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Lecture 4
Measures of Central Tendency

Prepared By: Abbas Khan

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M e a s u r e s of C e n t e r

 A s t a t i s t i c is a characteristic or measure obtained by

using the data values from a sample.
 A parameter is a characteristic or measure obtained by
using all the data values from a specific population.
 Statistical procedures used to summarise, organise, and
simplify data. This process should be carried out in such a
way that reflects overall findings
 Raw data is made more manageable
 Raw data is presented in a logical form
 Patterns can be seen from organised data
 Frequency tables
 Graphical techniques
 Measures of Central tendency
 Measures of Spread (variability)

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Descriptive Measures

• Central Tendency Measure: They are computed to give a

“center” around which the measurements in the data are
distributed. (Average/Mean/Median).

• Variation or Variability Measure: They describe “data spread”

or how far away the measurements are from the center.

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Measures of Central Tendency/Measure of

Location
 Mean:

Sum of all measurements divided by the number of measurements.

 Median:

A number such that at most half of the measurements are below it and
at most half of the measurements are above it.
 Mode:

The most frequent measurement in the data.

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The Mean (Ungrouped Data)

The mean, also known as the arithmetic average, is the sum of the
values, divided by the total number of values. The symbol X¯
represents the sample mean.

X1 + X 2 + X 3 + · · · + X n
X̄ = =
n n
where n represents the total number of values in the sample. For a
population, the Greek letter µ (mu) is used for the mean

X1 + X 2 + X 3 + · · · + X N
µ= =
N N
where N represents the total number of values in the population

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Example: Days Off per Year

The data represent the number of days off per year for a sample of
individuals selected from nine different countries. Find the mean

20, 26, 40, 36, 23, 42, 35, 24, 30

Solution:
20 + 26 + 40 + 36 + 23 + 42 + 35 + 24 + 30 276
X¯= = = 30.7
9 9
Hence, the mean of the number of days off is 30.7days

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The Mean (Grouped Data)

• The procedure for finding the mean for grouped data
assumes that the mean of all the raw data values in each
class is equal to the midpoint of the class.
• In reality, this is not true, since the average of the raw
data values in each class usually will not be exactly equal
to the midpoint.
• However, using this procedure will give an acceptable
approximation of the mean, since some values fall above the
midpoint and other values fall below the midpoint for each
class, and the midpoint represents an estimate of all values
in the class.

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Mean (Grouped Data)

Example: The data represent the number of miles run during
one week for a sample of 20 runners

Class frequency f Midpoint X f ·X

5.5-10.5 1 8 8
10.5-15.5 2 13 26
15.5-20.5 3 18 54
20.5-25.5 5 23 115
25.5-30.5 4 28 112
30.5-35.5 3 33 99
35.5-40.5 2 38 76
n=20 490

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Mean (Grouped Data)

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Mean (Grouped Data)

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Mean (Grouped Data)

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Mean (Grouped Data)

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Combined Arithmetic Mean

If x1, x2, x3, · · · , xk, be the arithmetic mean of k distributions

with respective frequencies n1, n2, n3, · · · , nk, then the combined
arithmetic mean X c is defined by

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Example

The number of students in three section and the average marks

obtained by them in a paper of statistics in the ESE are as follows:

Section Average marks in statistics No. of students

A 75 50
B 60 60
C 50 50

Find the average marks obtained by the students of the three

sections taken together.

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Example

Solution:
Here n1 = 50, n2 = 60, n3 = 50
x1 = 75, x2 = 60, x1 = 50

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Change of Origin (Short Method)

If a certain constant say A is added to all the observations,

then we get a new set of observations
The observations can be decreased in size when a constant is
subtracted from all the observations.
This addition or subtraction of a constant is called change of
origin.
The constant may be called arbitrary origin.

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Example

The wages of 5 workers are Rs. 1950, 2000, 2050, 2060 and 2080.
Calculate the arithmetic mean by using the idea of change of
origin (short method)

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Example

Given below is the grouped data of wages of 500 workers of a

factory. Calculate the arithmetic mean by short method.
Groups Number of workers
1900-1950 60
1950-2000 180
2000-2050 185
2050-2100 65
2100-2150 10

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Geometric Mean

The geometric mean is a type of average, usually used for

growth rates, like population growth or interest rates. While the
arithmetic mean adds items, the geometric mean multiplies items.
Also, you can only get the geometric mean for positive numbers.

The geometric mean !G! of n positive values x1, x2, x3, · · · , xn is

defined as the nth root of their product. Thus, it is obtained by
multiplying together all the n values and then taking the nth root
of the product
1
G = (x1 · x2 · x3 · · · x n ) n

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Geometric Mean can be reduced into logarithmic

form

The logarithm of the geometric mean is equal to the arithmetic

mean of the logarithms of observations.

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Example

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Example

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Example

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Example
Calculate the geometric mean from the following observations:
9.7, 0.0009, 178.7, 0.874, and 1238.
Solution:
xi logxi
9.7 0.9868
0.0009 -3.0458
178.7 2.2521
0.874 -0.0585
1238 3.0927

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If the positive values x1, x2, x3, · · · , xn occurs f 1 , f 2 , f 3 , · · · , f n

times respectively, then geometric mean G is defined by
1
G = (x f11 · xf22 · x3f 3 · · · xnf n ) N
where N = f 1 + f 2 + f 3 + · · · + f n
or

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Example

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Example

Calculate the geometric mean for the following distribution

Weights Frequency
100-104 24
105-109 30
110-114 45
115-119 65
120-124 72
236

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Combined Geometric Mean

If G1 and G2 are geometric means of two component having n1 and

n2 observations and Gc is the combined geometric mean of n (n =
n1 + n2) observations
1
Gc = (Gn1 1 · Gn2 )2 n

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Harmonic Mean
Harmonic mean is quotient of ”number of the given values” and
”sum of the reciprocals of the given values”.
For Ungrouped Data

Harmonic mean =

For Grouped Data

Harmonic mean =

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Example
Calculate the harmonic mean of the numbers: 13.2, 14.2, 14.8,
15.2 and 16.1
Solution:
The harmonic mean is calculated as below:

5
Harmonic mean = = 14.63
0.3417
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Example: Grouped Data

Calculate the harmonic mean for the given data:

Marks f
30-39 2
40-49 3
50-59 11
60-69 20
70-79 32
80-89 25
90-99 7

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Solution

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Median
The median of a data set is the measure of center that is the
middle value when the original data values are arranged in order
of increasing (or decreasing) magnitude.

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Median
The median of a data set is the measure of center that is the
middle value when the original data values are arranged in order
of increasing (or decreasing) magnitude.
If the number of values is odd, the median is the number
located in the exact middle of the list.
( n + 1 ) th
ordered value
2
If the number of values is even, the median is found by
computing the mean of the two middle numbers.

average of and ordered values

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Example

Monitoring Lead in Air Listed below are measured amounts of

lead in the air. Find the median for this sample

5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48 1.10

Solution:

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Example

Monitoring Lead in Air Listed below are measured amounts of

lead in the air. Find the median for this sample

5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48 1.10

Solution:
First sort the values by arranging them in order:

0.42 0.48 0.73 1.10 1.10 5.40

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Example

Monitoring Lead in Air Listed below are measured amounts of

lead in the air. Find the median for this sample

5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48 1.10

Solution:
First sort the values by arranging them in order:

0.42 0.48 0.73 1.10 1.10 5.40

0.73 + 1.10
M edian = = 0.915
2

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Example

Repeat the preceding example after including the measurement of

0.66 recorded on another day. That is, find the median of these
lead measurements:

5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48 1.10 0.66

Solution:

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Example

Repeat the preceding example after including the measurement of

0.66 recorded on another day. That is, find the median of these
lead measurements:

5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48 1.10 0.66

Solution:
First sort the values by arranging them in order:

0.42 0.48 0.66 0.73 1.10 1.10 5.40

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Example

Repeat the preceding example after including the measurement of

0.66 recorded on another day. That is, find the median of these
lead measurements:

5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48 1.10 0.66

Solution:
First sort the values by arranging them in order:

0.42 0.48 0.66 0.73 1.10 1.10 5.40

M edian = 0.73

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Median for Frequency Distribution

Suppose f 1 , f 2 , f 3 , · · · , f n are the respective frequencies of

the items x1, x2, x3, · · · , xn.
First, we calculate the cumulative frequencies
Second, we see the median number ( n+12 ) under the
cumulative frequency column.
The item which corresponds to the median number is called
median.

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Example

Given below is the frequency distribution of number of persons in

50 families in a village. Find the median as the average family size.

Number of persons Number of families

2 5
3 8
4 12
5 20
6 5

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Solution

The necessary calculations are given below:

Number of persons(x) Number of families(f) Cumulative frequency

2 5 5
3 8 13
4 12 25
5 20 45
6 5 50

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Solution

Median = V alue of ( n+1 ) th item

2
= V alue of ( 50+1
2
) th item (1)
th
= V alue of (25.5) item
= 5
Hence, average size of the family is 5 person on the basis of
median.

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Median for Grouped Data

For grouped data, we find the cumulative frequencies and

then we calculate the median number n2 .
The group which corresponds to the median number is called
median group.
The median lies in this group.

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M edian = l + h (n −c)
f 2
where
l=Lower limit of the median class
h=Size of the class interval of median class
f =Frequency of the median class
n=Sum of the frequencies
c=cummulative frequency before the median class.

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Example

Find median from the following grouped data regarding heights of

students in a college.
Heights(in inches) Number of students
56-58 25
58-60 40
60-62 250
62-64 130
64-66 60
66-68 20

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Solution

The necessary calculations are given below:

Heights(in inches) Number of students(f) Cumulative frequencies

56-58 25 25
58-60 40 65
60-62 250 315
62-64 130 445
64-66 60 505
66-68 20 525

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Solution

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Example

Calculate the median from the following data:

Groups Frequency
10-14 5
15-19 12
20-24 30
25-29 25
30-34 6

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Solution

Groups Class Boundaries Frequency C. F

10-14 9.5-14.5 5 5
15-19 14.5-19.5 12 17
20-24 19.5-24.5 30 47
25-29 24.5-29.5 25 72
30-34 29.5-34.5 6 78

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Solution

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Introduction

We have learned that the median divides a set of data into two
equal parts. In the same way, there are also certain other values
which divide a set of data into four, ten or hundred equal parts.
Such values are referred as quartiles, deciles and percentiles
respectively.

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Quartiles

There are three quartiles called (lower) first quartile Q1,

second quartile Q2 and (upper) third quartile Q3.

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Quartiles

There are three quartiles called (lower) first quartile Q1,

(middle) second quartile Q2 and (upper) third quartile
Q3 .
These quartiles divide the set of observations into four equal
parts.

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Quartiles

There are three quartiles called (lower) first quartile Q1,

second quartile Q2 and (upper) third quartile Q3.
These quartiles divide the set of observations into four equal
parts.
The second quartile is equal to median.

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Quartiles

There are three quartiles called (lower) first quartile Q1,

second quartile Q2 and (upper) third quartile Q3.
These quartiles divide the set of observations into four equal
parts.
The second quartile is equal to median.
The lower quartile Q1 is a point which has 25% observations
less than it and 75% observations are above it.

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Quartiles

There are three quartiles called (lower) first quartile Q1,

second quartile Q2 and (upper) third quartile Q3.
These quartiles divide the set of observations into four equal
parts.
The second quartile is equal to median.
The lower quartile Q1 is a point which has 25% observations
less than it and 75% observations are above it.
The upper quartile Q3 is a point with 75% observations
below it and 25% observations above it.

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Quartiles for Ungrouped Data

Quartiles for ungrouped data are calculated by the following

formulae.
(n + 1)
Q1 = V alue of th item
4
2(n + 1) (n + 1)
Q2 = V alue of th item = V alue of th item
4 2
3(n + 1)
Q3 = V alue of th item
4

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Example

Following is the data is of marks obtained by 20 students in a test

20 28 29 30 36 37 39 42 53 54
55 58 61 67 68 70 74 81 82 93

Solution:

Q1 = V alue of (n+1)
4
th item
(20+1)
= V alue of 4
th item
= 5.25th item
The value of 5th item is 36 and that of the 6th item is 37. Thus
Q1 = 36+ 0.25(37-36)
Q1 = 36.25.

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Q2 = V alue of 2(n+1)
4
th item
2(20+1)
= V alue of 4 th item
= 10.5th item
The value of the 10th item is 54 and that of the 11th item is 55.
Thus Q2 = 54 + 0.5 ∗ (55-54) = 54.5

Q3 = V alue of 3(n+1)
4
th item
3(20+1)
= V alue of 4 th item
= 15.75th item
The value of the 15th item is 68 and that of the 16th item is 70.
Thus Q3 = 68 + 0.75(70-68) = 69.5

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Quartiles for Grouped Data

The quartiles may be determined from grouped data in the

same way as the median except that in place of n we
2
will use
n.
4
For calculating quartiles from grouped data we will form
cumulative frequency column.

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where
l=Lower limit of the class
h=Size of the class interval
f =Frequency of the class
n=Sum of the frequencies
c=cummulative frequency before the class.

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Example
We will calculate the quartiles from the frequency distribution for
the weight of 120 students

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Solution

Q1 = l + fh (n4 −c)
= 139.5 + 10
28
(30 −22)
= 142.36 pounds

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Cont...

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Deciles

The values which divide an array into ten equal parts are called
deciles. Denote f irst, second, · · · , ninth deciles by
D1, D2, · · · , D9 respectively. D1 is a point which has part of
the observations below it.
The fifth decile D5 corresponds to median.

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Deciles for Ungrouped Data

Quartiles for ungrouped data are calculated by the following

formulae.
(n + 1)
D1 = V alue of th item
10
2(n + 1)
D2 = V alue of th item
10
..
9(n + 1)
D9 = V alue of th item
10

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Example

We will calculate second and seventh deciles from the following

array of data.

D2 = V alue of 2(n+1)
10
th item
2(20+1)
= 10
th item
= 4.2th item
The value of the 4th item is 30 and that of the 5th item is 36.
Thus D2 = 30 + 0.2 ∗(6) = 31.2

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D7 = V alue of 7(n+1)
10
th item
7(20+1)
= 10
th item
= 14.7th item
The value of the 14th item is 67 and that of the 15th item is 68.
Thus D7 = 67 + 0.7 ∗ (1) = 67.7

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Decile for Grouped Data

Decile for grouped data can be calculated from the following

formulae:

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Example
We will calculate fourth and ninth deciles from the frequency
distribution of weights of 120 students

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Solution

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Cont...

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Percentiles

The values which divide an array into one hundred equal

parts are called percentiles.

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Percentiles

The values which divide an array into one hundred equal

parts are called percentiles.
The f irst, second, · · · , N inety − ninth percentile are denoted
by P1, P2, · · · ,P99.

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Percentiles

The values which divide an array into one hundred equal

parts are called percentiles.
The f irst, second, · · · , N inety − ninth percentile are denoted
by P1, P2, · · · ,P99.
The 50th percentile P50 corresponds to the median.

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Percentiles

The values which divide an array into one hundred equal

parts are called percentiles.
The f irst, second, · · · , N inety − ninth percentile are denoted
by P1, P2, · · · ,P99.
The 50th percentile P50 corresponds to the median.
The 25th percentile P25 corresponds to the first quartile and
the 75th percentile P75 corresponds to the third quartile.

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Percentiles for Ungrouped Data

(n + 1)
P1 = V alue of th item
100
2(n + 1)
P2 = V alue of th item
100
..
99(n + 1)
P99 = V alue of th item
100

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Example

We will calculate fifteenth, and sixty-fourth percentile from the

following array

P15 = V alue of 15(n+1)

100
th item
15(20+1)
= 100
th item
= 3.15th item
= 29.15

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P64 = V alue of 64(n+1)

100
th item
64(20+1)
= 100
th item
= 13.44th item
= 63.64

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Percentiles for Grouped Data

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Example
We will calculate thirty-seventh, forty-fifth and ninetieth
percentile from the frequency distribution of weights of 120
students

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Solution

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From P37, P45, and P90, we have concluded or interpreted that 37%
student weigh 147.5 pounds or less. Similarly, 45% students weigh
151.1 pounds or less and 90% students weigh 182.83 pounds or
less.

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Mode

The mode of a data set is the value that occurs the greatest
number of times in a data.
When no value is repeated, we say that there is no mode.
When each value in the data set occurs the same number
of times then there is no mode.
If a data has only one mode then the distribution is said to
be unimodal.
When two values occur with the same greatest frequency,
each one is a mode and the data set is bimodal.
When more than two values occur with the same greatest
frequency, each is a mode and the data set is said to be
multimodal.
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Mode (Ungrouped Data)

Mode is calculated from the ungrouped data by

inspecting the data by inspecting the given data.
We pick out the value which occurs the greatest number
of times in the data.

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M e a s u r e s of C e n t e r Q u a r t i l e s , Deciles, P e r c e n t i l es

Example

Find the modes of the following data sets.

5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48 1.10
27 27 27 55 55 55 88 88 99
1 2 3 6 7 8 9 10

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Example

Find the modes of the following data sets.

5.40 1.10 0.42 0.73 0.48 1.10
27 27 27 55 55 55 88 88 99
1 2 3 6 7 8 9 10
Solutions:
The number 1.10 is the mode because it is the value that
occurs most often.
The numbers 27 and 55 are both modes because they occur
with the same greatest frequency. This data set is bimodal
because it has two modes.
There is no mode because no value is repeated.

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Mode (Grouped Data)

For grouped data (frequency distribution), the class with
maximum frequency is called the modal class.
The mode for grouped data can be calculated as:

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Example

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Example

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Grouped Data
Example: Find the modal class for the frequency distribution of
miles that 20 runners ran in one week

Class Frequency
5.5 − 10.5 1
10.5 −15.5 2
15.5 −20.5 3
20.5 − 25.5 5
25.5 −30.5 4
30.5 − 35.5 3
35.5 − 40.5 2

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Measure of Skewness

 Skewness refers to lack of symmetry or departure from

symmetry.
 The extent to which a distribution of data points is concentrated at
one end or the other; the lack of symmetry. The distribution may be
symmetrical. (Mean = Median = Mode) or skewed (positive or
negative).

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 A distribution of data is symmetric if the left half of its

histogram is roughly a mirror image of its right half.

 A distribution of data is skewed if it is not symmetric and extends

more to one side than the other.

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Figure: Skewed to the Left (Negatively Skewed): The mean and

median are to the left of the mode (but their order is not always
predictable)

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Figure: Symmetric (Zero Skewness): The mean, median, and mode are
the same.

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Figure: Skewed to the Right (Positively Skewed): The mean and

median are to the right of the mode (but their order is not always
predictable)

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M e a s u r e s of C e n t e r M e r i t s a n d D e m e r i t s of V a r i o u s A v e r a g e s

Arithmetic Mean

It is based on all the observations in the data.

It is easy to calculate.
It is determined for almost every kind of data.
Disadvantages
It is greatly affected by extreme values in the data.

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Arithmetic Mean

It is based on all the observations in the data.

It is easy to calculate.
It is determined for almost every kind of data.
Disadvantages
It is greatly affected by extreme values in the data.An
outlier is an extremely high or an extremely low data value
when compared with the rest of the data values.
In a highly skewed distribution, the mean is not an
appropriate measure of average.

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Geometric Mean

It is based on all the observations in the data.

It gives equal weighage to all the observations.
Disadvantages
It is not easy to calculate.
It vanishes if any observation is zero.
In case of negative values, it cannot be computed at all.

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Harmonic Mean

It is based on all the observations in the data.

Disadvantages
It cannot be calculated, if any one of the observations is zero.
It gives too much weighage to the smaller observations.

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Median

It is easy to calculate.
It is not affected by extreme values.
In a highly skewed distribution, median is an appropriate
average to use.
Disadvantages
It is not rigorously defined.
It necessitates the arrangement of data into an array which
can be tedious and time consuming for a large body of data.

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Mode

It is simply defined an easily calculated.

It is not affected by large or small observations.
It can be determined for both the quantitative and
qualitative data.
Disadvantages
It is not rigorously defined.
It is not based on all the observations.

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