Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020) 1805–1819

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Research Paper

Mapping favorable groundwater potential recharge zones using a GIS-based

analytical hierarchical process and probability frequency ratio model: A case
study from an agro-urban region of Pakistan
Arfan Arshad a, b, 1, Zhijie Zhang c, 1, Wanchang Zhang a, b, *, Adil Dilawar b, d
a
Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
b
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
c
Department of Geography, Center for Environmental Sciences and Engineering (CESE), University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT06269-4148, USA
d
LREIS, Institute of Geographic Sciences and Natural Resources Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 11A, Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: E. Shaji In Punjab (Pakistan), the increasing population and expansion of land use for agriculture have severely exploited
the regional groundwater resources. Intensive pumping has resulted in a rapid decline in the level of the water
Keywords: table as well as its quality. Better management practices and artificial recharge are needed for the development of
Weightage overlay sustainable groundwater resources. This study proposes a methodology to delineate favorable groundwater po-
Analytical hierarchical process (AHP) analysis
tential recharge zones (FPRI) by integrating maps of groundwater potential recharge index (PRI) with the
Frequency ratio (FR)
DRASTIC-based groundwater vulnerability index (VI). In order to evaluate both indexes, different thematic layers
Vulnerability
Groundwater recharge zones corresponding to each index were overlaid in ArcGIS. In the overlay analysis, the weights (for various thematic
Area under curve (AUC) layers) and rating values (for sub-classes) were allocated based on a review of published literature. Both were then
normalized and modified using the analytical hierarchical process (AHP) and a frequency ratio model respec-
tively. After evaluating PRI and FPRI, these maps were validated using the area under the curve (AUC) method.
The PRI map indicates that 53% of the area assessed exists in very low to low recharge zones, 22% in moderate,
and 25% in high to excellent potential recharge zones. The VI map indicates that 38% of the area assessed exists in
very low to low vulnerability, 33% in moderate, and 29% in high to very high vulnerability zones. The FPRI map
shows that the central region of Punjab is moderately-to-highly favorable for recharge due to its low vulnerability
and high recharge potential. During the validation process, it was found that the AUC estimated with modified
weights and rating values was 79% and 67%, for PRI and VI indexes, respectively. The AUC was less when
evaluated using original weights and rating values taken from published literature. Maps of favorable ground-
water potential recharge zones are helpful for planning and implementation of wells and hydraulic structures in
this region.

1. Introduction contribution of groundwater to overall irrigation water supply increased

from 8% in 1960 to 60% in 2010 as a consequence of the continuous
Groundwater is a valuable resource that plays a fundamental role in increase of lands under cultivation; the 2–3 m annual decline of the water
maintaining terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, as well as the well-being table is due to continuous pumping of fresh aquifers to meet domestic
of human civilizations. However, population growth and the expansion and agriculture-related water demands (Qureshi et al., 2010). Much of
of agricultural lands has mounted increasing pressure on groundwater the area under cultivation in the Punjab province of Pakistan is irrigated
resources, resulting in their overexploitation as well as a deteriorating in using groundwater withdrawn from dug wells and tube wells. The
water quality (Watto, 2015; Mondal and Dalai, 2017). In Pakistan, the number of tube-wells installed here increased from 100,000 in 1975 to

* Corresponding author. Key Laboratory of Digital Earth Science, Institute of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049,
China.
E-mail address: [email protected] (W. Zhang).
Peer-review under responsibility of China University of Geosciences (Beijing).
1
The first two authors contributed equally to this work and should be considered as co-first authors of this paper.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2019.12.013
Received 13 July 2019; Received in revised form 8 October 2019; Accepted 10 December 2019
Available online 17 February 2020
1674-9871/© 2020 China University of Geosciences (Beijing) and Peking University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the
CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
A. Arshad et al. Geoscience Frontiers 11 (2020) 1805–1819

Fig. 1. (a) A map of the study area including the location of metrological stations, water wells, and surface water channels; (b) sedimentology of the lower Indus Basin
(Punjab) alluvial aquifer.

800,000 in 2014 (Qureshi, 2015). As the aquifer is unconfined in nature Tweed et al., 2007). Some studies delineate potential groundwater
(Schmid et al., 2017), the increasing population and other anthropogenic recharge zones considering only recharge as a factor (Chenini and
activities pose an environmental risk (Sanjrani et al., 2017). A careful Mammou, 2010; Chowdhury et al., 2010; Deepa et al., 2016); they pay
assessment of the groundwater aquifer system is essential for its sus- less attention to the identification of recharge zones that are susceptible
tainable management. Potential groundwater recharge mapping can to pollution. Selection of appropriate and favorable recharge sites is a
assist water resource managers to make better management plans. major challenge in water resource management. In order to delineate
Remote sensing data, when used with conventional survey maps, is favorable potential groundwater recharge zones it is necessary to
very helpful in identifying groundwater recharge zones (Harinarayanan consider both factors, the vulnerability to pollution as well as potential
et al., 2000; Muralidhar et al., 2000; Chowdhury et al., 2010). This for recharge. This study integrates both these factors into a single
technique not only provides observations on a wide-scale spatio-tem- framework to delineate favorable potential recharge zones in Punjab.
poral basis, it can also describe features on Earth’s surface such as line- Remote-sensing-based satellite images can be integrated and overlaid
aments, geomorphology, drainage patterns, and lithology (Murthy, 2000; to derive groundwater recharge maps (Kaliraj et al., 2014; Singh et al.,

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Fig. 2. Comprehensive flow diagram of data processing, preparation of potential recharge index (PRI), vulnerability index (VI), and favorable potential recharge
index (FPRI).

Table 1
Relative weights of different thematic layers derived from published literature expressing groundwater recharge potentiality and vulnerability; * indicates the layers not
considered in this study.
Factors influencing recharge GM LULC RF DD ST SP EL Weightage scale References

Assigned weights 6.00 7.00 7.00 4.50 7.50 8.00 4.00 1–9 Patra et al. (2018)
* 1.15 1.17 1.68 * * 0.57 0.5–2 Abrams et al. (2018)
16.00 12.00 8.00 13.00 6.00 6.00 10.00 1–20 Das (2019)
5.50 * * * 4.50 4.50 4.00 1–9 Machiwal et al. (2011)
5.00 * 4.00 2.00 3.50 * 3.50 1–9 Chowdhury et al. (2009)
6.00 5.00 8.00 2.00 7.00 7.00 4.00 1–9 Fashae et al. (2014)
* 4.00 3.00 1.00 2.00 2.00 0.50 1–9 Pinto et al. (2017)
Avg. weight 7.70 5.83 5.20 4.03 5.08 5.50 3.80 * *

Factors influencing vulnerability D R A S T I C

Assigned weights 5 4 3 2 1 5 3 1–5 Aller et al. (1987)

Abbreviations: GM (Geomorphology); LULC (Land-Use Land-Cover); RF (Rainfall); DD (Drainage Density); ST (Soil Type); SP (Soil Permeability); EL (Elevation); D
(Depth to water); R (Recharge); A (Aquifer Media); S (Soil Media); T (Topography); I (Vadoze Zones); C (Hydraulic Conductivity).

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Table 2 were computed using AHP techniques; their sub-classes ratings were
The scoring scheme used for generating pair-wise comparison matrices in the computed based on the frequency ratio technique (FR). Modified
analytical hierarchy process (AHP) (Saaty, 2008). AHP-weights and FR-rate were used in overlay analysis to evaluate
Scores Importance groundwater potential recharge index (PRI) and DRASTIC-based
1 Equally important
groundwater vulnerability index (VI). The objectives of this study is
3 Moderately more important fourfold: (1) to normalize the assigned weights of thematic layers using
5 Strongly more important an AHP and modify the rating values of sub-classes using FR techniques;
7 Very strongly more important (2) to evaluate the potential groundwater recharge zones using PRI index
9 Extremely more important
and evaluate the groundwater vulnerability using the DRASTIC-based VI
2, 4, 6, 8 Intermediate values between two levels of importance
index; (3) to develop favorable groundwater recharge index by
combining PRI and VI maps; and (4) to evaluate the accuracy of PRI and
2019) and vulnerability maps (Kumar et al., 2015; Khakhar et al., 2017). VI maps.
In the integration and overlay process, weights of thematic layers and
rates of their sub-classes are multiplied with each other. The assignment 2. Material and methods
of weights and rating is subjective, and depends on expert opinion and
previously published values. Increasing the weightage and rating scale 2.1. Description of the study area
validity is important for developing accurate groundwater recharge and
vulnerability maps (Assaf and Saadeh, 2009; Baalousha, 2010; Kaliraj The study area is in Punjab which is the second largest province of
et al., 2014; Singh et al., 2019). For example, the DRASTIC model has Pakistan. It occupies an area of about 205,344 km2, which is 25.8% of the
been widely applied over all the world to evaluate groundwater total land area of Pakistan. It extends between longitude 70
E–75
E and
vulnerability (Alwathaf and El Mansouri, 2011; Kazakis and Voudouris, latitude 28
N–38
N, and its elevation decreases from 2271 m in the north
2015; Jarray et al., 2017) using original weights and ratings assigned by to 46 m in the south. The climate of this region shows a fluctuating trend
Aller et al. (1987). A major deficiency in the DRASTIC model is its in temperature and precipitation with average values of 33
C and 59
subjectivity in assigning rating values and relative weights (Saidi et al., cm/yr, respectively (MoWP, 2012). The Indus River and five of its main
2011); when applied with modified weights and rating values, it exhibits tributaries – the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Bias flow through this
efficient results (Neshat and Pradhan, 2015). It is essential to evaluate region (Fig. 1). Many surface water channels including link canals (which
groundwater vulnerability and recharge zones based on highly validated transport water from western rivers to eastern rivers), main canals, and
weightage (w) and rating (r) scales. their tributaries were constructed to irrigate agricultural crops in this
The frequency ratio (FR) technique is a data driven model and region (Wescoat Jr. et al., 2000). The seepage from water channels and
bivariate statistical technique that computes spatial relationships be- agricultural fields plays an important role in groundwater recharge (Iqbal
tween dependent variable viz., existing wells (spring wells, observation et al., 2016). Punjab is among the more fertile provinces of Pakistan and
wells) and independent variables (classes of thematic layers) to allocate is rich in groundwater resources; more than 80% of nationwide
rating (r) values to each class (Oh et al., 2011; Naghibi et al., 2016). The groundwater resources occur in this region. However, the rate of
FR is widely applied in landslide susceptibility mapping (Demir et al., groundwater depletion is high in response to the rapid expansion of
2013; Nourani et al., 2014), vulnerability mapping (Neshat and Pradhan, agricultural land, increasing population growth, and widespread instal-
2015), groundwater potential mapping (Nampak et al., 2014; Neshat and lation of private tube-wells. Estimates suggest that groundwater, either
Pradhan, 2015; Abrams et al., 2018; Das, 2019), and other environmental alone or together with canal water, accounts for approximately 69% of
issues. However, these studies pay significantly less attention to the FR the water used to irrigate crops (PDS, 2015, 2016). From 1965 to 2002,
technique in groundwater recharge and vulnerability mapping. The the amount of groundwater extracted annually increased from 10 billion
analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is widely applied in the allocation of cubic meters in 1951 to 68 billion cubic meters in 2002; approximately
weights (w) to different thematic layers (Chowdhury et al., 2009; 80% of groundwater was extracted though private tube-wells (Bhutta
Machiwal et al., 2011; Fashae et al., 2014; Kaliraj et al., 2014; Abrams and Alam, 2006).
et al., 2018). Proposed by Saaty (1980), it is a multi-criteria decision- Groundwater persists in the alluvial aquifer systems of Punjab, in
making (MCDM) technique that accelerates the decision making process sand and silt that exist up to depths of approximately 300 m. The sub-
by identifying and weighting different criteria (Kumar and Krishna, surface lithology of the alluvial plain comprises silt, clay, fine sand,
2018). In this study, modified weights (w) of different thematic layers and gravel. An alluvial aquifer is generally considered to be unconfined

Table 3
Analytical hierarchy process (AHP)-derived weights of different thematic layers expressing groundwater recharge potentiality and vulnerability.
Criterion of favorable Thematic layers Assigned weights AHP-Geometric AHP normalized Consistency ratio
recharge sites mean (GM) weights

Groundwater recharge GM 7.70 1.49 0.21 CI ¼(Geometric meanN)/N1 ¼ 0.028

LULC 5.83 1.13 0.16 RI ¼ 1.32 (from table)
RF 5.20 1.00 0.14 CR¼CI/RI ¼ 0.021
DD 4.03 0.78 0.11
ST 5.08 0.98 0.14
SP 5.50 1.06 0.15
EL 3.80 0.73 0.10
Groundwater vulnerability D 5.00 0.31 0.04 CI ¼ (Geometric meanN)/N1 ¼ 0.099
R 4.00 3.38 0.44 RI ¼ 1.32 (from table)
A 3.00 0.62 0.08 CR¼CI/RI ¼ 0.075
S 2.00 1.62 0.21
T 1.00 0.15 0.02
I 5.00 1.08 0.14
C 3.00 0.54 0.07

Abbreviations: GM (Geomorphology); LULC (Land-Use Land-Cover); RF (Rainfall); DD (Drainage Density); ST (Soil Type); SP (Soil Permeability); EL (Elevation); D
(Depth to water); R (Recharge); A (Aquifer Media); S (Soil Media); T (Topography); I (Vadoze Zones); C (Hydraulic Conductivity).

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Table 4
Attributes of different thematic layers and calculation of modified rate using the frequency ratio (FR) value for groundwater potential mapping.
Thematic layers Sub feature classes Assigned rate Class pixels % of pixels in Class (a) Well pixels % Well pixels (b) FR ¼ b/a Modified rate

LULC Agriculture 7 166,325,026 72.63 1365 92.98 1.28 3.54

Forest/Grassland 5 14,141,821 6.18 9 0.61 0.10 0.27
Wetland/Water 9 2,853,800 1.25 9 0.61 0.49 1.36
Settlement 2 2,445,023 1.07 51 3.47 3.25 9
Sparse vegetation 4 31,708,765 13.85 16 1.09 0.08 0.22
Bare area 3 11,518,290 5.03 18 1.23 0.24 0.67
ST Sandy 8 51,895,250 22.66 156 10.63 0.47 1.69
Loam and sand 7 99,497,979 43.45 902 61.44 1.41 5.1
Loamy 5 20,599,973 9.00 293 19.96 2.22 8
Loam and clay 3 33,662,716 14.70 116 7.90 0.54 1.94
Rock outcrops 1 23,336,807 10.19 1 0.07 0.01 0.02
EL (m) 46–491 7 198,865,986 86.84 1460 99.46 1.15 7
491–936 6 19,866,138 8.68 5 0.34 0.04 0.24
936–1381 5 6,081,779 2.66 3 0.20 0.08 0.47
1381–1826 4 3,056,824 1.33 0 0.00 0.00 0
>1826 1 1,121,998 0.49 0 0.00 0.00 0
DD (km/km2) 0–1.02 2 61,710,293 26.95 27 1.84 0.07 0.32
1.02–2.06 3 35,799,360 15.63 109 7.43 0.47 2.21
2.06–3.10 5 39,385,516 17.20 317 21.59 1.26 5.84
3.10–4.13 6 57,351,081 25.04 632 43.05 1.72 8
4.13–5.21 8 34,746,475 15.17 383 26.09 1.72 8
RF (mm/year) 82.19–154.16 1 106,339,870 0.46 740 0.50 1.09 9
154.17–262.11 3 35,835,029 0.16 247 0.17 1.08 8.91
262.12–406.05 4 18,125,417 0.08 126 0.09 1.08 8.99
406.06–540.99 5 21,913,973 0.10 151 0.10 1.07 8.91
541–663.94 7 25,003,166 0.11 162 0.11 1.01 8.38
663.95–846.86 9 21,779,540 0.10 42 0.03 0.30 2.49
SP (cm/day) >600 7 51,892,129 22.67 156 10.63 0.47 2.32
228 5 99,494,858 43.47 902 61.44 1.41 7
99.5 3 43,946,143 19.20 294 20.03 1.04 5.17
<30 2 33,659,595 14.71 116 7.90 0.54 2.66
GM Terraces plains 7 111,775,824 48.83 995 67.78 1.39 7.85
River plains 9 18,215,145 7.96 186 12.67 1.59 9
Piedmonts plaints 2 40,201,492 17.56 146 9.95 0.57 3.2
Desert plains 3 17,208,676 7.52 86 5.86 0.78 4.4
Hill/Rock plains 1 16,233,067 7.09 21 1.43 0.20 1.14
Sand dunes 5 25,358,521 11.08 34 2.32 0.21 1.18

Abbreviations: GM (Geomorphology); LULC (Land-Use Land-Cover); RF (Rainfall); DD (Drainage Density); ST (Soil Type); SP (Soil Permeability); EL (Elevation).

in nature. Specific capacities of tube-wells in this region range from about 180 for wetlands, and 190 for settlements etc. The elevation map of the
50 to more than 120 gpm (U.S. gallons per minute) per foot of drawdown study area was prepared from ASTER-DEM data (available at https://a
(Bennett et al., 1967). Hydraulic permeability (K) estimated from a sterweb.jpl.nasa.gov/gdem.asp). The spatial resolution of ASTER is 30
pumping test indicated that in Punjab, the K value ranges between 10 and m, with 14 different bands ranging from ultraviolet to infrared. River and
600 m/day (Bonsor et al., 2017). Most alluvial aquifers in this region are irrigation channels, including canals and tributaries, were digitized from
highly permeable, and can store and transmit water readily. maps previously prepared by the Punjab Irrigation Department, (PID)
and the Directorate of Land Reclamation (DLR) (https://irrigation.punja
b.gov.pk/). The drainage density map of the study area was prepared
2.2. Data collection and preparation of thematic layers using the line density analysis tool in ArcGIS and classified using the
natural breaks algorithm. The advantage of this classification is that it
Different types of datasets were used to prepare thematic layers used identifies real classes within the data.
in this study; this includes remote sensing data, conventional data from Rainfall is the most dominant influencing factor in groundwater
existing maps and ground observation data. Based on expert opinion and recharge. Annual rainfall data for 2000–2017 was collected from
previous literature, different types of thematic layers were prepared to different gauge stations maintained by the Pakistan Metrological
address their relationship with groundwater potential recharge and Department (PMD), and a map of annual rainfall was prepared using the
vulnerability. The comprehensive flow diagram of methodology and data ordinary Kriging interpolation technique in ArcGIS. A map of soil texture
analysis is explained in Fig. 2. This section describes the different data- was prepared from soil-type data collected from the Food and Agriculture
sets, their preprocessing, and the preparation of thematic layers for Organization (FAO) (available at http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soi
addressing groundwater potential recharge and vulnerable zones. l-survey/soil-maps-and-databases/en/). The five main classes in the soil
texture map are sandy, loamy sandy, loamy, loamy clay, and rocks out-
2.2.1. Preparation of thematic layers related to groundwater recharge crops. Groundwater recharge potentiality is directly related to porosity
The seven thematic layers, namely, LULC, drainage density, soil and permeability of the soil media; higher permeability of soil media
texture, soil permeability, rainfall, topography i.e. elevation, and geo- leads to an increased potential for groundwater recharge. The soil
morphology that govern groundwater recharge were prepared from a permeability map was prepared from existing literature (Bonsor et al.,
series of datasets that include conventional maps, satellite images, and 2017) and allocated standard values of permeability for corresponding
climatic data. The land-use land-cover (LULC) data was derived from the soil characteristics or texture classes proposed by the United States
European Space Agency (ESA) at a spatial resolution of 300 m (available Department of Agriculture (USDA). Hydro-geomorphological features
at https://www.esa-landcover-cci.org/). The LULC map was prepared by play an important role in groundwater recharge. Geomorphological
reclassifying the images into different land-use classes as per codes features of the study area were interpreted and prepared based on the
assigned by the European Space Agency – 110 and 130 for grasslands,

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Table 5
Attributes of different thematic layers and calculation of modified rate using the frequency ratio (FR) value for groundwater vulnerability mapping.
Variables Sub-classes Assigned rate Class pixels % of area in Class (a) Arsenic conc. % Arsenic (b) FR ¼ b/a Modified rate

D (m) 0.17–4.16 9 101,582,499 0.44 1938 0.29 0.65 2.49

4.16–7.84 7 76,414,156 0.33 2708 0.40 1.20 4.63
7.84–12.71 5 27,128,527 0.12 820 0.12 1.02 3.95
12.71–18.32 3 16,674,361 0.07 1149 0.17 2.34 9.00
18.32–37.79 1 7,195,992 0.03 139 0.02 0.65 2.52
R (mm/yr) 10.76–13.03 2 55,065,154 0.24 1108 0.16 0.67 3.57
13.04–16.33 3 76,425,624 0.33 3872 0.56 1.68 9.00
16.34–20.95 5 24,795,747 0.11 626 0.09 0.84 4.48
20.96–25.05 8 31,621,704 0.14 1101 0.16 1.15 6.19
25.06–29.45 9 41,088,682 0.18 213 0.03 0.17 0.92
A No data 0 34,947,964 0.15 53 0.01 0.05 0.31
Dune deposits (Pleistocene) 8 51,892,832 0.23 1256 0.19 0.82 4.89
Fluvial deposits (Holocene) 6 112,112,136 0.49 4436 0.66 1.34 8.00
Interchannel deposits 4 30,042,603 0.13 1009 0.15 1.14 6.79
(Pleistocene)
S Sandy 9 51,892,832 0.23 464 0.07 0.30 0.71
Loamy sand 8 99,495,561 0.43 791 0.12 0.27 0.63
Loamy 5 43,946,846 0.19 5009 0.74 3.86 9.00
Loamy clay 3 33,660,296 0.15 490 0.07 0.49 1.15
T (% slope) 0–1.2 7 198,866,548 0.87 6677 0.99 1.14 7.00
1.2–4.8 5 19,866,700 0.09 44 0.01 0.08 0.46
4.8–10.5 3 6,082,341 0.03 4 0.00 0.00 0.00
10.5–18.5 2 3,057,386 0.01 28 0.00 0.00 0.00
18.5–44 1 1,122,559 0.00 1 0.00 0.00 0.00
I 1 2 55,612,304 0.24 1 0.00 0.00 0.00
4 5 56,827,059 0.25 286 0.04 0.17 0.49
5 7 53,736,184 0.23 4453 0.66 2.81 8.00
7 8 62,819,986 0.27 2014 0.30 1.09 3.10
C (m/s) 1.41–8.77 2 48,355,377 0.21 1421 0.21 1.00 7.83
8.78–12.33 3 123,965,486 0.54 4185 0.62 1.14 9.00
12.34–16.5 5 34,419,627 0.15 601 0.09 0.59 4.65
16.51–22.88 7 14,100,485 0.06 400 0.06 0.96 7.56
22.89–32.7 9 8,159,320 0.04 147 0.02 0.61 4.80

Abbreviations: D (depth to water table); R (recharge); A (aquifer media); S (soil media); T (topography); I (impacts of vadose zones); C (hydraulic conductivity).

geology of aquifers, LULC, and an existing map of soil types of Punjab n/). Topography (T, % slope) is an important factor for groundwater
(http://citypulse.com.pk/pakistangis/soil-map-of-punjab-pakistan/# vulnerability as it governs the flow rate at the surface, which is a key
respond). factor that enables the percolation of contaminants to the saturated zone
of the aquifer system; for example, an area with a low slope tends to
2.2.2. Preparation of thematic layers related to groundwater vulnerability retain water for a longer time. A slope map was prepared from
To identify groundwater vulnerable zones, seven thematic layers ASTER-DEM data at 30 m resolution in ArcGIS.
were prepared; they are depth to the water table (D), recharge (R), The impact of the vadose zone (I) represents the region between the
aquifer media (A), soil media (S), topography (T), impact of vado zones ground and saturated water surface that is infrequently saturated or
(I), and hydraulic conductivity (C). Here, these parameters are described unsaturated. The protective capacity of the vadose zone is directly related
in detail. The depth to groundwater table (D) is prepared from the to the depth of water table (D) and permeability of soil particles (P). An
observation-well data of the Punjab Irrigation Department (available at area with coarse lithology and a shallow water table tends to have high
http://web.irrigation.punjab.gov.pk/groundwater06.aspx). This dataset vulnerability. Due to the difficulty in computing vadose zones, a simple
contains values for latitude, longitude, well number, and depth to method proposed by Piscopo (2001) was applied to develop a map for
groundwater table (m). The map of depth to groundwater table (D) was vadose zones (Eq. (2)). This method computes the vadose zones by
prepared by interpolating depth data for groundwater measured at 1703 combining the classified layers of soil permeability (P) and the depth to
locations in Punjab, using the Kriging technique in ArcGIS. water table (D) using the weightage sum tool in ArcGIS.
Net recharge (R) is the amount of water that penetrates into the soil
and reaches the aquifer. Net recharge affects the movement of contam- I ¼P (low to high) ↑ þ D (high to low) ↓ (2)
inants through the aquifer. The main source of groundwater recharge is Hydraulic conductivity (C) indicates the ease with which water is
rainfall infiltration; R was estimated by the Chaturvedi formula using transmitted through an aquifer. Hydraulic data (lateral permeability,
rainfall data (Eq. (1)) (Oke et al., 2015). vertical permeability, and the specific yield of aquifer), from 70 pumping
R ¼ 2.0 (P – 15) 0.4 (1) tests sites conducted by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) in
the late sixties, were used to determine the spatial distribution of hy-
1 1
where, P is precipitation in mm yr and R is recharge in mm yr . draulic conductivity values (https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/wsp
Aquifer media (A) information is extracted from hydrogeological 1608G) (USGS, 1967).
maps (Kazmi and Jan, 1997; Bonsor et al., 2017). Existing maps were
digitized and converted into different polygons. Soil media (S), is the
uppermost part of the ground surface. Soil characteristics influence the 2.3. Delineation of favorable potential recharge zones
surface and downward movement of contaminants which ultimately
affect groundwater vulnerability. A soil media map was reconstructed Favorable potential recharge zones are those recharge sites which are
from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) soil data, (available at highly suitable for recharge with low susceptibility towards vulnera-
http://www.fao.org/soils-portal/soil-survey/soil-maps-and-databases/e bility. The map for favorable groundwater recharge zones (FPRI) was
developed by integrating the potential groundwater recharge index (PRI)

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Fig. 3. The seven thematic layers prepared as a part of this study in relation to groundwater recharge.

and vulnerability index (VI) (Eq. (3)). thematic layers and the rating (r) values of their sub-classes (Eq. (4)).

FPRI¼ PRI þ VI (3) X

n
PRI ¼ wi  r i (4)
In the first step, groundwater potential recharge sites were identified i¼0

using the PRI index. The PRI map was developed by overlaying different In the second step, groundwater vulnerable and susceptible zones
thematic layers (LULC, drainage density, soil texture, permeability, were identified using vulnerability index (VI). VI was evaluated by using
topography, geomorphology, and rainfall) in ArcGIS using a weightage a DRASTIC-based model considering seven thematic layers. The model
sum tool. It is the summation of products of weights (w) of different was developed by the Environmental Protection Agency (USA) in 1987 to

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Fig. 4. The seven thematic layers prepared as a part of this study that govern groundwater vulnerability.

evaluate contamination of aquifers (Aller et al., 1987). All seven thematic 2.3.1. Weight (w) allocation and normalization
maps were combined by applying a linear combination based on weights The AHP technique is applied to normalize the assigned weights of
(w) of different thematic layers and rating (r) values of their sub-classes different thematic layers. In this study, the weights of different thematic
(Eq. (5)). layers were assigned based on published data and expert opinion in
different environmental and geological conditions. Table 1 contains the
VI ¼ DrDw þ RrRw þ ArAw þ SrSw þ TrTw þ IrIw þ CrCw (5) weight values for the thematic layers derived from existing literature
The process of assigning weights and rating to thematic layers and which expresses groundwater recharge potentiality and vulnerability.
their sub-classes is explained in Sections 2.3.1 and 2.3.2. The following steps were adapted to allocate and normalize weights of

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Fig. 5. Maps of the potential groundwater recharge index (PRI) and vulnerability index (VI); (a) derived based on original rates and weights, and (b) derived based on
FR-rates and AHP-weights.

the thematic layers using the AHP technique – (1) defining goals, (2) metric (P) (Table 2). Eq. (6) was used to develop the AHP pairwise metric
defining scaled weights for each variable based on expert opinion and (P).
literature, (3) establishment of pairwise comparison metrics (P) based on 2 3
scaled weights, (4) calculation of geometric mean, (5) calculation of p11 p12 … pn
6 p21 p22 … p2n 7
normalized weights, and (6) calculation of consistency ratio to verify P¼6
4 ⋮
7 (6)
⋮ ⋱ ⋮ 5
coherence of judgments. The importance of relatively scaled values rec-
p1n … pnn
ommended by Saaty (2008) were used to establish the AHP pairwise

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Fig. 6. Maps of the favorable potential recharge index (FPRI) with (a) original weights and rating value, and (b) modified AHP-weights and FR-rates.

After the P matrix was established, normalized weights (wn) were 2.3.2. Assignment and modification of rating (r) for sub-classes
calculated as follows (Eq. (7)): The probability frequency ratio (PFR) was used to compute modified
! rates for sub-classes of different thematic layers governing groundwater
GMn recharge potentiality and vulnerability (Tables 4 and 5). In the first step,
wn ¼ PNf (7)
n¼1 GMn
rating values were allocated to sub-classes of each thematic layer based
on experts opinions and published literature. Rating values were decided
where GM indicates the geometric mean of nth row elements which were based on their influence on groundwater recharge and vulnerability; for
calculated as per Eq. (8): example, very low (0–1.5), low (1.5–3), medium (3–4.5), good (4.5–6),
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi very good (6–7.5), and excellent (7.5–9). In the second step, the fre-
GMn ¼ P1n P2n …………PnNf (8) quency ratio of each class was computed using the PFR model. This
model is data driven, and uses a bivariate statistical technique that
The normalized weights were verified based on consistency ratio (CR)
computes spatial relationships between dependent variables like existing
computations, as recommended by Saaty (1980) (Eq. (9)):
wells (spring and observation wells) and independent variables classes of
CI thematic layers to allocate the rating values to each class (Oh et al., 2011;
CR ¼ (9) Naghibi et al., 2016). In case of PRI index, frequency ratio was computed
RI
as follows (Eq. (11)):
where CI is the consistency index, and RI is the random consistency
Pw
index. The value for RI is taken from the table provided by Saaty (1980) Tw % Well
FR ¼ Pc ¼ (11)
and depends on the number of factors. Tc
% Class Pixels
CI was computed using Eq. (10):
where, FR is frequency ratio of the sub-classes, Pw is the number of water
λmax  n
CI ¼ (10) well pixels located in each class, Tw is the total number of water well
n pixels in the study region, Pc is a number of pixels in each class and Tc is a
where, n is the number of criteria or thematic layers. λmax is the eigen- total number of pixels in thematic layer. The PFR model was operated
value of the matrix. Consistency ratios (CR) less than or equal to 0.1 are under the assumption that the presence of more water wells in a partic-
used in this study as this value is reasonable for mapping; in case of ular class is evidence that the class has a high potentially towards
higher values, the assigned weightage should be readjusted. Table 3 il- groundwater recharge as these water wells exist along surface water
lustrates normalized AHP weights for different thematic layers express- channels. Seepage from these water channels play an important role in
ing recharge potentiality and vulnerability. groundwater recharge in the lower Indus Basin, Punjab (Iqbal et al.,
2016). A total of 1468 wells were used as the training dataset, and 235
wells are used as the validation dataset. In case of the DRASTIC vulner-
ability index (VI), the frequency ratio was computed as follows (Eq. (12)):

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Fig. 7. Validation curves of the AUC derived for groundwater vulnerability and potential recharge index; (a) derived with original weights and rates, and (b) derived
from modified-AHP weights and modified FR-rates.

Pc
Tc % Arsenic Pixels recharge index (PRI), the AUC curve was plotted between accumulated
FR ¼ Pa ¼ (12)
Ta
% Class Pixels percentage of water wells and different groundwater potential recharge
zones; for the vulnerability index (VI), the AUC was plotted between
where, FR is the frequency ratio of the sub-classes, Pc is the number of accumulated percentage of arsenic and vulnerability index. The higher
pixels in each class, Tc is the total number pixels in the study region, Pa is value of the AUC indicates that the models and techniques used are
the number of arsenic pixels in each class, and Ta is the total number of eminently suitable. Generally, the AUC values vary between 0.5 and 1
arsenic pixels in thematic layer. A total of 300 arsenic samples were (Fawcett, 2006). The AUC curve was derived using validation datasets of
collected at different locations, out of which 200 were selected as 300 water wells and 125 arsenic samples, respectively for PRI and VI,
training datasets and 125 were selected as validation datasets. The EC which were not used in the training datasets.
concentration map was developed using the ordinary Kriging interpola-
tion technique in ArcGIS. The PFR operates under the assumption that a 3. Results and discussion
higher concentration of arsenic in a particular class indicates a higher
vulnerability for groundwater. 3.1. Parameters that control groundwater recharge potentiality
In the third step, rating values were modified for each class. In order
to modify the rates for each class based on their FR values, the highest FR The seven parameters that govern the groundwater recharge potential
value was assigned the highest rating value, and the other rates for other of an area are described in detail. Fig. 3a–g illustrates the thematic layers
classes were calculated through linear proportion. Tables 4 and 5 illus- prepared to evaluate the potential recharge index (PRI). The first of these
trate the modified rating values of different thematic layers governing is the LULC (land-use land-cover) map which provides information
PRI and VI index. related to surface water, infiltration, moisture, groundwater potential,
etc. (Das, 2017). The LULC map of the study area is classified into six
2.4. Validation of maps main classes; agriculture, forest, wetland, settlement, sparse vegetation,
and bare areas (Fig. 3a). A large part of the study area is covered by
Validating output maps is essential to assess the accuracy of models, agricultural land (76%), while sparse vegetation accounts for 13% of the
methods, and applied techniques. In this study, the output map for total area. The second parameter is rainfall, which is the most dominant
vulnerability index and potential recharge index were validated sepa- influencing factor affecting groundwater recharge potentiality. Natu-
rately using the area under the curve (AUC) method. For the potential rally, groundwater recharge increases with the amount of precipitation

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Fig. 8. Spatial distribution of average depth to the water table in the pre- and post-monsoon from 2010 to 2016. The areas marked in red are the sites where the pre-
monsoon depth to the water table is greater that the post-monsoon depth.

(Usman et al., 2015). Regions with high rainfall have a higher ground- the study area was classified into five main classes (0–1.02 km/km2,
water potential due to natural recharge, as compared to dry zones with 1.02–2.06 km/km2, 2.06–3.10 km/km2, 3.10–4.13 km/km2, and
low rainfall (Das and Pardeshi, 2018). The annual rainfall in the study 4.13–5.21 km/km2) (Fig. 3g). Lower drainage density was found in
area ranges from 82 to 847 mm/yr; higher values are typically seen in Rawalpindi and Bahawalpur regions and higher drainage density was
Rawalpindi and Gujranwala in the north (Fig. 3b). Topography generally found in Sargodha, Lahore, and Faisalabad due to the presence of a dense
describes land surface features, significantly influencing seepage and irrigation network.
surface runoff (Naghibi et al., 2016); typically, areas with flat topo-
graphical features allow water to move slowly, enhancing its seepage rate
3.2. Parameter to control groundwater vulnerability
into soil. Topography in the study area, generally varies between 46 and
2271 m, and is classified into five main classes (46–491 m, 491–936 m,
The seven parameters that govern groundwater vulnerability of an
936–1381 m, 1381–1826 m, and 1826–2271 m) (Fig. 3c). Soil texture
area are described here. Fig. 4a–g illustrates the thematic layers prepared
generally influences the infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity, and soil
to evaluate the VI. Depth to water table (D) is the vertical distance or
permeability, which in turn plays an important role in recharge poten-
depth of soil media; greater depth to the groundwater water table implies
tiality. Coarse sandy soil has a greater infiltration rate as compared to
a longer travelling path for contaminants, and hence lower groundwater
clay soil. The five main classes in the soil texture map are sandy, loamy
vulnerability. The depth to the water table in the study area varies from
sandy, loamy, loamy clay, and rocks outcrops (Fig. 3d). The geomor-
0.17 to 37.79 m (Fig. 4a). The depth to the water table was found to be
phological map of the study area has six classes; they are plain terraces,
higher in Multan and Khanewale regions, while the minimum was at
sand dunes, river plains, piedmonts plains, hill rocks, and deserts
Rajan-pur and Dera-Ghazi Khan. Net recharge (R) affects groundwater
(Fig. 3e). In the study area, plain terraces comprise irrigated and flood
aquifers through the downward leakage of contaminants in affected soils
plain regions which have high aquifer recharge capabilities. Sand dunes
and contaminated regions. Net recharge in the study area varies from
account for vast stretches of the lower south region (Bahawalpur), and
10.76 to 29.46 mm/yr (Fig. 4b). The north and central regions of Punjab
11% of the total study area; the upper north region of the study area is
received maximum recharge, while the southern part (Rahim Yar Khan)
mountainous, and is categorized as piedmonts and rock plains. Fig. 3f is a
received minimum recharge. Maximum recharge values may be corelated
permeability map of soil in the study area; it varies between 30 and 600
with high rainfall.
cm/day (Bonsor et al., 2017). Higher values of permeability are typical of
The aquifer media (A) in Punjab is generally alluvial sediment, where
the Bahawalpur and Sargodha regions, associated with the presence of
groundwater persists in alluvial deposits of sand and silt which exist up to
sandy and sandy-loam particles (Schmid et al., 2017).
depths of ~300 m. Sediment variations in Lower Indus Basin, Punjab are
The drainage density of surface water channels is a commonly used
generally categorized as: channel to inter-channel deposits (sand and silt
parameter for assessing potential recharge zones as seepage from these
deposits), alluvium grain, and distribution of the Pleistocene–Holocene
water channels contributes to subsurface recharge and an increase in
alluvium (Fig. 1). Coarse sand and silt deposits comprise inter-channel de-
groundwater potential (Boughariou et al., 2015; Iqbal et al., 2016; Khan
posits, while Holocene alluvium is generally comprised of predominantly
et al., 2018; Das, 2019). Therefore, a higher channel density contributes
medium-sand-size to silt deposits (Bonsor et al., 2017). Fig. 4c illustrates the
to a higher groundwater recharge potential. The drainage density map of
aquifer characteristics in Punjab. Soil media (S) characteristics influence the

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downward movement of contaminants through water seepage. Soil media study highlights the most appropriate zones for groundwater recharge,
with a greater proportion of sand can move contaminants towards the only further assessments can help determine water transportation tech-
groundwater table with greater rate than the clay media. The four classes of niques, quantity of water to be transported, the exact location of recharge
soil media in the study area are sandy, loamy sandy, loamy, and loamy clay structures and their techno-economic feasibility.
(Fig. 4d). The topography parameter (T) represents the slope, or change in
elevation over a fixed distance, of the land surface. Topography determines
3.5. Validation of PRI and VI maps
whether pollutants will infiltrate the soil or move away through surface
runoff, etc. Areas with higher slopes have higher runoff potential and lower
In this study, the output maps for vulnerability index and potential
pollution infiltration capacity (Aller et al., 1987). The slope in the study area
recharge index were validated separately using the area under the curve
varies from 0 to 44 % rise, and is classified into five main classes: 0–1.2,
(AUC) methods. In Fig. 7, the validation curve for the AUC derived for
1.2–4.8, 4.8–10.5, 10.5–18.5, and 18.5–44 % rise (Fig. 4e). The impact of
groundwater vulnerability (VI) and potential recharge index (PRI) is
the vadose zone (I) influences the probability of contaminants travelling
derived from original weights and rating values (Fig. 7a) and modified-
from the ground surface into the sub-surface. In the study area, the value of
AHP-weights and modified FR-rates (Fig. 7b). In the case of PRI, the
vadose zones varies from 2 (low) to 7 (high) (Fig. 4f). A higher value for
AUC value was found to be 71% with original weights and rating values,
vadose zones exhibits the presence of coarse sand media with high
and 79% when rates and weights were modified using the FR and AHP
permeability and a shallow water table which increases the chances of
techniques respectively. Similar results were obtained from groundwater
groundwater vulnerability. Hydraulic conductivity (C) affects the trans-
vulnerability mapping. The higher value of AUC indicates the strong
mission of contaminants into the subsurface. Higher the hydraulic con-
performance of the techniques used in this study to identify groundwater
ductivity (C), greater will be the ease with which contaminants move
recharge zones and vulnerable zones. Two recent studies (Razandi et al.,
through the aquifer. Hydraulic conductivity in the study area varies from
2015; Das and Pardeshi, 2018) also determined that the FR provided
1.41  103 to 32.7  103 m/s (Fig. 4g). Similar values for hydraulic
better results when compared with selective, knowledge, and
conductivity within the Punjab province domain were used by Ahmad
opinion-based techniques. Apart from the AUC method, the groundwater
(2002), Jehangir et al. (2002), Arshad et al. (2013), and Akhter and Hasan
potential recharge map can also be validated by analyzing seasonal
(2016).
changes in the depth to the water table (Fig. 8). Here the sites marked in
red are where the pre-monsoon depth to the water table is higher that the
3.3. Mapping groundwater potential recharge and vulnerable zones
post-monsoon depth as a result of recharge from rainfall.

In the map for the potential groundwater recharge index (PRI) and
4. Conclusions
vulnerability index (VI) (Fig. 5a and b), part (a) is derived based on
original rates and weights while (b) is derived based on FR-rates and
The increasing population and expansion of agricultural land has
AHP-weights. For the PRI computed with original weights and rating
severely exploited the groundwater resources in Punjab, Pakistan.
values, 38% of the study area shows very low to low recharge potential,
Intensive pumping has led to rapid declining of the groundwater table
37% moderate, and 25% high to very high potential recharge zones
and a deteriorating in its quality. In order to sustain this natural resource,
(Fig. 5a). When the PRI was computed with modified AHP-weights and
delineation of the most favorable recharge zones is an urgent need. In this
FR-rates, it indicated that 53% of the study area shows very low to low
study, GIS-based multi-criteria and frequency ratio techniques were used
recharge potential, 22% moderate, and 25% high to very high potential
to evaluate favorable recharge sites. Favorable groundwater recharge
recharge zones (Fig. 5b). Similarly, the vulnerability index (VI) was used
zones (FPRI) were identified by integrating the potential groundwater
to delineate vulnerable sites based on different thematic layers. The map
recharge index (PRI) and vulnerability index (VI). Different thematic
of the groundwater vulnerability index (VI) was categorized from low to
layers governing the groundwater recharge factor and groundwater
highly vulnerable zones. When derived from original DRASTIC weights
vulnerability were overlaid to develop PRI and VI maps based on weights
and rating values, the vulnerability index (VI) indicates that 17% of the
and rating values. AHP multi-criterion analysis and FR techniques were
study area shows very low to low vulnerability, 20% moderate vulner-
used to evaluate the weight and rating values for thematic layers and
ability, and 63% high to very high vulnerability (Fig. 5a). The results
their sub-classes respectively. The PRI results showed that the 24%–25%
derived from modified AHP-weights and FR-rates indicate that 38% of
area assessed in this study that was identified as showing high to very
the study area has low to low vulnerability, 33% moderate, and 29% high
high potential zones for recharge correspond to the central region of the
to very high vulnerability (Fig. 5b). The vulnerability and recharge in-
study area. VI maps indicated that 29%–63% of the total area is occupied
dexes derived from the original and modified techniques are marked by
by high to very high vulnerability zones. FPRI shown that the Gujran-
different patterns in Fig. 5.
wala, Lahore, and Multan districts of Punjab are moderate to highly
favorable for recharge potentiality due to low vulnerability risk and high
3.4. Delineating favorable potential recharge zones
recharge potential zones. After estimating PRI and VI, these maps were
validated using the area under the curve (AUC) method. In case of the
After mapping PRI and VI, both maps were combined to delineate the
PRI, the AUC value was 71% when evaluated with original weights and
more favorable recharge zones. In Fig. 6a, the favorable potential
rating values, and 79% when evaluated using modified AHP-weight and
recharge index (FPRI) was derived from original weights and rating
FR-rating values. Similar results were found while evaluating the VI
value, while in Fig. 6b it is from modified AHP-weights and FR-rates. The
index. The higher value of the AUC indicates the highly successful nature
zones are categorized from least to highly favorable. The results indicate
of the techniques used in this study. A significant conclusion from this
that Gujranwala, Multan, and Lahore districts are moderate to highly
study is that modified AHP-weights and FR-rating values are effective for
favorable recharge sites with low vulnerability and potential zones for
mapping VI and PRI. Finally, FPRI maps may serve as a blueprint for
high recharge. The north and south regions are less favorable for
recharge assessment and groundwater resources management.
groundwater recharge and highly vulnerable to contamination, espe-
cially in the Bahawalpur district due to the presence of sandy dunes and
salt-affected soil. Water in favorable recharge zones can be harvested Declaration of competing interest
from rainfall or can be transported from water channels. Different har-
vesting structures i.e., rainwater harvester, small dams, spring wells, The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
percolation pond tanks, and on-farm reservoirs can be constructed near interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
water channels to transport water into the aquifer system. While this the work reported in this paper.

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