Supervisory Control and Carrier Systems

2020Handout4: Supervisory Control Circuits

4.0 Introduction
1. All of the forms of information such as (voice, data, image, video) can be
represented by electromagnetic signals. Depending on the transmission medium
and the communications environment, either analogue or digital signals can be used
to convey information.
2. Any electromagnetic signal, analogue or digital, is made up of a number of
constituent frequencies. A key parameter that characterises the signal is bandwidth,
which is the width of the range of frequencies that comprises the signal. Generally,
the greater the bandwidth of the signal, the greater is its information-carrying
capacity.
3. A major problem in designing a communications facility is taking care of
transmission impairment. The most significant impairments are attenuation,
attenuation distortion, delay distortion, and various types of noise.
The various forms of noise include thermal noise, intermodulation noise, crosstalk,
and impulse noise. For analogue signals, transmission impairments introduce
random effects that degrade the quality of the received information and may affect
intelligibility. For digital signals, transmission impairments may cause bit errors at
the receiver.
4. The designer of a communications facility must deal with four factors: the
bandwidth of the signal, the data rate that is used for digital information, the
amount of noise and other impairments, and the level of error rate that is
acceptable. The bandwidth is limited by the transmission medium and the desire to
avoid interference with other nearby signals. Because bandwidth is a scarce
resource, we would like to maximise the data rate that is achieved in a given
bandwidth. The data rate is limited by the bandwidth, the presence of impairments,
and the error rate that is acceptable.

The successful transmission of data depends on two principal factors:

1. the quality of the signal being transmitted and
2. the characteristics of the transmission medium.

Elements of a Communication System

communication system

source of
transmitter receiver user of
information
information
estimate of
channel message signal

transmitted received
signal signal

elements of a communication system

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 1
4.1 Supervisory Control Data Transmission Terminology

Data transmission occurs between a transmitter and a receiver over some transmission
medium.

Transmission media may be classified as guided or unguided. In both cases,

communication is in the form of electromagnetic waves.
In Guided Media, the waves are guided along a physical path.
Examples of guided media are twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fibre.
In Unguided Media, also called Wireless Media, electromagnetic waves are
transmitted without being guided.
Examples of unguided media are propagation through air, vacuum, and seawater.

A direct link is a transmission path between two devices in which signals propagate
directly from transmitter to receiver with no intermediate devices, other than
amplifiers or repeaters used to increase signal strength. This term can apply to both
guided and unguided media.

A guided transmission medium is point-to-point if it provides a direct link between

two devices and those devices are the only two devices sharing the medium. In a
multipoint guided configuration, more than two devices share the same medium.

A transmission may be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

In simplex transmission, signals are transmitted in only one direction. One station
transmits and the other receives.

simplex

In Simplex operation, there is no reply channel provided.

Radio and television broadcasting are simplex.

In half-duplex operation, both stations may transmit, but only one at a time.

Half-duplex is a transmission over a circuit capable of transmitting in either direction,

but only in one direction at a time.

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In full-duplex operation, both stations may transmit simultaneously. In full-duplex,
the medium is carrying signals in both directions at the same time.

Full-duplex or just duplex is characterised by simultaneous two-way independent

transmission on a circuit in both directions.

The definitions are according to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
According to the International Telecommunications Union – Telecommunications (ITU-
T), the term simplex is used to correspond to ANSI half-duplex while duplex is
used to correspond to ANSI full-duplex.

Advantages of a Full-Duplex System

1. The cable is collision-free and doubles the data capacity on the connection
2. Time is not wasted because no frames need to be retransmitted since there are no
collisions
3. End units do not have to wait for each other to finish transmitting, as send and
receive data is split between different twisted pairs
4. The data capacity is doubled and increased due to the fact that send and receive
traffic is separated

Hybrid Operation
Hybrid-Operation is an operation where a combination of one-way and two-way
circuits where one-way circuits predominate and a number of two-way circuits are
provided for overflow situations.

hybrid operation

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Frequency, Spectrum, and Bandwidth
A signal is generated by the transmitter and transmitted over a medium. The
generated signal is a function of time, but it can also be expressed as a function of
frequency. The generated signal consists of components of different frequencies.
A communication signal can be viewed in the frequency domain or in the time
domain. The frequency domain view of a signal is more important to an
understanding of data transmission than a time domain view.

Time Domain Concepts

Viewed as a function of time, an electromagnetic signal can be either analogue or
digital.
An analogue signal is one in which the signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion
over time. In other words, there are no breaks or discontinuities in the signal.

the continuous signal might represent speech

A digital signal is one in which the signal intensity maintains a constant level for
some period of time and then abruptly changes to another constant level.

the discrete signal might represent binary 1s and 0s

The simplest sort of signal is a periodic signal, in which the same signal pattern
repeats over time.

periodic signals: sine wave square wave

Mathematically, a signal s(t) is defined to be periodic if and only if

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 s(t + T) = s(t) -∞ < t < +∞

where the constant T is the period of the signal (T is the smallest value that satisfies
the equation). Otherwise, a signal is aperiodic.

The sine wave is the fundamental periodic signal. A general sine wave can be
represented by three parameters: peak amplitude (A), frequency (f), and phase (φ).
The peak amplitude is the maximum value or strength of the signal over time
typically, measured in volts.
The frequency is the rate [in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz)] at which the signal
repeats. An equivalent parameter is the period (T) of a signal, which is the amount
of time it takes for one repetition (T = 1/f)
Phase is a measure of the relative position in time within a single period of a signal.

For a periodic signal f(t), phase is the fractional part (t/T) of the period T through
which t has advanced relative to an arbitrary origin. The origin is usually taken as the
last previous passage through zero from the negative to the positive direction.

s(t) = A sin(2πft + φ)

The general sine wave can be written s(t) = A sin(2πft + φ), a sinusoid

There is a relationship between the two sine waves: one in time and one in space.
The wavelength (λ) of a signal is the distance occupied by a single cycle, or, the
distance between two points of corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles.

Assume that the signal is traveling with a velocity ⱱ.

Then the wavelength is related to the period as follows: (λ = ⱱT), also (λf = ⱱ)

Frequency Domain Concepts

In practice, an electromagnetic signal is made up of many frequencies.

Example: s(t) = [4/π) * (sin(2πft) + (1/3)sin(2π(3f)t)]

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The components of this signal are sine waves of frequencies f and 3f.

addition of frequency components (T = 1/f)

1. The second frequency is an integer multiple of the first frequency.
When all of the frequency components of a signal are integer multiples of one
frequency, the one frequency is referred to as the fundamental frequency.
2. The period of the total signal is equal to the period of the fundamental frequency.
The period of the component [sin(2πft)] is (T = 1/f) and the period of s(t) is T.

So for each signal, there is a time domain function s(t) that specifies the amplitude of
the signal at each instant in time. Similarly, there is a frequency domain function S(f)
that specifies the peak amplitude of the constituent frequencies of the signal.

The spectrum of a signal is the range of frequencies that it contains.

The absolute bandwidth of a signal is the width of the spectrum.

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Most of the energy in the signal is contained in a relatively narrow band of frequencies.
This band is referred to as the effective bandwidth, or just bandwidth.
If a signal includes a component of zero frequency, that component is a dc
component (dc) or constant component
With no dc component, a signal has an average amplitude of zero. With a dc
component, it has a frequency term at (f = 0) and a nonzero average amplitude.

Relationship between Data Rate and Bandwidth

Effective bandwidth is the band within which most of the signal energy is
concentrated. Thus, although a given waveform may contain frequencies over a very
broad range, as a practical matter any transmission system (transmitter plus medium
plus receiver) will be able to accommodate only a limited band of frequencies. This,
in turn, limits the data rate that can be carried on the transmission medium.

addition of Frequency Components (T = 1/f) Frequency Components of Square Wave (T = 1/f)

Case I: Bandwidth = 4 MHz, data rate = 2 Mbps

Case II: Bandwidth = 8 MHz, data rate = 4 Mbps
Case III: Bandwidth = 4 MHz, data rate = 4 Mbps

Conclusions:
1. In general, any digital waveform will have infinite bandwidth.
If we attempt to transmit this waveform as a signal over any medium, the
transmission system will limit the bandwidth that can be transmitted.
2. For any given medium the greater the bandwidth transmitted, the greater the cost.
2.1 Economic and practical reasons dictate that digital information be approximated
by a signal of limited bandwidth.

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 2.2 Limiting the bandwidth creates distortions, which makes the task of interpreting
the received signal more difficult.
3. The more limited the bandwidth, the greater the distortion, and the greater the
potential for error by the receiver.

Direct Relationship between Data Rate and Bandwidth

1. The higher the data rate of a signal, the greater is its required effective bandwidth.
Alternatively, the greater the bandwidth of a transmission system, the higher is the
data rate that can be transmitted over that system.

2. If we think of the bandwidth of a signal as being centred about some frequency

(the centre frequency), then the higher the centre frequency, the higher the
potential bandwidth and therefore the higher the potential data rate.

Example: if a signal is centred at 2 MHz,

its maximum potential bandwidth is 4 MHz

4.2 Communication Model

The fundamental purpose of a communications system is the exchange of data
between two parties. The communication may be between a workstation and a server
over a public telephone network or it may be an exchange of voice signals between
two telephones over a public telephone network.

general block diagram

an example

Key Elements of the Model

1. Source
The source generates the data to be transmitted.
Examples are telephones and personal computers

2. Transmitter
The transmitter transforms and encodes the data generated by a source system in
such a way as to produce electromagnetic signals that can be transmitted across
some transmission system.

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 Example: a modem takes a digital bit stream from an attached device such as a
personal computer and transforms that bit stream into an analogue signal that can
be handled by the telephone network.

3. Transmission System
This can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting source and
destination.

4. Receiver
The receiver accepts the signal from the transmission system and converts it into a
form that can be handled by the destination device.
Example: a modem will accept an analogue signal coming from a network or
transmission line and convert it into a digital bit stream.

5. Destination
Takes the incoming data from the receiver.

Associated Terminology

Transmission System Utilisation refers to the need to make efficient use of

transmission facilities that are typically shared among a number of communicating
devices. Various multiplexing techniques are used to allocate the total capacity of a
transmission medium among a number of users.
Congestion control techniques may be required to assure that the system is not
overwhelmed by excessive demand for transmission services.
To communicate, a device must interface with the transmission system. All the forms
of communication depend on the use of electromagnetic signals propagated over a
transmission medium.
Once an interface is established, signal generation is required for communication.

Properties of the Signal

The form and intensity of the signal must
1. be capable of being propagated through the transmission system, and
2. be interpretable as data at the receiver
3. conform to the requirements of the transmission system and receiver

For successful communication

1. there must be some form of synchronisation between transmitter and receiver
2. the receiver must be able to determine when a signal begins to arrive and when it
ends
3. the receiver must know the duration of each signal element
4. there is a requirement for communication exchange management between the
two communicating parties. If data are to be exchanged in both directions over a
period of time, the two parties must cooperate.

In all communications systems, there is a potential for error because transmitted

signals are distorted to some extent before reaching their destination.

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Error Detection and Correction are required in circumstances where errors cannot
be tolerated. This is usually the case with data processing systems.
For example, in transferring a file from one computer to another, it is not acceptable
for the contents of the file to be accidentally altered.
Flow Control is required to assure that the source does not overwhelm the
destination by sending data faster than they can be processed and absorbed.

Message Addressing and Routing

1. When more than two devices share a transmission facility, a source system must
indicate the identity of the intended destination.
2. The transmission system must assure that the destination system, and only that
system, receives the data.
3. The transmission system may itself be a network through which various paths may
be taken.
4. A specific route through the network must be chosen

Recovery techniques are needed in situations in which an information exchange, such

as a database transaction or file transfer, is interrupted due to a fault somewhere in
the system. The objective is either to be able to resume activity at the point of
interruption or at least to restore the state of the systems involved to the condition
prior to the beginning of the exchange.

Message Formatting has to do with an agreement between two parties as to the

form of the data to be exchanged or transmitted
Example: the binary code for characters
It is a requirement that some measure of security is provided in a data
communications system. The sender of data may wish to be assured that only the
intended receiver actually receives the data. Also the receiver of data may wish to be
assured that the received data have not been altered in transit and that the data
actually come from the purported sender.

Need for Network Management Capabilities

1. To configure the system
2. To monitor system status
3. To react to failures and overloads
4. To plan intelligently for system expansion

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4.3 Using MODEMs in the Communication Model

The term MODEM is an acronym for Modulator-Demodulator

The telephone system, landline communication systems and radio systems cannot
directly transport digital information without some distortion in the signal due to the
bandwidth limitation inherent in the connecting medium.
The reason for the difficulty in transferring digital information over a telephone
network, for example, is the limited bandwidth inherent in the communication media,
such as telephone cable with capacitance and inductance. The bandwidth (defined as
the difference between the upper and lower allowable frequency) is typically 300 Hz
to 3400 Hz for telephone cable.

There are two types of modem:

1. Dumb (or non-intelligent) modems depend on the computer to which they are
connected, for instructions on when to perform most of the tasks such as answering
the telephone.
2. Smart modems have an on-board microprocessor which enables them to perform
such functions as automatic dialing and the method of modulation to use.

It is a conversion device which is designed to enable digital signals to be carried on

an analogue transmission medium.
The modulator portion of the modem converts the digital signals generated by
computers and terminals into analogue tones for transmission over telephone network
analogue facilities.
The demodulator portion of the modem receives transmitted analogue tones and
reconverts them to their original digital signal format.
Thus the modulator of a modem can be considered to be the transmission component
of a transmission system, while the demodulator can be considered to be the receiver
in the transmission system.
Modems allow for communication between computers in much the same way a
telephone allows for communication between humans.
Fundamentally, an analogue modem converts the digital signals from a computer to
analogue signals that are transmitted over voice-grade access to the Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN).

Flow Control Signalling

Flow Control techniques are used in modem communications to ensure that there will
be no overflow of data by the device receiving a stream of characters, which it is
temporarily unable to process, or store.
The receiving device uses flow control to signal to the transmitter to temporarily cease
sending characters down the line.
Flow Control is implemented in both software and in hardware.

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1. XON/XOFF Signalling: implemented in software
When the modem decides that it has too much data arriving, it sends an XOFF
character to the connected terminal to tell it to stop transmitting characters.
The sending terminal is advised to stop transmitting characters when the modem
memory buffer fills up to 66% full. This delay in transmission of characters by the
terminal allows the modem to process the data in its memory buffer.
Once the data has been processed (and the memory buffer has emptied to 33%
full, the modem sends an XON character to the terminal and transmission of data
to the modem then resumes.
XON and XOFF are two defined ASCII characters DC1 and DC3 respectively.
These characters (DC1 and DC3) are reserved for control purposes. They should be
removed from the standard stream of information transmitted.

2. ENQ/ACK: implemented in software

The terminal sends an ENQ control character to the modem when it wants to
transmit a finite block of data.
When the modem is ready to receive characters it transmits an ACK which then
allows the terminal to commence transmission of this block of data.
The process is repeated for subsequent blocks of data.

3. RTS/CTS Signalling: implemented in hardware

This technique of flow control is for hardware handshaking.
When the terminal wants to transmit data to the modem, it asserts the request to
send (RTS) line and waits for the modem to assert the clear to send (CTS) line
before transmitting.
When the modem is unable to process any further characters it switches off (or
inhibits) the CTS control line. The terminal device then stops transmitting characters
until the CTS line is asserted again.

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4.4 Using the UART/USART in Asynchronous Communication
UART stands for Universal Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter
USART stands for Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter

The UART/USART:
1. translates data from parallel to serial form and vice versa
2. is an integrated circuit used for serial communications over a computer or peripheral
device serial port
3. performs serial‐to‐parallel conversion on data characters received from the
communication link and parallel‐to‐serial conversion on data characters sent to the
communication link
4. is used in conjunction with communication standards such as EIA, RS‐232, RS‐422
or RS‐485

TIA/EIA 232 DB9S interface RS422/485 interface

Main Differences: RS-232, RS-422 and RS-485

port name
characteristic RS-232 RS-422 RS-485
transfer type full duplex full duplex half-duplex (2 wires)
full-duplex (4 wires)
maximum distance 15 meters at 9600 bps 1200 meters at 9600 1200 meters at 9600
bps bps
contacts in use TxD, RxD, RTS, CTS, TxA, TxB, RxA, RxB, DataA, DataB, GND
DTR, DSR, DCD, GND* GND
topology Point-to-Point Point-to-Point Multi-point
maximum number of 1 1 (10 in receiver mode) 32 (with repeaters
connected devices up to 256)

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Typical connection details of the UART

The main purpose of the UART is to prepare the 8-bit parallel output of a
microprocessor for asynchronous serial data communication. The timing pulses are
derived from the microprocessor master clock through external connections.

UART Transmitting Process

The UART:
1. Sets the baud rate at the transmitter
2. Accepts character bits from microprocessor as a parallel group
3. Generates a start bit
4. Adds the data bits in a serial group
5. Determines the parity and adds a parity bit (if required)
6. Ends transmission with a stop bit (sometimes 2 stop bits)
7. Then signals the microprocessor that it is ready for the next character
8. Coordinates handshaking when required

The UART has a separate signal line for transmit (TX) and one for receive (RX) so that
it can operate in the full-duplex or a half-duplex mode.
The Control connections of the UART provide hardware signals for handshaking.
Handshaking is a process of synchronising the two devices at the end of a data
communications link.

UART Receiving Process

The UART:
1. Sets the baud rate at the receiver
2. Recognises the start bit
3. Reads the data bits in a serial group
4. Reads the parity bit and checks the parity
5. Recognises the stop bit(s)
6. Transfers the character as a parallel group to the microprocessor for further
processing
7. Coordinates handshaking when required
8. Checks for data errors and flags the error bit in the status register

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The UART transparently removes the burden of programming the above routines in
the microprocessor.

Direct DTE cable – DCE (computer modem)

Null-cable DCE – DCE (computer modem)

The UART/USART is a full-duplex programmable device used for synchronous and

asynchronous serial communication.

In asynchronous communications each character is encoded with a start bit at the

beginning of the character bit stream and a parity and stop bit at the end of the
character bit stream. The receiver then synchronises with each character received by
looking out for the start bit. Once the character has been received, the
communications link returns to the idle state and the receiver watches out for the next
start bit (indicating the arrival of the next character).
In asynchronous serial communication serial data is transferred one bit at a time. A
character is transmitted whenever it is available. The time interval between two
characters is variable, but the time interval between bits is fixed. When no character
is available for transmission, the line is idle.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 15
 format of a typical serial asynchronous data message

asynchronous transmission of a few characters

In synchronous character transmission, one character is followed immediately by

another. Synchronous communication relies on all characters being sent in a
continuous bit stream.

synchronous communications protocol

The first few bytes in the message contain synchronisation data which allows the
receiver to synchronise onto the incoming bit stream. Hereafter synchronisation is
maintained by a timing signal or clock. The receiver follows the incoming bit stream
and maintains a close synchronisation between the transmitter clock and the receiver
clock.
Whenever another data character is not immediately ready for transmission, the
transmitter repeatedly sends a special synchronising character until it can transmit the
next data character.
Synchronous communications provides for far higher speeds of transmission of data,
but is avoided in many systems because of the greater technical complexity of the
communications hardware.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 16
Advantages: Synchronous Transmission v Asynchronous Transmission
1. Synchronous character transmission eliminates the non-information-carrying start
and stop bits associated with asynchronous transfers
2. Synchronous character transmission allows faster data transmission

Operation of Synchronous Transmission

1. In synchronous transmission, the data received is a continuous stream of bits with
no indication of character boundaries.
2. The receiver operates in a hunt mode – making a bit-by-bit comparison of the
input stream with the stored values of the desired synch character – until it detects
the synch character(s).
3. Once the synch character(s) is detected, the receiver treats each subsequent group
on n bits as a character.
4. The transmitter continues to send characters in order to maintain synchronisation,
even if the source of data characters does not have data ready for transmission.
In this case, the transmitter sends the synch code or code for null character. Thus
the time interval between two characters is fixed.
5. The clocks in the transmitter and receiver operate at exactly the same frequency
and must be very stable in order to maintain synchronisation for a long period of
time.

4.5 Supervisory Control Interface Circuits

Taxonomy of Transmission Methods

Serial: one bit at a time

Parallel: multiple bits at a time

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Parallel and Serial Data Transmission
Binary bits can be moved from one place to another either in serial or in parallel.
In serial communication bits are transmitted from one place to another one bit at a
time.
In parallel communication all bits of a word are transmitted from one place to another
simultaneously.

Parallel Transfer

parallel data transmission

In parallel data transfers, all the bits of a code word are transferred simultaneously.
The binary word to be transmitted is usually loaded into a register containing one flip-
flop for each bit. Each flip-flop output is connected to a wire to carry that bit to the
receiving circuit, which is usually also a storage register.
In parallel data transmission, there is one wire for each bit of information to be
transmitted. Multiple parallel lines that carry binary data are referred to as a data
bus. All eight lines are referenced to a common ground wire.

Characteristics of Parallel Data Transmission

1. Parallel data transmission is extremely fast because all the bits of the data word are
transferred simultaneously.
The speed of parallel transfer depends on the propagation delay in the sending and
receiving logic circuits and any time delay introduced by the cable.
2. Parallel data transmission is not practical for long-distance communication.
To transfer an 8-bit data word from one place to another, eight separate
communication channels are needed, one for each bit.
3. Although multi-wire cables can be used over limited distances for long-distance data
communication, they are impractical because of cost and signal attenuation. Parallel
data transmission by radio would be even more complex and expensive, because
one transmitter and receiver would be required for each bit.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 18
4. The capacitance and inductance of the bus lines severely distort the pulse signals.
Reducing the line length decreases the inductance and capacitance, permitting
higher speeds.
5. Crosstalk between the lines also limits the speed.
6. Serial data transfer helps achieve higher rates

Serial Transfer
Relatively high data rate transfers are achievable by using serial communication
systems where each bit of a word is transmitted one after another.

serial data transmission

This figure shows the code 10011101 being transmitted 1 bit at a time.
The least significant bit (LSB) is transmitted first, and the most significant bit (MSB)
last. The MSB is on the right, indicating that it was transmitted later in time than the
LSB. Each bit is transmitted for a fixed interval of time t.
The voltage levels representing each bit appear on a single data line (with respect to
ground) one after another until the entire word has been transmitted.
Example: the bit interval of 10 μs, means that the voltage level for each bit in the
word appears for 10 μs.
It would therefore take 80 μs to transmit an 8-bit word.

Serial-Parallel Conversion
Both parallel and serial transmission occur in computers and other equipment. One of
the techniques used for converting between parallel and serial and vice versa is the
use of shift registers.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 19
 parallel-to-serial and serial-to-parallel data transfers with shift registers

A shift register is a sequential logic circuit made up of a number of flip-flops

connected in cascade.
The flip-flops are capable of storing a multi-bit binary word, which is usually loaded in
parallel into the transmitting register.
When a clock pulse (CP) is applied to the flip-flops, the bits of the word are shifted
from one flip-flop to another in sequence. The last (right-hand) flip-flop in the
transmitting register ultimately stores each bit in sequence as it is shifted out.
The serial data word is then transmitted over the communication link and is received
by another shift register. The bits of the word are shifted into the flip-flops one at a
time until the entire word is contained within the register. The flip-flop outputs can
then be observed and the data stored in them transferred in parallel to other circuits.
These serial-parallel data transfers take place inside the interface circuits and are
referred to as serialiser/deserialiser (SERDES) devices.
Serial data can be transmitted faster over longer distances than parallel data.
If a two-wire transmission line is used, rather than multiple interconnecting wires,
speeds over 2 GHz can be achieved over a serial link up to several feet long.
If the serial data is converted to infrared light pulses, fibre-optic cable can be used.

AUTHOR: UCHIYABU 20
Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission

Asynchronous: line is idle when not in use. Data starts at arbitrary time

Synchronous: each bit slot used

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