object temperature
l Temperature efficiency

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 10. Reduction of waste heat and l Heat recovery from hot water
waste water l Stream lining of exhaust air ducts
l Cyclical use of cooling water
l Concentration management of impurities in water
12. Other l Use of surplus gas
(5) Power receiving/ transforming facilities, electrical motors, lighting systems, and electrical heating
equipment
1. Management of power l Adjustment of electrical voltage
receiving/transforming l Management of power factor
facilities l Transformer capacity
l Demand factor and load adjustment
l Shut off of Unnecessary transformers
l Optimization of demand
l Management of consumption
l Utilization of night-time power
l Control of power factor improvement
l Demand control
l Low-loss transformers
l Multiple unit control of transformers
2. Management of electrical l Equipment capacity, Voltage, and number of units
motors l Rotation speed control
l Cease of no-load running
3. Management of lighting l Adoption of highly efficient lamps and fixtures
systems l Adoption of automatic lighting and local lighting systems
l Mounting position of lamp fittings and circuit partitioning
l Management of optimum illumination
l Lights-out and use of daylight during hours when lighting is
unnecessary
l Cleaning and replacement of lighting apparatus
4. Management of electrical l Improvement of supply voltage and power factor
heating equipment l Transfer of products into and from equipment, and preheating of
materials
l Temperature management and heating management
l Heat insulation management
l Load factor improvement
l Continuous operations
l Reuse of exhaust heat
(6) Others
1. Load leveling measures l Review of operation forms (operation hours, operating rate, load
factor, etc.)
l Introduction of equipment (thermal storage equipment, gas-fired
absorption-type water chiller, heaters, etc.)
2. Co-generation l Operation management (dependence rate, power generation
efficiency, Utilization rate of waste heat, total efficiency, etc.)
3. New energies lFuel cells
lPhotovoltaic power generation
lSolar heat
lWind power generation
Source: Guidebook on Energy Conservation for Factories 2010 / 2011, Energy Conservation Center, Japan
(ECCJ)

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4 Questionnaire
Table 4.1 Questionnaire before energy audit
Sheet No. Company Name
Item Description Comments
Starting year of Operation
Products
Annual Production Capacity
Production Volume in 2014
Annual days operated (days)
Number of Employees
Number of Engineers
Electricity (Line) per year（ｋWh)
Electricity Charges per year (Rs/y)
Electricity (Captive) per year（ｋWh)
Natural gas Consumption per year (m3)
Natural gas Charge per year (Rs/y)
Diesel Oil Consumption per year (L)
Diesel Charges per year (Rs/y)
Others ( LPG ) ( kg )
Others Charges per year (Rs/y)
Total energy Charge per year (Rs/y)
Air compressor
Air receiver
Pump
Fan, Blower
Chiller
Melting furnace
Key HP Die Cast Machine
Equipment Injection mold machine
Horizontal MC
Vertical MC
Main Transformer
Vacuum evaporation unit
Paint curing furnace
Power Generator

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Chapter 2 Power Receiving and Distribution Facilities

1. Proper voltage control

In Pakistan voltage level of factories are fluctuating generally. The main causes are fluctuating
voltage at power receiving point and small cable size which causes big voltage drop on the cable.
Allowable voltage level for electrical equipment is generally ±5% of equipment rated voltage
(sometimes ± 10%). In case voltage imposed on electrical equipment is beyond allowable
voltage level, efficiency of the equipment will be lower and equipment life will be also
shortened.

1-1 Measuring and recording electricity data by power analyzer

Measuring and recording electricity data (V, A, kW, Pf, etc.) for a few hours or several hours is
necessary. It is recommendable to take 24 hour data at power receiving point once a month in
Pakistan because of voltage fluctuation. Then prepare tables showing maximum, minimum,
average values for analysis.

a) 2hour data sample b) 24hour data sample

Load

shedding

V -n V -V A kW PF (%)
M AX 241.0 417.5 221.9 136.1 100.0
V A kW P F (%)
M IN -1 222.8 385.9 3.3 1.0 23.7
M AX 414.0 462.4 258.8 95.0 M IN -2 210.2 364.1 11.4 6.6 51.7
M IN 383.7 158.6 104.6 75.0 AVERAGE-1 233.5 404.5 47.0 30.6 86.3
A V ER A G E 400.0 294.1 179.9 88.4 AVERAGE-2 222.0 384.6 141.7 87.5 92.6

1-2 Improvement proposal

(1) At power receiving point

In case receiving voltage fluctuation is too big and beyond allowable equipment voltage level,
factory management should discuss with power company for improvement based on recorded
voltage data of above a) and b).

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(2) Inside factory

Following methods should be reviewed and considered.

1) Voltage setting shall be suitable for electrical equipment/motors.
2) Proper setting of transformer taps
3) Proper setting of generator voltage
4) Installation and proper control of power improvement capacitors
5) Proper cable size selection
6) Installation and proper control of AVR (Automatic Voltage Controller)

1-3 Reference

Problems of unstable voltage/overvoltage/under voltage

1) Inefficiency of electrical equipment /motors --- Energy loss !
2) Electrical equipment/motors are deteriorating and burning out due to overvoltage/overcurrent at
last.
Rewinding
Efficiency and power factor becomes lower without proper rewinding skill.
Energy loss !

Note: Allowable voltage tolerance

±5% --- IEC (International Electrotechnical Commision)

±10% --- JIS (Japanese Industry Standards)

Photos: Data gathering by Power Analyzer (Samples)

2. Power factor control

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 Improvement of power factor contributes to followings.
a) Decreasing voltage drop (I --> smaller, ⊿ V = IR --> smaller)
b) Decreasing distribution loss (I --> smaller, I2R --> smaller)
c) Increasing distributing capacity (cosѲ --> bigger, P = IVcosѲ --> bigger)
d) Reduction of electricity charge (In Pakistan low power factor penalty is imposed

in case monthly power factor is lower than 0.9.)

2-1 Improvement of low power factor (lagging)

In case monthly power factor is less than 0.9, power factor improvement capacitors should be
(additionally) installed.

Required capacitor size (Qc) is calculated as below.

Qc (kVAR) = Q1 – Q2 = P (kW) x (tanѲ 1 – tanѲ2) = P (kW) * ⊿tan
(⊿ tan = tanѲ 1 – tanѲ2)
I1, S1, Q1, Ѳ1 : Before improvement
I2 , S 2 , Q 2 , Ѳ 2 : After improvement
Qc : Required Capacitor

kW Coefficient (⊿tan ) for power factor improvement

Original Power Factor : cosѲ1

Desired Power Factor : cosѲ2

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2-2 Leading power factor issue

In Pakistan power factor improvement capacitors are installed at power receiving point for
avoiding low power factor penalty (<0.9) by power company. For avoiding the penalty, factories
tend to install excess capacity of capacitors. But if automatic power factor controller is not
installed or doesn’t function properly, excess capacity of capacitors causes leading power factor
(“-“ values). In case of leading power factor, following disadvantages occur.
1) Leading reactive current generate generates unnecessary energy loss.
2) Leading power factor (“-“ values) seems to be converted into lagging power factor (“+”
same values) in Pakistan. In this case higher leading power factor (PF (%)) is equivalent to
lower lagging power factor (Pfo (%)).

--- Low power factor penalty is imposed if total power factor is less than 0.9.
3) High leading power factor may cause higher receiving voltage (Er) rise than source voltage
(Es), which may damage electrical equipment in factories.

Leading power factor : Er > Es

Lagging power factor : Er < Es

Recommendation
Automatic power factor controller (APFC) should be installed and properly set.
In case harmonics level is high, APFC may malfunction.
Harmonics and solution of harmonics are explained separately.

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3. Rectification of phase imbalance
3-1 Current phase imbalance
There are many single phase loads in factories and offices such as lighting, heaters, rectifiers,
office/laboratory equipment, etc. If single phase loads are not equally balanced on three phases,
three phase currents are imbalanced. Imbalance current contains negative phase current which
causes excess increase of temperature, noise, vibration, decreasing efficiency, etc.

Imbalance current sample

A1 A2 A3 An Im balance (A v)

M AX 64.8 13.8 52.5 57.8 61.3%

M IN 32.5 0.0 45.5 32.0 98.5%
A V ER A G E 41.2 0.4 48.4 44.9 30.0

3-2 Voltage phase imbalance

Voltage imbalance occurred because voltage taps of unit transformer for chilling unit were set
wrongly.
Imbalance voltage sample

at 11:06:50 : V1 142.2(V), V2 103.8(V), V3 126.1(V)

at 11:11:54 : V1 116.4(V), V2 96.6(V), V3 143.2(V)

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3-3 Improvement proposal
1) Transformer taps shall be properly set.
2) Generator 3 phase voltage shall be properly set.
3) Single phase load (lighting, heaters rectifiers, office/laboratory equipment, etc.) shall be
equally distributed to each three phase.
4) Open-phase operation shall be avoided.
(Open phase occurs because of blowing fuses, malfunction of disconnecting switches, circuit
breakers, etc.)

3-4 Reference

(1) Method of Symmetric Coordinate

Any type of three phase imbalance situation (Voltage, Current) can be described by
summation of three type of vectors.

Imbalance (Black) Positive Phase Negative Phase Zero Phase

- Zero phase appears only at earth leakage accident.

- Usual Imbalance situation is described by summation of Positive Phase and Negative Phase.

(2) Definition of imbalance ratio

1) Theoretical definition
a) Imbalance Voltage Rate (IEC, BS) = (Negative phase)/(Positive phase) x 100 (%)
<= 2%
IEC : International Electrotechnical Commission) & BS :British Standards
b) Imbalance Current Rate for generators (JEC) < 10 %
JEC : Japanese Electrotechnical Committee
2) Practical definition and guideline
a) Imbalance voltage rate (NEMA) = ((Max. or Min. voltage) – (Average voltage)) /

(Average voltage)
b) Imbalance voltage rate for motors < = 2.8 % (NEMA)
c) Imbalance voltage rate at motor terminals should be 1% or less for longer life.
NEMA : National Electrical Manufacturers Association (US)

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 Chapter 3 Application of Inverters

4. General description

In factories generally 60% electricity is consumed by motors. So reducing motor consumption is

important for energy efficiency. For this purpose, identifying necessary energy and unnecessary
energy by measuring and analyzing operation data (by power analyzer) is required. Unnecessary
energy can be usually reduced by following methods.
1) Application of inverters for motors
2) Replacing existing motors with smaller size motors

In case of above 2) following inconvenience situation could occur.

a) After replacing motors, output cannot be increased, when necessary, such as changing
product in future.
b) Selection of best capacity motor is not possible because motor output capacity is

standardized, not continuous.

For avoiding above inconvenience, above 1) is effective for energy efficiency of motors.
Introduction of high efficiency motors is effective but less effective compared to above 1) and
they are expensive.
So in this manual “Application of inverters for motors” is explained.

Photos: Data gathering by Power Analyzer (Samples)

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5. Type of inverters
1) CVCF (Constant Voltage Constant Frequency) with batteries as UPS (Uninterruptible Power
Supply) --- Factory/office/home utilization during power outage
2) Hf inverter (High frequency) for Hf fluorescent lamp
3) Hf inverter for Hf welding --- for manufacturing pipe from sheet metal

(around 100---500kHz, skin effect & proximity effect)

4) AVAF (Adjustable Voltage Adjustable Frequency)

= VVVF (Variable Voltage and Variable Frequency: in Japan)

= VFD (Variable Frequency Drive)
5) Others
(Note) Inverter : DC -à AC, Converter : AC -à DC

6. Theory/Principle
How to save energy of motors which usually consume most energy in factories.
--- Application of Inverters for motors is most effective !
(Inverter varies frequency then motor/pump/fan speed varies.)

3-1 Pump, fan/ blower

For pumps, fans/blowers following relations are applied.
Water/air volume (Q : m3/s) ∝ f (Hz) (∝ : in proportion to)
2 2
Water/air pressure (H: N/m ) ∝ f
Motor Consumption (P : kWh) ∝ f3
Ex) f : 50 Hz à 40 Hz (80%)
Q à 0.8 Q, P à 0.8 x 0.8 x 0.8 P = 0.51 P (HALF !)

Energy saving Performance (Cubic function curve)

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 Reference

Cooling Water
a) Operation situation
• Water quantity can be varied according to season, weather, surrounding temperature.
• Operating cooling water system under same conditions through years --- Wasting Energy !
• The system is usually designed for the hottest temperature.
• Except the hottest time cooling water system is Wasting Energy & Money continuously !
• Water volume is usually adjusted by valves. --- Wasting Energy.

b) Design Procedure of Cooling Water System

• Process Engineer calculates required cooling water quantity and temperature with some
Margin considering
- Future deterioration of the system
- Worst temperature condition
- Uncertain risk
• Mechanical Engineer selects pumps based on Manufacturers Standard Capacity --- Margin !
• Electrical Engineer selects motors based on manufacturers Standard Capacity --- Margin !
• Margins are accumulated so much and reduced by valves on operation ! --- Wasting
energy !

c) How to lower inverter frequency

• Required water quantity shall be obtained by calculation, past operating data or testing using
valves/temporary inverters.
(Inverter supplier may lend demonstration inverter free of charge or with lower cost.)
Notes:
1) Valves in cooling water piping system are wasting Energy.
All valves shall be 100% open ! (Need to check.)
2) Inverter specialist involvement is required for setting parameters at initial stage since the
setting is complicated.
(Inverter suppliers usually support the setting.)

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3-2 Compressor

As compressor control Load-Unload control system has been commonly applied since On-Off
control system requires frequent restarting of the compressor, which results in damaging
equipment and equipment life. But Load-Unload control system is not preferable from energy
saving point of view since on the control system compressor consumes nearly 70% energy even
non-air-supply period. Therefore, inverter controlled compressor system has been introduced in
the industry.

S uperiority of Inverter control

Inlet valve control Excess energy !

excess pressure zone
(rough control)
pressure

sm all pressure variation

(fine control)

Inverter control

Tim e flow

Energy Saving Performance Control Characteristics

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 Inverter control
P ressure transm itter

C ontroller
A ir receiver

Inverter control w ith feed back control system

Inverter
Setting pressure
controller inverter com pressor com pression air

（ｆ
ｅｅｄ　ｂａｃｋ）

P ressure transm itter

M otor C om pressor

Inverter control system Inverter control outline

3-3 Remarks on application of inverters

(1) Frequency control range of 25 --- 50 Hz is practical for inverters
At lower frequency operation becomes unstable.
- V/f (: constant) characteristics.
f -> small, V-> small then Motor torque T -> small (T ∝ V2)
Torque boost characteristics are usually set in low frequency area.
- Performance of cooling fan on motor is lowered. --- Motor temperature rises.
- Mechanical resonance may occur especially for compressor system.
Mechanical resonance frequency value shall be obtained from the manufacturer and the
frequency operation setting shall be avoided in case inverter is installed to existing compressor
system.
(Compressors with built in inverters have presetting of operation frequency avoiding resonance
frequency by the manufacturer.)
- In case vibration is observed, countermeasures such as rubber sheet to be added to the
machinery base.

(2) Following accessories should be installed on inverters.

- DC reactors or AC reactors for suppressing harmonics
DC reactors are more effective than AC reactors for suppressing harmonics.

DC Reactor

AC Reactor

Inverter DC reactor

(Note) Suppression effect of harmonics is explained separately in ”Harmonics” chapter.

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- Surge suppressors for protecting motor insulation (especially for 400V motors)

Surge voltage

Motor
Inverter

Output filter
ter

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 Chapter 4 Harmonics

In Pakistan harmonics level has been increasing in industrial area recently because almost
factories use equipment and machinery which generate harmonics. But at this stage almost
factories don’t realize harmonics and effect of harmonics.

1. Measuring harmonics
At first measure harmonics level by suitable power analyzer (or harmonics analyzer).
Harmonics level (sample)
V A P F (%) P fo(%) kW TH D L2(%V )
M AX 421.2 424.0 121.9 98.8 212.3 11.0
M IN 382.8 243.8 58.6 58.6 145.4 3.5
A V ER A G E 408.3 292.2 110.5 83.4 171.7 9.2
THD L2(%V) : Total Voltage Harmonics Distortion, Line 2 (%)

2. Recommendation
In case THD (V) exceeds 5%, survey on equipment damage or system malfunction and
periodical monitoring should be carried out.
Typical effects of harmonics are equipment damage/burning and malfunction of control system.

3. Theory/principle

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Page 24 of 99
b) Thyristor Cycle Control
--- Non harmonics, but possibility of causing flicker problem
(cyclic voltage fluctuation) depending on factory electrical system.
To be studied carefully in case of application for big load.
c) Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) Control
---High speed switching of pulses makes output approximate sine wave.

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Page 29 of 99
 Chapter 5 Lighting Part 1 Artificial light

2.1 Basic knowledge of lighting:

2.1.1 Intensity of Light:
Intensity of light is the light energy from the light source. Its unit is candela (cd).
2.1.2 Luminous flux:
Luminous flux is the ratio of light energy passes through the light receiving surface.
Its unit is lumen (lm)
2.1.3 Illuminance:
Illuminance is Luminous Flux per unit area (lm/m2).It is used as standard of room
brightness. Its unit is (lx).
2.1.4 Brightness:
It is light intensity per unit area of the light source. Its unit is a (cd / m2)

2.2 Illuminance calculation of lighting:

The illuminance calculations is done by two methods
1-Method of point-by-point
2-Method of Luminous flux
Usually method of Point-by-point is used when the light source is single.
Method of Luminous flux is used when light source is more than one.

2.2.1 Method of Point-by-point:

(1) In case of vertical distance from light source Fig1
2
E=I/L
E: Illuminance (lx)
I: Intensity of light
L: Distance from light source to working surface (m)
(2) In case of not vertical distance form light source
E’ = 1 / L2 * cos θ
E: Illuminance (lx)
I: Intensity of light
L: Distance from light source to working surface (m)
Θ: Angle between light source and work surface

(3) Calculation by point by point method:

Fig 2 shows which illuminance increased from 50lxto 112lx by lowering lamp to 1m..

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Fig2

Calculation:
50 = I / 32 I = 50 * 9 = 450(CD) E = I / 22 = 450/4 ≒ 112lx
I: Intensity of light (CD)

2.2.2-Method of Luminous flux:

Method of Luminous flux is used for lighting design when light source is more than one in the room.
Calculation by the method of illuminous flux.
E=N*F*U*M/A
E= Illuminance (lx)
N: Number of light source
F: Luminous flux
U: Utilization factor
M: Maintenance factor
A: Area of the room
Note): In case of light source design, ratio of maximum luminance and minimum luminance on the
working surface is should be more than 1/3.

2.2.3 How to calculate maintenance factor and utilization factor

2.2.3.1Maintenance Factor(M)
Maintenance factor is maintenance rate of luminance flux against light aging. Maintenance factor of
LED is more excellent than other lighting .It can keep 80% of new luminance flux even after 10
years installation. Therefore, in case of introduce LED maintenance factor is 90%.
2.2.3.2 Utilization Factor(U)
Utilization factor is ratio of luminous flux on the work surface. If the utilization factor is high

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efficiency of luminous flux is also high. Utilization factor is function for room constant and
reflectivity.
1) Room Constant:

k = a*b / h (a + b)
K: room constant
A: Vertical and horizontal length of room (m)
B: Horizontal Length of room (m)
H: Height from work surface to light source (m)
2) The reflectivity:
Reflectivity shows the reflective degree of wall surface and ceiling surface. If room reflectivity is
high utilization is also high. Standard reflectivity is as follows:
In case of office having white base wall and ceiling: Ceiling: 70%, Wall: 50%, Floor: 10%
In case of old factory: Celling: 10%, Wall: 10%, Floor: 10%

3) Calculation of utilization:
After decide of room constant and reflectivity, decide utilization by use fig 3 table
Fig 3

2.2.3.3 Calculation example of Utilization:

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Condition:
1)-Office having white base wall and ceiling
2)-Dimension:
Vertical dimensions of the work surface (10m)
Horizontal dimension of the work surface (20m)
The height from light source to work place (3m)
Calculation:
Room constant (K) = 10*20 / 3 (10 + 20 ) ≒ 2.22
Reflectivity: Ceiling:70% , Wall:50%, Floor:10%
Utilization: 0.6 about (see fig 3)

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 Chapter 6 Lighting Part 2 : Natural sky light

2.3 Natural lighting and Illuminance calculation:

Natural lighting used solar radiation as room lighting. Usually install transparent plastic sheet on
roof. In fine weather Sunbeam to transparent plastic sheet is about 70000lx .
2.3.1calculation of illuminance of natural lighting by method of luminous flux:
Condition:
1)Solar radiation to transparent plastic sheet is 70000Lx
2) New transparent plastic sheet
3) Transmittance ratio of solar radiations is 0.8
Therefore illuminance from the factory side is 56000Lx (70000Lx *0.8)
4) factory area and dimension :
Vertical dimension: 50m
Horizontal dimension: 30m
Area of factory:30*50=1500m2
Height from the work surface to transparent plastic sheet =5m
5) Reflectivity:
Reflectivity from ceiling wall and floor is each 10%
6) Utilization:
Room constant (K) = 30*50 / 5(30 + 50) ≒ 3.75
Therefore utilization is about 0.59 by fig 3 table.
7) Maintenance factor:
Maintenance factor is lowered to 0.3 because clear plastic sheet is easy to become dirty by dust.

8).Luminance flux from clear plastic sheet:

Area of clear plastic sheet:1.5*1.0=1.5m2
Therefore luminance flux per one clear plastic sheet=56,000lx*1.5m2 = 84,000lm
9)Illuminance of work surface:
Average illuminance of factory is intend to 500Lx.

Calculation: by method of luminance flux:

E=N*F*U*M/A
N = E * A / F * U * M = 500*1500/84000*0.59*0.3≒50, 4(50sheets)

2.3.2.1 The light rate:

The light rate is the ratio of illuminance between solar radiation and indoor constant points. If

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solar radiation change light rate is remain constant.
Calculation of the light rate:
Condition:
1) Solar radiation 20000Lx
2) Indoor Illuminance 1000Lx
3) The light rate= 1000*20000/100=5%
Question:
If the solar radiation is 10000Lx
Indoor illuminance ?
Answer:
Indoor illuminance=10000/0.05=500lux
2.3.2.2 Cleaning interval of clear plastic sheet:
The cleaning interval of clear plastic sheet should be small in too much dusty area.
It’s better to clean the plastic sheet once with in the 6 months.
If clear plastic sheet become dirty then the light rate also decrease.
Condition:
1)-solar radiation 10000Lx
2) In case of the light rate is 5%
Indoor Illumination=10000*0.05=500Lux
1) In case of the light rate is 2%
Indoor illuminance =10000*0.02=200Lux (lighting is necessary)
2.4 Installation example of Natural sky light

Clear plastic sheet Lighting off

Before installation After installation

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2.5 Energy-saving method of calculating the lighting
2.5.1 LED introduction:
Condition:
1)-change energy saver type (85W) to LED type(Tube light type 18w)
2)-luminance flux of Energy saver type (85W) and LED (18W) type are equal
3) The number of exchange: 100。
4) Price of LED=800Rs / piece * 100 = 80,000Rs( without construction cost)
5)-Lighting time 24 hours / day, 300 days in a year
6)-The electricity rates around 17Rs / kWh.

Calculation:
Annual cost savings (kwh)=(0.085－0.018)*100*24*300 = 48,240kWh
Annual cost savings (Rs) = (0.085－0.018)*100*24*300*17 ≒ 820,000Rs
2.5.2: Improvement of natural lighting:
Condition:
1)-Lighting : energy saver type (85W)
2)-Amount of lighting: 100
3) Lighting time in day time: 9 hours
4) Working day per year: 300 days
Calculation of energy saving:
1) 0.085*100*9*300=22950kw
0.085*100*9*300*17 ≒ 390,000Rs

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 Chapter 7 Cooling Water system

1.1 Overview of the cooling water system:

In general cooling water systems consist of water tank, pump, heat exchanger, cooling tower and a pipe
which connects the cooling tower and the respective.

This is expressed in block diagram as follows:

Water tank Pump Heat exchanger Cooling tower

Cooling water in water tank is supplied to heat exchanger by pump and exchanges heat with the coolant
of the production plant. Cooling water raised up temperature is send to the cooling tower and returned
again to the water tank. The purpose of cooling water system is heat exchange to coolant circulation in the
production plant.

Examples of coolant:
Cooling water of induction furnace. Oil of the Die-casting machines and hydraulic press, such as R22
circulating in the chiller.

1.2 Theory of heat exchange:

Heat Exchange is exchange of heat between cooling water and cooling. In Fig1, coolant side is cold from
t3 → t4, and cooling water side is rise up from t1 →t2.
Theoretically the heat (H1) which coolant give and the heat (H2) which cooling water received are equal.
H1 = H2
H1= H1 = Q1 * s1 * (t2-t1) H2 = Q2 * s2 * (t4-t3)
Q1*s1*(t2－t1) = Q2*s2*(t4－t3)
In case of coolant is water : S1 = s2 ≒ 4.2kJ/kg・℃
Q1*(t2－t1) = Q2*(t4－t3)
Q1 (m3 / h): Flow Quantity of cooling water
Q2 (m3 / h): Flow Quantity of coolant
S1 (kJ / kg ·degC): Specific heat of cooling water
S2 (kJ / kg · degC): specific heat of coolant

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 Heat exchanger

1.3: Investigation method of cooling water system for energy saving

1.3.1: To check the piping in the factory and to make system diagram

1.3.2: To measure temperature, pressure and current. (To use a thermocouple thermometer for measuring
temperature).
(1) Measuring points of temperature: Heat Exchanger, inlets outlet temperature of cooling water side
and coolant side. Inlet and outlet of the cooling tower, the temperature of the water tank, Dry bulb
temperature, Wet bulb temperature
(2) Measurement points of pressure: the suction side and discharge side of pump

1.3.3: To check power consumption (kW) of pump and fan, and operation time.

1.4 Energy saving improvement proposal

1.4.1 Point of checking
1.4.1.1 Checking of the heat exchanger: Cooling water side and coolant side difference between
inlet side and outlet side is about 3-5℃.
(1)If this difference is too high, it shows flow quantity become too little or clogging.
(2)In case of small difference, it shows too much flow quantity or heat inside dirty.

1.4.1.2 Checking of the cooling tower:

The temperature difference between the cooling water inlet and outlet is “range”
The temperature difference between the cooling water outlet and wet-bulb is “approach”.
In general, both of range and approach are design by 5℃.
Cooling tower which range is large and approach is small, its efficiency is effective. (See 1.6.2).
If the range is 2 ℃ or less the approach is greater than 7 ℃, following trouble occurs:
(1) Trouble of shower condition
(2) Trouble of bad air flow

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 (3) Bad wind direction or installation location. For example if install in low ground, possibility of
mist from fan coming flowing around inside of cooling tower.
(4) Trouble of filler or adhesion of scale
(5) Shortage of cooling tower capacity

1.4.1.3: Checking of high coolant temperature:

In the inlet of heat exchanger if coolant temperature is above than 40degC, the flow possibility is too
small.
To check the following items:
(1) To check series connection of coolant piping of production plant. In case of series connection
piping, flow resistance increases and cause in flow shortage.
(2).To check the reduced point of pipe diameter.
(3)To check heat exchanger.
Result of the temperature measurement, If difference temperature between inlet and outlet is too
high, it shows following
a) Flow quantity become too little or clogging.
b) There is a possibility of shortage of the heat exchanger capacity.
(4)To check the cooling water pump capacity.

.1.4.2 Improvement proposal

1.4.2.1 Improvement for heat exchangers and cooling towers.
As a results of the checking, if there is problem occurs in heat exchanger or cooling tower, purpose
maintenance and capacity increasing

1.4.2.2 Proposal of operation time of the cooling tower fan:

Fan is necessary for the evaporating of the water drop in shower, but in winter season or night
time air temperature become lower, and no necessary of operation or possibility of ON and OFF
operation, if install temperature sensor in lower water tank we can operate by ON-OFF mode.
For example:
Condition
(1) One month production (fan operation): 400 hours/month
(2) No fan operation in 3months of winter season (Nov’ Dec’ Jan’ Feb’)
(3) Half hour (200 hours /month) operation in 4 months (Mar’ Apr’ Sep’ Oct’)
(3) Power consumption of the fan: 2.0kw
(4) 1kwh = 17Rs
Calculation of energy saving is as follows:

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 2.0kW*3*400 = 2,400kwh
2.0kW*4*200 = 1,600kwh Total: 4,000kwh
4,000*17 = 68,000Rs

1.4.3.1 Install inverter for Pump or size down:

Results of the checking, if water flow is big more than required and more than 10kW of pump capacity,
consider the introduction of the inverter.
If the load is less than 50%, consider size down of pump capacity because pump selection is inappropriate
(See electrical department Energy saving calculation by inverter introduction)

1.5 Cooling water pump

1.5.1 Overview of the cooling water pump:
Most of the pumps used in the cooling water system are “centrifugal pump". As in fig3,
Simple structure composed of the impeller and the casing, water flow take speed energy by rotation of
impeller, and the speed energy changed to pressure energy by flow in the spiral casing, and water flow
make water pressure.
Fig 3

O utlet

Im peller

Inlet

Spiral casing

Fig 4 Fig 5

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It's possible to express the performance of the pump in a head curve and a system loss curve
A head curve (U) is the function of the flow rate (Q) and the discharge pressure (P).
A system loss curve (R) changes by resistance of laying of the pipes and a speech
Fig4 shows that resistance rises from R1 to R2 by to reduce the divergence of the valve
Water flow decrease from Q1 to Q2, discharge pressure rises from P2 to P1.
Fig5 shows that the flow decrease by decrease of the number of rotations (N).
When decreases the number of rotations from N1 to N2, head-capacity curve changes from U1 into U2.
On the other hand, resistance curve (R) doesn't change, so the flow rate decreases from Q1 to Q2, and
discharge pressure decreases from P1 to P2.

1.5.2 Maintenance
1.5.2.1 Ball Bearing:
Ball baring according to long term use, wear, as a result generate noise and vibration also increase in
power consumption and require one exchange in 3 years.
1.5.2.2 Gland packing
Small amount of water leakage from the gland packing is important because it is serve as, cooling and
smoothness. However it is used for a long time so water leakage become increase for wearing. If this type
of trend happened, you will replace the gland packing.
Performance curve of the pump:
Performance of pump is expressed by head discharge curve (U) resistance curve(R).Head discharge curve
(u) is function of flow rate(Q) and discharge pressure(P).Resistance curve(R) changed according to
resistance of the pipe or wall.

According to the fig 4 reduction of opening of the pipe valve, Rise in Resistance is shows as R1→R2.and
its results flow rate is decrease from Q1→Q2, discharge pressure rise from P2→P1.
In fig (5) according to decrease in rotational speed (N), express decrease in flow rate. If we reduced
rotational speed from N1→N2 discharge curve u changed from U1→U2.On the other hand resistance
curve(R) is not changed flow rate is decreased from Q1→Q2. And Discharge pressure decrease from
P1→P2.

1.6 cooling tower

1.6.1 Overview of the cooling tower:
Cooling tower is a device for cooling the cooling water, its principle is water droplet sprayed from top
and air flow blow from below is efficient and well together. And evaporating a portion of the water
droplets. So according to this vaporization heat, and cool the surrounding water drops. For the
evaporation of 1kg of water, 2260kJ of amount of heat is required. It refers to the heat as ("heat of

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vaporization"). Because it would be to take the heat from the surrounding water droplets and cooled the
surrounding water drops.
In Fig 6 ( t1 ) : cooling water inlet temperature,(t2 ) : cooling water outlet temperature, (t3) : wet
bulb temperature of incoming air, (t1－t2) is called as (Range)and (t2－t3) is called as (approach).
Fig 6

Range : t1 – t2 Approach : t2－t3

1.6.2 Efficiency of the cooling tower
Efficiency of cooling tower (%) = (range) / (range + approach) * 100
(1) The range increase The efficiency increase The
range decrease The efficiency decrease
(2) The approach increase The efficiency decrease
The approach decrease The efficiency increase

1.6.3 The improvement of cooling tower efficiency

1.6.3.1 Condition for the efficiency improvement
Parameters for the cooling tower efficiency is the amount of evaporation of the water droplets.
The condition of evaporation is as follows:
1) To make smaller size of water droplet
2) Well contact between water drop and air flow up draft
Filler is important for well contact between water drop and air flow up draft (see1.6.6)

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1.6.3.2 Maintenance for efficiency improvement
(1) Clogging prevention of water spray piping
(2) Prevention of scale to filler
3) Prevention of filler breakage
4) To keep the efficiency of fan operation (cleaning of fan blade)

1.6.4 Reason for cooling tower water temperature does not decrease
1.6.4.1 Too much sprinkling water
1.6.4.2 Air volume reduction (the resistance of air flow increase by scale to filler)
1.6.4.3 Sprinkler unit failure (water hole clogging)
1.6.4.4 The position of cooling tower is not good installed.
1.6.4.5 Filler is broken or damage

1.6.5 Energy saving of cooling tower

1.6.5.1 Cooling tower fan:
The cooling tower is effective for contact the air flow and water droplets and increase evaporation. There
are two types of air flow

1- “cross flow type”

2- “Counter flow type”.

In Pakistan “counter flow type” is more used then cross type.

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 Cross flow type Filler Water tank

Counter flow type Filler Sprinkler Fan

1.6.5.2 Energy saving of cooling tower fan:

In Pakistan there are many factory production for 24-hour throughout the year. In such production cooling
water temperate decrease due to continuous operation of cooling tower fan in winter season and night
time. Therefore, introduction of on off control for fan is big energy saving. The Setting temperature of fan
is off by 25 ℃ and on by 28 ℃.
Thermocouple

Water tank
of cooling tower

1.6.6 Example for cooling tower failure (Counter flow type)

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Damage of air Good shower condition too much water flow
in let louver

Bad shower same as left

Leakage from shower head

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 Chapter 8 Power generator engine

(1) Outline of power generation unit

1) Generator: kVA, Engine: kW (unit)
Scale of the generators installed in factories in Pakistan: 100kVA – 650kVA
2) Type of engines and fuel
(Type of engine) ( Kind of fuel)
a) Diesel engine Light oil (High speed diesel oil)
b) Gas engine Natural gas
c) Hybrid type engine Blending of light oil and natural gas

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 3) Operation principle
a) Diesel engine (Diesel cycle P-V Diagram)
1-2: Adiabatic compression
2-3: Fuel injection and combustion
3-4: Adiabatic expansion
4-1: Exhaust and Air intake

b) Gas engine (Otto cycle P-V Diagram)

1-2 : Adiabatic compression
2-3 : Ignite up fire and explosive combustion
3-4 : Adiabatic expansion
4-1 : Exhaust and air intake and fuel supply
(Note)
Comparison of gas engine and gasoline engine
1) Same point
Operation principle has Otto cycle.
It is Igniting up fire system.
2) Different point
Gas engine : Carburetor is not required.

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 Gasoline engine : Carburetor is required.
c) Hybrid type engine
What is Hybrid type engine ?
Hybrid type engine is the engine which burns
blended fuel of light oil (high speed diesel oil)
and natural gas.

1-2 : Adiabatic compression

2-3 : light oil injection and combustion
3-4 : Adiabatic expansion
4-1 : Exhaust and intake air / natural gas

4) Classification of the engine by cooling method of water and oil

A small size - medium size engine: Air-cooling (Radiator is required.)
A Big size engine: Water cooling (Heat exchanger and cooling tower are required.)
Radiator Heat exchanger Cooling tower

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(2) Maintenance management
1) Maintenance checkpoints
Are the pressure and temperature of the lubricant oil normal ? Is there any lubricant oil leakage ?
Are there any clogging of the fuel oil filter ? Is there any fuel oil leakage ?
c) Are the pressure and temperature of the coolant normal ?
d) Is the exhaust gas temperature normal? Is there any leakage of the exhaust gas?
e) Is the turbocharger stable ? Any abnormal noise or vibration ?
f) Is the number of engine revolution normal ?

2) Importance of the maintenance

The maintenance is extremely important and shall be periodical to extend the service life of the
engine. Currently high speed diesel oil (HSDO) and natural gas have been used as fuel. However
utilization of light diesel oil (LDO)should be investigated from the viewpoint of saving energy cost.
Maintenance interval is shown below table about using HSDO and LDO.
The engine is defiled faster in the case of using LDO than the case of using HSDO. Therefore,
maintenance interval is shortened in the case of using LDO.

The equipment and component of engine

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 Radiator Cooling fan for radiator

Turbo charger Blower f

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 Chapter 9 AC Arc Welder

1. Energy conservation measures of AC arc welder

Energy conservation measures of AC arc welder are to reduce stand-by power..

2. Outline of AC arc welder

AC arc welder generates low voltage and large current by a transformer which input voltage is
200V or 400V and output voltage is 50V, and implement arc welding work.
Overview of AC arc welder is shown in Figure 1. Circuit diagram is shown in Figure 2.
Arc welding work starts by close of Switch S1 and generation of arc between welding rod and
base metal. Switch S1 is opened after finish of arc welding work.

Figure 1 Overview of AC arc welder

Figure 2 Circuit diagram of AC arc welder

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3. Stand-by power of AC arc welder
Stand-by power is large as shown in Table 1. The stand-by power is no-load power of a
transformer when Switch S1 is closed.

Table 1 Example of stand-by power of AC arc welder

4. Measures of improvement of stand-by power

Rated output Stand-by power

Welder model No.
current (Reference)

B-300 (Non voltage 300 A

450 W
reducing device）

B-500 (Non voltage 500 A

1000 W
reducing device）

BS250M (with built-in 250 A 380 W

voltage reducing device） (Input frequency of 50Hz）

BS300M (with built-in 300 A 530 W

voltage reducing device） (Input frequency of 50Hz）

BP-300 (with built-in 300 A

450 W
voltage reducing device）

BP-400 (with built-in 400 A

80 W
voltage reducing device）

BP-500 (with built-in 500 A

100 W
voltage reducing device）

BPR-500 (with built-in 500 A

120 W
voltage reducing device）

Source: Website of DAIHEN Corporation, Japan

4.1 Measures by welding operators
(1) Switch off of Switch S1 and NFB after welding work is finished and during idle time.

4,2 Measures by machines

(1) New welders with automatic switch-off devices by timer are introduced.

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 Chapter 10 Steam boiler and steam system

5. Procedure of energy conservation measures of steam boiler and steam system

Energy conservation measures of steam boiler and steam system are implemented as the following
procedure. Flowchart of steam boiler and steam system is shown in Figure 1-1.

1st step: Measurement and improvement of exhaust heat loss of boiler

2nd step: Measurement and improvement of heat radiation loss of boiler body
3rd step: Inspection of heat balance of steam system
4th step: Inspection and improvement of steam leakage of piping and equipment
5th step: Inspection and improvement of recovery of steam condensate
6th step: Inspection and improvement of heat radiation loss of steam piping
7th step: Preparation and implementation of energy management standards to keep energy
conservation activities

Steam

Heat Heating
exchanger equipment

Steam trap
Make-up

water tank Condensate

Boiler
Feed water pump

Exhaust gas
Fuel oil or gas

Figure 1-1 Flowchart of Steam system

6. Measurement and improvement of exhaust heat loss

6.1 Steam boiler
2.1.1 Type of steam boiler

Steam boilers using in factories are Water tube boilers, flue tube boilers and small-sized

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 once-through boilers as shown in Figure 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3.

Figure 2-1 Water tube boiler Figure 2-2 Flue tube boiler

Figure 2-3 Small-sized once-through boiler

2.1.2 Heat flow and thermal efficiency of boiler

Heat flow of steam boiler is shown in Figure 2-4.

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 Volume,
Pressure Steam
Temperature
Volume
Boiler feed water
Boiler
Fuel
Burner Exhaust
Air
Concentration, Temperature

Heat Volume,
radiation Blow water Temperature

Figure 2-4 heat flow of steam boiler

Boiler thermal efficiency is calculated with the following methods:

- Input and output heat method (Direct method)
- Heat loss method (Indirect method)
Figure 2-5 shows an example of heat balance of boiler. Exhaust heat loss is most of heat loss of
boiler.

(1) Input and output heat method (Direct method)

Direct method is calculated from input energy of fuel volume and output energy of generated
steam volume.
Equation of boiler efficiency is as follows:

Steam generated heat Qs (kcal)

Boiler efficiency E (%) =
Fuel combustion heat Qf (kcal)

= W x (hs - hw)
F x HL

W: Generated steam volume (kg)

hs: Enthalpy of steam (kcal/kg)
hw: Enthalpy of water supply (kcal/kg)
F: Volume of fuel (L or m3)
HL: Low calorific value (kcal/L)
Generated steam volume is measured with steam flowmeter or feed water meter.
Consumed fuel volume is measured with fuel flowmeter.

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(2) Heat loss method (indirect method)
Indirect method is calculated from exhaust heat loss and radiation heat loss.
Equation of boiler efficiency is as follows:

Boiler efficiency E (%) = 100 - (Le + Lr + Lo)

Le: Exhaust heat loss (%)
Lr: Furnace body heat radiation loss (%)
Lo: Percentage of other heat losses (%)
Exhaust heat loss is calculated with measurement of temperature and oxygen concentration of
exhaust gas.
Furnace body heat radiation loss is calculated with surface temperature and circumstance
temperature of furnace body
Other heat losses are blow water loss, steam leakage etc..

100 % 75 %
Fuel input Effective steam

Boiler efficiency = 75%

3
20 Furnace body
Exhaust heat loss heat radiation

2 Others

Figure 2-5 An example of heat balance of boiler

2.1.3 Exhaust heat loss of boiler

Exhaust heat loss is caused by excess air volume or incomplete combustion in combustion
chamber.
Excess air ratio is calculated from oxygen concentration (%) of exhaust gas. Oxygen
concentration of exhaust gas is measured by flue gas analyzer.
Excess air ratio is calculated with the following equation.

Actual volume of combustion air (m3)

Air ratio m =
Theoretical air volume (m3)

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 21
=
21- (Percentage of O2 in the exhaust)

(1) Exhaust heat loss from graph

Figure 2-6 shows exhaust heat loss calculated from air ratio.
When Air ratio is improved from 1.8 to 1.2, exhaust heat loss is reduced by 7% as shown in
Figure 2-6.

Concentration (%) of O2 in exhaust gas

Figure 2-6 Air ratio and exhaust heat loss

(2) Exhaust heat loss calculation from elemental analysis of fuel

Equation of exhaust heat loss (Qe) is as follows:

Qe = G * Cp * (T exgas – T ambient)
Where,
G = Actual exhaust gas volume (Calculation from elemental analysis and oxygen %)
Cp = Specific heat of exhaust gas (Source: Thermal dynamics handbook)
T exgas = temperature of exhaust gas (Measurement data)
T ambient = ambient temperature (Measurement data)
Actual exhaust gas volume (G) is calculated from the following equation.
G = Go + (m-1) Ao

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 Where,
Go = Theoretical combustion exhaust gas volume for fuel gas calculated by elemental
analysis of fuel
m = Air ratio
Ao = Theoretical combustion air volume calculated by elemental analysis of fuel

(3) Exhaust heat loss calculation when elemental analysis of fuel is not given

Equation of exhaust heat loss (Qe) is as follows:

Qe = G * Cp * (T exgas – T ambient)
G = Go + (m-1) Ao
Theoretical combustion exhaust gas (Go) and air volume (Ao) are calculated by the
following simplified equation from heat value of fuel as shown in Table 2.1, when
elemental analysis of fuel is not given.

Table 2.1 Simplified equation of Go and Ao

Fuel Go Ao
Solid fuel 0.904 * HL / 1000 + 1.67 (m3N / kg) 1.01 * HL / 1000 + 0.56 (m3N / kg)
Liquid fuel 15.75 * HL / 10000 – 3.91 (m3N / kg) 12.38 * HL / 10000 – 1.36 (m3N / kg)
Gas fuel 12.25 * HL / 10000 (m3N / m3N) 11.20 * HL / 10000 (m3N / m3N)

Note: HL is lower heat value of fuel (kcal/kg or kcal/m3N)

Source: Boie’s equation, Japan Industrial Standard (JIS B8222 - 2011)

2.1.4 Recovery of exhaust heat loss

Exhaust heat loss is recovered by economizer and air heater as shown in Figure 2-7.
Energy saving effect of installation of an economizer is 1% of fuel conservation, when
difference in the feed water temp. at the inlet and outlet of the economizer = 7℃
Energy saving effect of installation of an air heater is 1% in boiler efficiency increase, when
difference in the exhaust temp. at the inlet and outlet of the air heater = 20℃
Figure 2-8 shows an example of improved heat balance of boiler. Exhaust heat loss is reduced
from 20% to 8% by improvement of air ratio and recovery of exhaust heat loss compared with
Figure 2-5.

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 Boiler feed
water Fan
F

Boiler
Econo Air
Burner Exhaust
mizer heater

Pump P

Combustion air

Figure 2-7 Recovery of exhaust heat

100 % 89 %
Fuel input Effective steam

2
Furnace body
heat radiation
8
Exhaust heat loss 1 Others
Figure 2-8 an example of improved heat balance

7. Measurement and improvement of heat radiation loss of boiler body

Radiation volume Q (kcal/m2h) through radiation from the furnace wall

4
4
t + 273 a + 273
Q = 4.88ε -
100 100

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 t: Furnace wall surface temp. (℃ )
a: Air temp. surrounding the furnace (℃ )
ε: Furnace wall surface radiation rate

Table 3.1 shows percentage of radiation heat loss (at t-a=28 ℃ ) of boiler body after
enforcement of insulation.

Table 3.1 Percentage of radiation heat loss of boiler body at circumstance temperature of
28℃
Boiler capacity t/h 5 10 50 100
Percentage of 2.0 1.4 0.7 0.4
radiation heat loss %

8. Inspection of heat balance of steam system

Generated steam is sent to production equipment, but a part of the steam is useless steam.
Figure 4-1 shows that generated steam of 100 is sent heat exchanger and heating equipment and
consumed in heat exchanger of 45 and heating equipment of 40. Steam of 15 is unclear loss.
Steam volume loss includes steam leakage, blow in steam trap etc.

Steam
45 40
Heat Heating
exchanger equipment

Steam trap
Make-up

100
water tank Condensate
Boiler
Feed water pump

Exhaust gas
Fuel oil or gas

Figure 4-1 Check of steam balance

9. Inspection and improvement of steam leakage of piping and equipment

Steam leakage is checked and repaired as maintenance work to prevent energy loss.

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 Figure 5-1 shows steam leakage volume from a small hole.

Figure 5-1 Volume of steam leak from a small hole

10. Inspection and improvement of recovery of steam condensate

Steam condensate is recovered through steam traps and used to feed water of boiler and hot
water of operation.
6.1 Type of steam trap

Types of steam traps are float type, thermo-dynamics type and orifice type. Types are selected
by use and steam volume.
6.2 Steam trap operation and troubles

Operation condition of steam traps are shown in Table 6-1. Periodical inspection, overhauling
and replacement of steam traps are necessary for heating operation.

Table 6-1 operation condition of steam traps

Operation condition Material from drain port Troubles
Normal Drain only No
Leakage of steam trap Steam and drain Steam loss
Locking of steam trap Decrease of drain Decrease of heating effects
Full locking of steam trap No drain Stop of heating operation

11. Inspection and improvement of heat radiation loss of steam piping

Surface temperature of steam piping is more than 100 degC and so radiation heat loss is large.
Radiation heat loss of steam piping is reduced by 90% with heat insulation work such as glass

Page 61 of 99
 wool and slag wool as shown in Figure 7-1.

Fig. 1 R elationship of insulation thickness and insulation efficiency

1 25A
50A
0.9 100A
0.8 200A

0.7
Insulation efficiency

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
0.000 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100
Insulation thickness (m )

Figure 7-1 Relationship of insulation thickness and insulation efficiency

12. Preparation and implementation of energy management standards to keep energy conservation
activities
After implementation of energy saving measures, energy management standards should be
perpetrated and implemented to keep high energy conservation conditions.
Table 8-1 shows examples of energy management standards of steam boiler and steam system.

Table 8-1 Examples of management standards of steam boiler and steam system
Energy consuming Energy consuming cause Examples of management
elements criteria
Steam boiler: Excess air causes exhaust heat loss Flue tube boiler: 1.2 -1.3
Air ratio
Steam boiler: High temperature of exhaust gas causes Flue tube boiler:
Temperature of exhaust exhaust heat loss 150 to 200 degC
gas
Steam trap Steam leakage causes heat loss. No leakage
Plugging causes to decrease heating No plugging
effects.
Heat insulation of steam Non insulation piping causes radiation Thickness of insulation: 20 to
piping heat loss 30mm of glass wool

Page 62 of 99
 Chapter 11 Compressed air system

13. Procedure of energy conservation measures of compressed air system

Energy conservation measures of compressed air system are promoted as the following procedure.
Flowchart of compressed air system is shown in Figure 1.

1st step: Measurement and improvement of air leakage and air blow from piping and equipment
2nd step: Measurement and improvement of air pressure loss of piping and clean equipment
3rd step: Inspection and measures of required air pressure for operation of production equipment
4th step: Change of set air pressure of air compressors
a. Confirmation of variable pattern of compressed air consumption
b. Study of replacement and gathering of air compressors
th
5 step: Study of specifications and installation of multiple compressor control panels
a. Improvement of specific power consumption and delete of meaning –less operations
th
6 step: Preparation and implementation of management standards of compressed air system to keep
energy conservation activities

4th: Set air

pressure P

Air compressor Air dryer &

No.1 filter

Air compressor
No.2
2nd: Air
5th: operation 1st: Air
leakage pressure loss
pattern

Production Blow Air tight

equipment nozzles tester

3rd: Required
air pressure

Figure 1-1 Flowchart of compressed air system

14. Measurement and improvement of air leakage and air blow from piping and equipment
14.1 Measurement method of air leakage
Air leakage from piping and equipment are measured with load ratio of air compressors and

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pressure reduction of piping and equipment.
a. Load ratio of an air compressor

Under the condition which all production equipment are stopped, a small-sized air
compressor having capacity of 20% to 30% of all air compressors is operated and measured
load ratio of the small-sized air compressor. Air leakage volume is delivery air volume of
the small-sized air compressor which is calculated from load ratio of the compressor.
Load ratio of an air compressor is measured by suction air pressure, input current of motor
and on-load time.

Load ratio 0% 50% 100%

0.74 MPa
Delivery
air pressure 0.69 MPa

100% (A)

Input current
of motor
70% (A)

Figure 2-1 Load ratio of screw type air compressor

Unload characteristics of On-Off type air compressor

Load ratio = T / (T+t)

T1 T2 T3
Off-load

On-load
t1 t2 t3

Figure 2-2 Load ratio of On-Off type air compressor

b. Air pressure reduction rate of piping and equipment

Under the condition which all production equipment are stopped, air pressure is raised to
normal pressure and delivery air valves are closed, air pressure reduction speed of piping is
measured during pressure reduction for 1 bar.
Air leakage volume is calculated from air pressure reducing speed per minutes.

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 When air pressure reduces by 1 bar for 50 seconds, air leakage volume is calculated as
follows:
Air leakage volume (Q)
= (P1 - P2) * V / t /P0 = 3.72 m3/min
Where,
P1 = 7.32 bar abs, P2 = 6.35 bar abs,
V= Inner volume of piping = 3.1 m3
t = time = 0.833 min, P0 = 0.97 bar abs.
Delivery air volume of compressors= 6.2 + 6.6 = 12.8 m3/min
Air leakage ratio = 29 % = 3.72/12.8*100

Pressure(Bar) Compressed air pressure reducing

6.4
6.2
6
5.8
5.6
5.4
5.2
5
13:43:52 13:44:02 13:44:12 13:44:22 13:44:32 13:44:42
Time

Figure 2-3 Example of pressure reduction curve

14.2 Inspection of air leakage points

Air leakage points are inspected with soap water test, noise detection test and supersonic
detector
a. Soap water test

Soap water is made from washing soap and water.

When soap water is sprayed to joints and valves of piping under the normal operation, soap
bubbles are generated at air leakage point.

Figure 2-4 Spraying soap water Figure 2-5 Soap bubbles of leaked joint

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 b. Noise detection test

When all equipment are stopped and air pressure is raised to normal pressure, inspectors can
catch noise of air leakage from air leakage points.
c. Supersonic air leak detector

When a detector of supersonic wave is used to joints and valves of piping under the normal
operation, the detector can catch supersonic wave from air leakage points.
Supersonic wave detector is difficult to use in small building of a factory, because the
detector catches reflected supersonic from building walls other than supersonic wave of air
leakage points.

Figure 2-6 Air leak detect by supersonic detector

14.3 Improvement of air leakage and air blow

2.3.1 Improvement of air leakage
a. Repairing of air leakage point
- Replace sealing material of joint of piping and tighten threads
- Replace parts and proper of valves of air leakage
b. Maintenance and inspection
- Close the main air valves when production equipment is stopped.
- Target value of air leakage ratio is 5% in factories of manufacturers.
2.3.2 Improvement of air blow
Air blow is used in many processes such as cleaning of products, preparation of cast iron mold,
blowing metal scrap of milling machine with rubber hoses and air blow guns. Introduction of air
blow gun with smaller diameter nozzle is very effective to energy saving instead of rubber hoses and
large diameter blow gun.
Table 2.1 shows energy saving effects by change of nozzle diameter.
Figure 2.7 and 2.8 show air blow work and air blow gun.

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Table 2.1 Effects of diameter of air blow nozzles

Air nozzle Nozzle Air Air consumption Change of

diameter consumption after improvement impact pressure
at present at 300mm
Air blow 8 mm to 3.3 m3/min 1.8 m3/min 0.017 Mpa to
gun 6 mm 0.01 MPa
Air hose 10 mm to 1.56 m3/min 1 m3/min 0.026 Mpa to
8 mm 0.17 MPa
Total 4.86 m3/min 2.8 m3/min

Figure 2.7 Air blow work Figure 2.8 Air blow gun

15. Measurement and improvement of air pressure loss of piping and air treatment units
15.1 Measurement of air pressure loss of piping and air treatment units
Air pressure loss of piping and air treatment units is shown as the deference of air pressure between
delivery pressure of air compressors and inlet air pressure of each production equipment. Figure 3-1
shows delivery air pressure and inlet air pressure of machines BM-1 and CNC, which are measured
simultaneously at 3 points by 3 persons.
Condensate drains cause air pressure loss in piping and air receivers.

P = 7.3 bar P = 7.3 bar

Air Air
compressor Air header compressor Air header SGP 50A
SGP 25A

SGP 25A SGP 50A

BM-6 BM-6 BM-7 BM-6 BM-6 BM-7

BM-3 BM-3

BM-2 BM-1 CNC BM-2 BM-1 CNC

P = 6.9 bar P = 7.1 bar P = 7.2 bar P = 7.28 bar

Figure 3-1 Existing air pressure Figure 3.2 Improved pressure loss

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15.2 Improvement of air pressure loss of piping
Measures for reduction of air pressure loss of piping are as follows:
1) To replace air piping to larger size

Figure 3-2 shows a proposal of pressure loss improvement by replacement of piping from
SGP25A to SGP50A. As a result of replacement of piping, air pressure loss is improved by 0.2
bar.
2) To make loop piping
3) Introduction of automatic drain trap and daily inspection of drain valves
4) Design standards of pressure loss of compressed air piping is 0.1 bar/100m of 2” piping.

15.3 Maintenance of air treatment units

Air treatment units are installed between air compressors and air headers or air receivers and
consist of air filters, air dryers and mist separators.
1) Air dryers

Refrigerated air dryers are used in many factories. Pressure loss of refrigerated air dryer is
constant.
2) Air filter and mist separator

Pressure loss of air filters and mist separators increases in proportion to operation hours
Filter elements of air filters and mist separators are to be cleaned and replaced according
to increase of deferential pressure

16. Inspection and measures of required air pressure of production equipment

16.1 Inspection of required air pressure of production equipment
Required air pressure is shown in Instruction manuals and specifications of equipment.
Minimum required air pressure is to be inspected through operation of machining, press machines
etc. Examples of required air pressure are shown in Table 4-1.

Table 4-1 Examples of required air pressure

Equipment Required air pressure Equipment Required air pressure
CNC machine 5 to 6 bar Air blow 2 to 4 bar
Air cylinder 4 to 6 bar Control circuit 3 to 4 bar
Air tight tester 6 to 10 bar Air motor 6 to 10 bar

16.2 Measures of required air pressure of production equipment

1) Delivery air pressure of compressor is reduced by reducing of require air pressure.

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2) Booster air compressor is installed for high pressure use such as air tight tester.
3) Air blower is installed for low air pressure use of 3 bar such as air blow nozzles.

17. Change of set air pressure of air compressors

17.1 Measurement of delivery air pressure of air compressors
1) Delivery air pressure of air compressor is decided the following equation:
Delivery air pressure = Required air pressure of production equipment + pressure loss of piping and
air treatment units.
2) Required power of air compressor is calculated with the following equation:

Required power La decreases in proportion to delivery pressure and air volume.

Therefore lower set air pressure of air compressor is important for power saving.
Figure 5-1 shows power reduction ratio by reducing of delivery pressure. When delivery air pressure
is reduced to 6 bar from 7 bar, theoretical power of air compressor is reduced by 10%.

Thoretical power vs delivery pressure

140%
Theoretical power ratio

120%
100%
80%
60%
40% Single stage compression
Double stage comperssion
20%
0%
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Delivery pressure, kg/cm^2

Figure 5-1 Theoretical power reduction by delivery air pressure

18. Study of specifications of multiple unit control panel and introduction of inverter control
18.1 Improvement of specific power consumption ratio
Specific power consumption ration is shown as input power per delivery air volume (kW/m3/min).
Table 6-1 shows an example of specific power consumption ratio of screw type air compressor.
Specific power consumption ratio is efficiency of air compressor. Efficiency is the highest at 100%
load operation and lower by low load operation.

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Table 6-1 Example of specific power consumption ratio of screw type air compressor
Load (%) Specific power consumption ratio Input power (kW) Delivery air volume
(kW/m3/min) (m3/min)
100 6.55 80.6 12.3
80 7.72 75.7 9.8
70 8.52 73.3 8.6
50 11.2 68.5 6.1
30 17.7 63.6 3.6
20 25.5 61.2 2.4

18.2 Multiple unit control of air compressors

When more than 3 sets of air compressors are installed, operation with multiple control is
effective to save power and prolong machine life. Main air compressor with large capacity is
operated at 100% load, that is power saving.
18.3 Inverter control of air compressor

Screw type air compressor with inverter control is operated at high specific power consumption
ratio of 5 to 7 kW/m3/min between 100% and 30% load.
Air compressor with built-in inverter control unit is recommendable.
When an inverter unit is assembled in an existing air compressor, inverter unit is selected and
installed according to instruction of manufacturer of air compressor.
Figure 6-1 shows partial load performance of air compressors. Screw type air compressor with
inverter control has same characteristics as theoretical ideal curve.

Partial load performance of

compressors
100%
Power requirement, ratio to rating power

80%

60%

40%
Screw (slide valve control)
Screw (suction valve control)
Screw (blow-off control)
20%
Recipro (suction valve open)
Thoretically ideal

0%
0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%
Load ratio, on air volume

Figure 6-1 partial load performance of air compressors

Page 70 of 99
19. Preparation and implementation of energy management standards to keep energy conservation
activities
After implementation of energy saving measures, energy management standards should be
perpetrated and implemented to keep high energy conservation conditions.
Table 7-1 shows examples of energy management standards of compressed air system.

Table 7-1 Examples of management standards of compressed air system

Energy consuming Energy consuming cause Examples of management
elements criteria
Air leakage Air leakage from piping, joints of Less than 5% of capacity of air
equipment, inside of equipment, nozzles compressors
and valves
Reduction of deferential Unit Initial Criteria 1)Maximum deferential
pressure of dryers and Dryer 0.2 bar 0.2 bar pressure = 0.9 bar
filters Filter 0.05 bar 0.35 bar 2)Change of filter element at
Mist 0.2 bar 0.35 bar 0.35 bar of deferential
separator
pressure
Total 0.45 bar 0.9 bar
Cleaning and Reduction of suction air volume: 1)Periodical measurement of
replacement of suction air Specific power ratio deferential pressure
filter element Useless operation 2)Deferential pressure:
- - Cleaning at 60mmHg
- - Change at 70mmHg
Change of oil separator Increase of deferential pressure causes Change of element at more
element increase of useless power. than 0.07MPa of deferential
pressure
Set pressure of air Reduction of set pressure Reduction of deferential
compressors = energy saving pressure
Load ratio of air Reduction of specific energy Recommendation of multiple
compressors consumption ratio unit control and inverter
control

Page 71 of 99
 Chapter 12 ABC of combustion of gas fuel

1 Fuel gas
Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that under ordinary conditions are gaseous. Many fuel gases
are composed of hydrocarbons (such as methane or propane), hydrogen, carbon monoxide and other
gases. Such gases are sources of potential heat energy or light energy that can be readily transmitted
and distributed through pipes directly to the place of consumption.

Some fuel gases are liquefied for storage and transport. While their gaseous nature has advantages,
avoiding the difficulty of transporting solid fuel and the dangers of spillage inherent in liquid fuels.
It is possible for a fuel gas to be undetected and collect in certain areas, leading to the risk of a gas
explosion. For this reason, odorizers are added to most fuel gases so that they may be detected by a
distinct smell.

The most common type of fuel gas in current use is natural gas. And LNG is popular, too. LPG is a
fossil fuel closely linked to oil. About two thirds of the LPG people use is extracted directly from the
Earth in the same way as ordinary natural gas. The rest is manufactured indirectly from petroleum
(crude oil) drilled from the Earth.

There are some manufactured fuel gases such as follows:

Coal gas, Water gas, Producer gas, Syngas, Wood gas, Biogas, Blast furnace gas, Acetylene and
others.

2 Fuel gas composition and amount of heat generation

2.1 Natural gas
The most common and widely used fuel gas is natural gas. Composition of natural gas is not
common. Typical analysis and their range is shown in Table 2.1. Physical properties of natural gas
are shown in Table 2.2.
Table 2.1 Composition of natural gas
Typical Analysis Range
Component
(mole %) (mole %)
Methane (CH4) 95.0 87.0 - 97.0
Ethane (C2H6) 3.2 1.5 - 7.0
Propane (C3H8) 0.2 0.1 - 1.5
iso – Butane (C4H10) 0.03 0.01 - 0.3
normal – Butane (C4H10) 0.03 0.01 - 0.3

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 iso – Pentane (C5H12) 0.01 trace - 0.04
normal – Pentane (C5H12) 0.01 trace - 0.04
Hexanes plus (C6H14) 0.01 trace - 0.06
Nitrogen (N2) 1.0 0.2 - 5.5
Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.5 0.1 - 1.0
Oxygen (O2) 0.02 0.01 - 0.1
Hydrogen (H2) trace trace - 0.02
(Source: https://www.uniongas.com/)

Table 2.2 Physical property of natural gas

Physical property Typical value Range
Specific Gravity 0.58 0.57 - 0.62
Gross Heating Value(dry basis) 38.0 (MJ/m3) 36.0 - 40.2
Ignition Point 593 (oC) --
Flammability Limits 4-16% (vol% in air) --
(Source: https://www.uniongas.com/ and http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/)

Natural gas is exploited at many places worldwide. Table 2.3 shows the composition and properties
of natural gas mined in some places on the earth.

Table 2.3 Data of natural gas world wide

Production Specific
CH4 CmHn CO2 O2 N2 GHV** NHV***
Area Gravity*
Niigata 97 2 1 0.57 40.5 36.9

Alaska 99.8 0.1 0.1 0.56 39.7 35.7

Brunei 89.8 10.2 0.63 44.5 39.8

Lacq 97.4 2.3 0.3 0.57 40.5 36.5

Groningen 81.5 3.2 0.8 14.5 0.64 34.6 31.6

Texas 71.5 12.4 16.1 0.71 30.0 35.5

* Standard: air = 1.0

** Gross Heat Value (MJ/m3N)
*** Net Heat Value (MJ/m3N)
(Source: ECCJ; Theory and Practice of Gas Incineration)

2.2 LPG
Chemically, LPG is a mixture of two flammable but nontoxic gases called propane (C3H8) and

Page 73 of 99
butane (C4H10). Both of these are hydrocarbons, and composition of these two hydrocarbons are very
wide. LPG sometimes contains a variation of butane called isobutene and small amount of other
hydrocarbons. The composition of components gases in LPG is various at production sites of LPG.
Physical properties are shown in table 2.4.

Table 2.4 Physical property of LPG

Physical property Range
Specific Gravity 1 – 1.5 (Air: 1)
Gross Heating Value(dry basis) 100 - 125 (MJ/m3)
Flammability Limits 2 - 95% (vol% in air)

3 Combustion of natural gas

Reaction of gas fuel and oxygen and amount of heat generation is shown in table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Reaction of combustion and amount of heat generation

Gas Incineration reaction GHV(MJ/m3N) NHV(MJ/m3N)
H2 H2 + 0.5O2 = H2O 12.78 10.83
CO CO + 0.5O2 = CO2 12.61 12.61
CH4 CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O 39.94 36.06
C 2H 6 C2H6 + 3.5O2 = 2CO2 + 3H2O 70.47 64.55
C 3H 8 C3H8 + 5O2 = 3CO2 + 4H2O 101.40 93.39
C 3H 6 C3H6 + 4.5O2 = 3CO2 + 3H2O 93.73 87.76
C4H10 C4H10 + 6.5O2 = 4CO2 + 5H2O 134.3 124.1
GHV: Gloss Heating Value
NHV: Net Heating Value

Stoichiometric oxygen consumption in gas combustion is shown in table 3.1. Air requirement for gas
combustion can be calculated with the data in Table 3,1. There shows an example of air consumption
of gas combustion below.

Table 3.2 Composition of a fuel gas and oxygen and air use in combustion
A sample of gas composition Oxygen Air Use
H2 CO CH4 C 2H 6 C 3H 8 C4H10 O2 use (m3/m3)
0.41 0.026 0.257 0.015 0.032 0.006 0.03 0.954 4.54

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Calculation of oxygen use in combustion of a fuel gas in Table 3.2
Theoretical Oxygen Use = 0.41 x 0.5 + 0.026 x 0.5 + 0.257 x 2 + 0.015 x 3.5 + 0.032 x 5 + 0.006
x 6.5 - 0.03 x 1 = 0.954
Theoretical Air Use = 0.954 / 0.21 = 4.54 (m3/m3)

A gas of special composition is used in above calculation. Generally speaking most natural gas
contains methane (CH4) mainly as shown in Table 2.3.

3 Theoretical amount of air and air ratio

Theoretical air volume required for perfect combustion of 1 m3 gas fuel is called theoretical air
volume. In actual combustion more air than theoretical air volume is necessary. This actual air
volume for combustion of fuel 1m3 is called “Air ratio” and indicated with the letter of “α”.
α＝A／Ao
where
Ao: theoretical air volume (m3/m3)
A: practical air volume (m3/m3)
Air more than theoretical air volume is called “excess air”, and the ratio is called “excess air ratio”.
It is indicated by percent of theoretical air.

Figure 3.1 Relation of air ratio and heat efficiency

Page 75 of 99
Figure 3.1 shows relation of air ratio and heat efficiency. In air shortage unburnt combustible content
is generated, and heat efficiency decreases. On the contrary heating of excess air is required, and
heat efficiency decreased, too. Therefore low air ratio without unburnt combustible content is
required. For the purpose selection of adequate burner, daily maintenance, and prevention against
invading air into furnace are necessary.

Following tables show standard air ratio and strictly controlled air ratio for boilers and industrial
furnaces.

Table 3.1 Standard and target air ratio for gas fuel boiler
Boiler size Standard air ratio Target air ratio
10 – 30 t/h 1.15 – 1.3 1.15 – 1.25
Smaller than 5 t/h 1.2 – 1.3 1.15 – 1.25

Table 3.2 Standard and target air ratio for gas fuel industrial furnace
Furnace Standard air ratio Target air ratio
Continuous Intermittent Continuous Intermittent
furnace furnace furnace furnace
Metal melting furnace 1.25 1.35 1.05 – 1.205 1.05 – 1.25
Continuous steel
1.20 -- 1.05 – 1.15 --
heating furnace
Meta heating furnace 1.25 1.35 1.05 – 1.15 1.05 – 1.30
Meta heat treatment
1.20 1.25 1.05 – 1.15 1.05 – 1.25
furnace

4 Measurement of air ratio

4.1 Flue gas analyzer

Furnaces, heaters, and boilers burn fuel in the

presence of oxygen to produce heat.
Achieving an intelligent balance of fuel and
air will provide the most efficient combustion
and highest cost savings.
Measuring the exhaust gas is an excellent
way to optimize fuel and air input. Usually
oxygen, carbon mono oxide can be measured
by the instruments.

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4.2 Calculation of air ratio

Oxygen in flue gas (%) is an index of air balance in combustion. Oxygen concentration (%) in flue
gas can be measured with flue gas analyzer or oxygen concentration meter.
Then the air ratio is calculated from oxygen concentration (%) with following equation.

5 Exhaust heat recovery

Among exhaust heat recovery technologies recuperater is the most popular in industrial furances.
Installing a recuperater on stack, and implementing heat exchange of low temperature combustion
air and high temperature flue gas. This is to use the heat which flue gas has and to preheat
combustion air.

Furnace temperature (oC)

Fuel saving rate (%)

Preheat air temp (oC)

Figure 5.1 Preheat air temperature and fuel saving rate

Figure 5.1 shows the relation of preheat air temperature and fuel saving rate. For example, if furnace
temperature is 1200 oC and preheat air temperature is 500 oC, fuel saving rate is more than 30%.

Page 77 of 99
 Chapter 13 Industrial furnace and Energy saving

1 Cupola furnace
1.1 General description of Cupola
A cupola or cupola furnace is a melting device used in foundries that can be used to melt cast iron,
Ni-resist iron and some bronzes. The cupola can be made almost any practical size. The size of a
cupola is expressed in diameters and can range from 1.5 to 13 feet (0.5 to 4.0 m). The overall shape
is cylindrical and the equipment is arranged vertically, usually supported by four legs. The overall
look is similar to a large smokestack.

The bottom of the cylinder is fitted with doors which swing down and out to 'drop bottom'. The top
where gases escape can be open or fitted with a cap to prevent rain from entering the cupola. To
control emissions a cupola may be fitted with a cap that is designed to pull the gases into a device to
cool the gases and remove particulate matter.

The shell of the cupola, being usually made of steel, has refractory brick and plastic refractory
patching material lining it. The bottom is lined in a similar manner but often a clay and sand mixture
("bod") may be used, as this lining is temporary. Finely divided coal ("sea coal") can be mixed with
the clay lining so when heated the coal decomposes and the bod becomes slightly friable, easing the
opening up of the tap holes. The bottom lining is compressed or 'rammed' against the bottom doors.
Some cupolas are fitted with cooling jackets to keep the sides cool and with oxygen injection to
make the coke fire burn hotter.

1.2 Structure of cupola furnace

1.3 Important dimension of cupola

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 Bed Coke Height 3 t/H: 1000mm
2 t/H: 900mm
1 t/H: 800mm

1.4 Melting zone

Reducing Atmosphere (CO2 +CO ) : Melting Zone ( Molten metal is not oxidized.)
Oxidizing Atmosphere (CO2) : Molten metal is oxidized.

Metal melts at the top area of Bed

Coke.
Sprit coke layer (200mm) goes
down and the bed coke height is
kept.

1.5 What happens if bed coke is short?

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 Metal melts in oxidizing
atmosphere, and metal is
oxidized.

1.6 How to keep the bed coke height?

To keep Air Flow and Air Pressure of blow air from Tuyeres. They are measured with an air
flow meter and an air pressure meter.
If air is too strong, coke burns rapidly and bed coke becomes short.

1.7 Cupola furnace operation

In stable operation cupola furnace can produce molten metal continuously for a long time.
Figure below shows the time chart of stable cupola operation.

1.8 Energy consumption breakdown of Cupola

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 Available output energy from cupola is about 20 – 30%.

2 Induction heating furnace

2.1 Structure of induction heating furnace and its specialties

ž No exhaust gas from heating mechanism.

ž Metal temperature in crucible is uniform.
ž Metal temperature is easy to control.
1) Unit energy consumption (Japanese experiences) Small furnace of 1-3 tons: 700kWh/ton
Medium furnace of 12-15tons: 600kwh/ton
2) Use of remaining metal in crucible
Continuous operation with remaining liquid metal can reduce unit energy consumption.
2.2 Heating principle
Iron crucible and melting metal:
Equivalent to secondary coil of the
Page 81 of 99
transformer
 Water cooled Heating coil:
Equivalent to primary coil of
the transformer

2.3 Energy consumption breakdown of low frequency induction crucible furnace

3 Flame heating crucible furnace: flame control for heating efficiency

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 Spiral flame flow Conventional flame flow

ž Spiral flame flow crucible furnaces have better heating efficiency.

ž Flame guides are formed on the inside wall of furnace by castable heat insulating material.
ž Spiral flame flow reduces damage of iron crucibles.
4 Advanced furnaces for Aluminium high pressure diecasting
4.1 Metal melting and retaining furnace

1) Flame control for adequate metal melting

2) Metal surface height control
3) Precise metal temperature control
4) Automatic opening and closing control of melting chamber lid
4.2 Regenerating gas burner

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 Air blower Air blower

4 way valve 4 way valve

Fuel Exhaust Fuel Exhaust

Heat Heat Heat Heat

storage storage storage storage
medium medium medium medium
Each 30 sec

Dip tube Dip tube

Regenerating system is a unified one of two heat storage media and a burner. Exhaust gas heats a
heat storage medium and the medium heats air in the next step. High heat efficiency is expected.

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 Chapter 14 Electroplating and Energy Saving

1 Basic Knowledge of Electroplating

1.1 Electrochemical reaction in plating bath

Products to be plated is connected to the minus terminal of electrical power supply, and counter
electrode is to the plus terminal. The counter electrode is made of plating metal such as nickel, zinc,
etc.

1.2 Counter electrode

Counter electrode is made of pellet or chips of plating metal, and they are put into titanium baskets.

1.3 Plating solution

Plating solutions are composed of chemicals such as plated metal, additional chemicals, and

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brighteners. Usually plating baths are supplied from specialized suppliers of plating chemicals.
1.4 Plating process
Substrates for plating are processed of deoxidation, a few steps of degreasing in acid and alkaline
and metal depositing.

2 Rinsing in water
2.1 Purpose of rinsing
ž To remove bath components from the surfaces of products ⇒ To keep the quality of
products
ž Sufficient rinsing between treatments ⇒ Good adhesion of plated films
ž Sufficient final rinsing ⇒ Non-defective appearances
2.2 Comparison of Multi-stage and Single-stage Rinsing

Above figure shows the effect of multi-stage water rinsing at after rinsing in chromium plating.
Multi-stage rinsing can remove chemicals sufficiently with same volume of water.
2.3 Required rinsing quality after water rinsing (Rough idea of contaminant residue on products)
Medium Rinse: 750ppm
Final Rinse (Average finish): 150～200ppm
Final Rinse (Bright finish): 40ppm

2.4 Water Conservation and Improvement of Rinsing Efficiency

2.4.1 Water flow in a rinsing tank and Agitation of water with air (Aeration)
To remove treatment solution adhered on product surfaces.
To make the chemical concentration uniform in whole tank.

check
valve

water air water

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3 Electrical energy saving in plating
3.1 Electrical resistance in DC wiring

E1(V) I(A) E2(V) E3(V) E4(V) E5(V) E6(V) E2-E6(V)

Factory A 8.0 7980 6.8 6.8 6.6 6.5 6.4 0.4
Factory B 8.2 9900 7.8 6.2 6.2 6.2 6.1 1.7

(!.!!!.!)×!"""
Power loss at Factory A = = 4.0(kW)
!"""×!.!

(!.!!!.!)×!!""
Power loss at Factory B = = 21.0(kW)
!"""×!.!

Power loss in cables and bus bars can calculate from voltage difference between rectifier terminal
and bus bar at plating tank side.

3.2 Plating bath selection for reduction of plating voltage (Zn plating)
Name of zinc plating bath Plating voltage
in production plant (V)
Potassium Chloride Bath 2.8
Ammonium Chloride Bath 3.3
Zincate Bath 8.0
Cyanide Bath 8.0

By changing plating bath from Zincate to Potassium chloride in Factory A,

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 (!.!!!.!)×!"""
Power saving at Factory A = = 52(kW)
!"""×!.!

3.3 Summary of electrical energy use in electroplating

In chromium plating, total electricity efficiency for film formation is

0.97×0.95×0.1×100=7.3%.
In other metal plating, total electricity efficiency for film formation is 70-80%.

4 Heat energy saving in electroplating

4.1 Important terms of Heat
Term Definition
Calorie The amount of heat required at a pressure of one atmosphere to raise the
temperature of one gram of water one degree Celsius that is equal to about
4.19 joules.
Specific heat Specific Heat is the amount of heat required to change a unit mass of a
substance by one degree in temperature.
Latent heat All pure substances in nature are able to change their state. Solids can
become liquids (ice to water) and liquids can become gases (water to
vapor) but changes such as these require the addition or removal of heat.
The heat that causes these changes is called latent heat.
Sensible heat When an object is heated, its temperature rises as heat is added. The
increase in heat is called sensible heat.
Boiler A closed vessel in which fluid (usually water) is heated. The heated or
vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating
applications, including water heating, central heating, boiler-based power
generation, cooking, and sanitation.

4.2 Characteristics of steam

ž Steam is a liquid at room temperature, and easily becomes a gas by heating.
ž Steam has a large specific heat. Latent heat of vaporization is large.
ž Steam has a large volume change after condensation (vapor to water), and heat transfer
characteristics is large.

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 ž Steam pressure increases with rise in temperature.
ž Steam is chemically stable, no explosion and no flammable. In addition, it can be used
repeatedly.
ž Transportation, storage and control of steam is easy.

4.3 Calculation of boiler efficiency

!(!”!!’)×!""
Boiler efficiency =
!×!

where
G: actual amount of evaporation(kg/h)
h”: specific enthalpy of generated steam (kcal/kg)
h’: specific enthalpy of supplied water (kcal/kg)
(As the specific heat is 1.0 kcal/kgoC, its temperature can be used as specific enthalpy)
B: consumed fuel (kg/h or Nm3/h)
H: low heat value of fuel (kcal/kg or kcal/Nm3)

Example
the amount of used heavy oil: 980L (specific gravity 0.89)
low heating value of heavy oil: 10,000kcal/kg
generated steam: 12ton
steam pressure: 10kgf/cm2
(evaporation heat 478.1kcal/kg, dryness 98% specific enthalpy 185.6kcal/kg)
supplied water temperature: 20oC

4.4 Boiler capacity

Steam boilers output - the capacity of a steam boiler - can be expressed in Pounds of Steam
delivered per hour, BTU or in Boiler Horsepower.
1) Lbs Steam delivered per Hour
Large boiler capacities are often given in lbs of steam evaporated per hour under specified
steam conditions.
2) BTU - British Thermal Units
Since the amount of steam delivered varies with temperature and pressure, a common
expression of the boiler capacity is the heat transferred over time expressed as British Thermal

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 Units per hour. A boilers capacity is usually expressed as kBtu/hour (1000 Btu/hour) and can be
calculated as W = (hg - hf) m
where
W = boiler capacity (Btu/h, kW)
hg = enthalpy steam (Btu/lb, kJ/kg)
hf = enthalpy condensate (Btu/lb, kJ/kg)
m = steam evaporated (lb/h, kg/s)
3) Boiler Horsepower – BHP
The Boiler Horsepower (BHP) is the amount of energy required to produce 34.5 pounds of
steam per hour at a pressure and temperature of 0 Psig and 212 oF, with feedwater at 0 Psig and
212 oF.

4.5 Drain recovery

ž Heat in saturated water contains 20 – 30 % of consumed energy in boiler.

ž If all heat in drain is recovered, 20-30 % of energy is saved and boiler water and
wastewater treatment can be reduced.

5 Summary of energy saving in electroplating process

ž Low temperature operation
ž Adequate temperature control
ž Energy saving plan based on calculation
ž High heat efficiency of boiler
ž To use steam without leakage
ž To use steam of low pressure and high dryness
ž Select efficient steam trap
ž Effective drain recovery
ž Heat insulation on piping and tanks

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6 Analysis of acidic zinc chloride electroplating bath
6.1 Zinc metal
① Measure 2 ml of plating bath precisely with a volumetric pipette, and add 50 ml of distilled
water.
② Add 20 ml buffer solution of pH10 and a few drops of BT indicator.
③ Add 30% formalin solution till the color of the specimen solution changes to reddish
violet.
④ Heat the solution up to about 35 oC.
⑤ Titrate the specimen solution with 0.1M EDTA standard solution till the color of the
solution changes from reddish violet to blue.
⑥ Calculation: zinc metal (g/l) = ml of 0.1M EDTA x 3.27 x factor of 0.1M EDTA

6.2 Total chlorine

① Measure 1 ml of plating bath precisely with a volumetric pipette, and add 100 ml of
distilled water.
② Add a few drops of 10% potassium chromate as an indicator.
③ Titrate the specimen solution with 0.1N silver nitrate standard solution till the color of the
solution changes from yellow to oxblood red.
④ Calculation: total chlorine (g/l) = ml of 0.1N silver nitrate x 3.55 x factor of 0.1N silver
nitrate.

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 Chapter15 Enforcement of Thermal Insulation

1. Procedure of energy conservation measures of enforcement of thermal

insulation
Enforcement of thermal insulation is effective measures to reduce heat loss from surface of
equipment and piping.
Energy conservation measures of enforcement of thermal insulation are implemented as the
following procedure.

1st step: Repairing broken insulation work of equipment and piping

2nd step: Measurement of surface temperature of equipment and piping
3rd step: Calculation of heat loss from the surface of equipment and piping
4th step: Design of enforcement of thermal insulation of equipment and piping
5th step: Implementation of enforcement of thermal insulation work
6th step: Measurement of surface temperature and confirmation of effects of enforcement of thermal
insulation

2. Measurement of surface temperature of equipment and piping

2.1 Measurement devices
The following measurement devices are used to measure surface temperature
(1) Surface contact type thermometer
(2) Radiation thermometer
(3) Thermal image camera

2.2 Measurement data

The following data are recorded by inspectors
(1) Ambient temperature at 1 meter from equipment
(2) Surface temperature of equipment and piping
(3) Operation condition such as load ratio and inner temperature

3. Calculation of heat loss from the surface of equipment and piping

3.1 Heat transfer method
Heat transfer methods are the following 3 methods.
(1) Conduction heat
(2) Convection heat
(3) Radiation heat

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3.2 Heat dissipation loss
Heat dissipation loss (Q) is radiation heat (Qr) and convection heat (Qc) as follows:
Q = Qr + Qc
(1) Radiation heat loss
Radiation heat Qr (kcal/m2h) through radiation from the equipment surface

4 4
t + 273 a + 273
Qr = 4.88 x ε x A x
100 100

(Stefan-Boltzmann law)
Where
t: Furnace wall surface temp. (degC )
a: Air temperature. surrounding the furnace (degC )
ε: Equipment wall and piping surface radiation rate
A: Furnace wall surface area (m2)

Table 1 Equipment wall and piping surface radiation rate (ε)

Material Condition ε
Steel plate 30 degC 0.75 - 0.85
Melting iron 1300 – 1400 degC 0.29
Aluminum plate 40 degC 0.05 - 0.07
(2) Convection heat loss
Convection heat Qc (kcal/m2h) from the equipment surface
Qc = α x A x (t – a)
Where
t: Furnace wall surface temp. (degC )
a: Air temp. surrounding the furnace (degC )
α: Convection heat transfer rate (kcal/m2/h/degC)
A: Equipment wall and piping surface area (m2)

Table 2 Convection heat transfer rate (kcal/m2/h/degC) (α) at natural

convection
Condition Value of α
Upper side of horizontal surface 2.8 x (t – a)0.25
Bottom side of horizontal surface 1.5 x (t – a)0.25
Vertical surface 2.2 x (t – a)0.25

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 Surface of horizontal pipe 2.1 x ((t – a) / D)0.25
Note: D = Diameter of pipe (m)

3.3 Heat conduction

(1) Conduction heat Qd (kcal/h) through equipment wall and thermal insulation material
Qd = ƛ / d x A x (t1 – t2)
Where
t1: Equipment wall surface temp. (degC )
t2: Equipment inside wall temperature (degC)
ƛ : Equipment wall and insulation material heat conductivity (kcal/m/h/degC)
d: Equipment wall thickness (m)
A: Equipment wall surface area (m2)

Inside
Outside
t1
t2
d
Figure 1 Heat conduction

Table 3 Equipment wall and insulation material heat conductivity

(kcal/m/h/degC) (ƛ)
Material Condition and shape Density Max. temp. ƛ
3
(kg/m ) (degC)
Steel plate 50
Rock wool Blanket 160 600 0.037
Glass wool Blanket 40 400 0.037
Calcium silicide Insulation pipe 130 1000 0.042
Ceramic fiber Blanket 128 1400 0.07 – 0.23
Polystyrene Form 30 70 0.031
Hard urethane Form 35 100 0.021
Perlite Board 250 900 0.062

4. Enforcement of thermal insulation of steam piping

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4.1 Heat loss of steam pipe without insulation

α1 = 5,000 kcal/m2/h/C
Ambient
temperature α2 = 10 kcal/m2/h/C
4 81 ƛ1 = 50 kcal/m/h/C
30 degC
150 degC

Figure 2 Steam pipe

Heat loss from surface of steam pipe (kcal/m/h) (Q)

Q = (ts – ta) / R
Where
R: Total heat resistance
ts: Steam temperature (degC)
ta: ambient temperature (degC)
(1) Convection heat resistance to inner wall of steel pipe (R1)
R1 = 1 / (α1 x Inner surface area of pipe) = 1 / (5000 x 3.14 x 0.081) = 0.0008
(2) Conduction heat resistance in steel pipe (R2)
R2 = Thickness of pipe / (ƛ1 x Average surface area of pipe) = 0.004 / (50 x 3.14 x 0.085)
= 0.0003
(3) Convection heat resistance to air from outer surface of steel pipe (R3)
R3 = 1 / (α2 x Outer surface area of pipe) = 1 / (10 x 3.14 x 0.089) = 0. 357
(4) Total heat resistance (R)
R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 0.0008 + 0.0003 + 0.357 = 0.358
(5) Heat loss from surface of steel pipe (Q)
Q = (150 – 30) / 0.358 = 335 kcal/m/h

4.2 Heat loss of steam pipe with insulation

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 Steel pipe α1 = 5,000 kcal/m2/h/C
α2 = 10 kcal/m2/h/C
4 ƛ1 = 50 kcal/m/h/C
Insulation
25 Glass wool ƛ2 = 0.037 kcal/m/h/C
81

150 degC Ambient

temperature
30 degC

Figure 3 Steam pipe with insulation

(1) Convection heat resistance to inner wall of steel pipe (R1)

R1 = 1 / (α1 x Inner surface area of pipe) = 1 / (5000 x 3.14 x 0.081) = 0.0008
(2) Conduction heat resistance in steel pipe (R2)
R2 = Thickness of pipe / (ƛ1 x Average surface area of pipe) = 0.004 / (50 x 3.14 x 0.085)
= 0.0003
(3) Conduction heat resistance in glass wool (R3)
R3 = Thickness of insulation / (ƛ2 x Average surface area of insulation)
= 0.025 / (0.037 x 3.14 x 0.114) = 1.877
(4) Convection heat resistance to air from outer surface of insulation (R4)
R4 = 1 / (α2 x Outer surface area of insulation) = 1 / (10 x 3.14 x 0.139) = 0. 223
(5) Total heat resistance (R)
R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 0.0008 + 0.0003 + 1.877 + 0.223 = 2.1
(6) Heat loss from surface of steel pipe (Q)
Q = (150 – 30) / 2.1 = 57 kcal/m/h

4.3 Effects of thermal insulation

Heat loss is reduced to 57 kcal/m/h from 335 kcal/m/h with insulation of glass wool.
Heat recovery ratio is 83%.

5. Enforcement of thermal insulation of furnace wall

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 Gas
R 1=1.4 R 2=0.2 R 3=0.11
t1 =1200 C Air
25 C

t4

0.23m 0.115m 0.05m

Figure 4. Furnace wall at present

5.1 Heat transfer through wall at present

(1) Case 1 (trial)
t4 is assumed as 105 C.
Heat transfer is calculated as follows:
Q1 = (t1 –t4) / (d1/R1 + d2/R2 + d3/R3)
= (1200 – 105) / (0.23/1.4 + 0.115/0.2 + 0.05/0.11) = 918 kcal/m/h
Dissipation heat from surface of furnace wall
Q2 = Radiation heat + convection heat
= 4.88 x 0.85 x ( (378/100)4 – (298/100)4) + 2.2 x (378 – 298)0.25 x (378 – 298)
= 1046 kcal/m/h
Q2 > Q1: t4 is smaller than 105 C
(2) Case 2 (trial)
t4 is assumed as 98 C.
Heat transfer is calculated as follows:
Q1 = (t1 –t4) / (d1/R1 + d2/R2 + d3/R3)
= (1200 – 98) / (0.23/1.4 + 0.115/0.2 + 0.05/0.11) = 921 kcal/m/h
Dissipation heat from surface of furnace wall
Q2 = Radiation heat + convection heat
= 4.88 x 0.85 x ( (371/100)4 – (298/100)4) + 2.2 x (371 – 298)0.25 x (371 – 298)
= 928 kcal/m/h
Q2 = Q1: t4 is 98 C.

5.2 Heat transfer through wall with ceramic fiber veneering

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 Gas

t1 =1200 C R 1=1.4 R 2=0.2 R 3=0.11

Air
25 C
R5=0.23
t4
0.23m 0.115m 0.05m
0.05m

Figure 5 Furnace wall with ceramic fiber veneering

t4 is assumed as 90 C.
Heat transfer is calculated as follows:
Q1 = (t1 –t4) / (d1/R1 + d2/R2 + d3/R3)
= (1200 – 90) / (0.23/1.4 + 0.115/0.2 + 0.05/0.11 + 0.05/0.23) = 787 kcal/m/h
Dissipation heat from surface of furnace wall
Q2 = Radiation heat + convection heat
= 4.88 x 0.85 x ( (363/100)4 – (298/100)4) + 2.2 x (363 – 298)0.25 x (363 – 298)
= 799 kcal/m/h
Q2 = Q1: t4 is 90 C.

5.3 Effects of ceramic fiber veneering

Heat loss is reduced to 790 kcal/m/h from 925 kcal/m/h with veneering of ceramic fiber.
Heat recovery ratio is 15%.

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