Overview

Unit 5: Classical and Molecular Genetics

Topics:

Patterns of Inheritance
Genetic Material
Replication
Protein Synthesis

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this Unit, you will be able to:

1. Describe the process by which traits are inherited.

2. Describe the structure of DNA and how it dictates function.
3. Describe the process of replication.
4. Describe the process of protein synthesis.

Tasks:

Read through the Learning Guide and the Reading Assignment

Complete the Discussion Assignment by posting in the Discussion Forum
Respond to three of your fellow classmates’ posts in the Discussion Forum
Complete and submit the Learning Journal Assignment
Take and submit the Self-Quiz
 Introduction

Genetics is the study of heredity. Johann Gregor Mendel studied heredity long before genetic material was discovered to be DNA.
None-the-less, Mendel’s work laid the groundwork for understanding the process by which traits are passed on from generation to
generation. Now, we know that genes are composed of DNA and provide the genetic information cells use to synthesize proteins. The
nature of a gene is termed genotype, while the physical expression of the gene is termed phenotype.

How are traits inherited?

In eukaryotic organisms, genes are located on chromosomes. Diploid organisms have homologous chromosomes and thus each gene
has two copies – referred to as alleles. One allele is inherited from each parent. While the alleles are of the same gene, they are not
necessarily identical. Complete dominance occurs when a gene has two alleles, one dominant and the other recessive. A homozygous
dominant genotype contains two dominant alleles and results in the dominant phenotype. The homozygous recessive genotype is
composed of two recessive alleles and expresses the recessive phenotype. If an individual contains a dominant and a recessive allele,
it is heterozygous and the dominant phenotype is expressed. Most traits, however, are not inherited by such simple genetics.

Humans contain 23 pair of homologous chromosomes, one pair of sex chromosomes and twenty-two autosomes. Genes located on
the sex chromosomes (X and Y) are referred to as sex-linked genes and code for sex-linked traits. All others are referred to as
autosomal traits.

What’s in a nucleus?

Eukaryotic organisms house their genetic material (DNA) in nuclei. Prokaryotes lack organelles but contain DNA. Genes are composed
of DNA and each gene codes for a protein. Proteins, at least in part, determine the structure and function of the cell. While every cell
contains all 23 pair of chromosomes and thus every gene, not all genes function in each cell. For example, the insulin gene is active in
pancreatic cells but not muscle cells.

DNA is composed of four nucleotides – adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. Each nucleotide is composed of a sugar
(deoxyribose), a phosphate, and a nitrogenous base. The nitrogenous base identifies the nucleotide. Each DNA molecule is double-
stranded and each strand contains the same sequence of nucleotides; i.e., they are complimentary. The two strands are held together
by hydrogen bonds between the nucleotides where adenine base-pairs with thymine and cytosine base-pairs with guanine.

As you learned in the previous unit, genetic material is synthesized/replicated during the S phase of the cell cycle. Therefore, each
daughter cell contains a complete set of chromosomes and, thus, genetic material. Replication occurs in the nucleus and is catalyzed
by the enzyme DNA polymerase. During replication, double stranded DNA is separated and each strand serves as a template to make
a new strand of DNA. Polymerase follows complimentary base-pairing rules. Since each strand is identical, replicated DNA (daughter
DNA) is the same as the original (parent DNA). That is, assuming any mistakes is repaired. A mutation results from a mistake that
doesn’t get repaired.

How are proteins made?

Proteins are large macromolecules composed of amino acids. Cells are busy making proteins which are a major component of cell
structure and function. For example, most enzymes including DNA polymerase, are proteins. Proteins are contained within the cell
membrane and are used as receptors, cellular glue and transporters.

Cells make proteins from amino acid building blocks using information provided within genes. A gene contains several nucleotides in
a particular sequence; e.g., ATTGGACGTAAGC. In the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, RNA polymerase catalyzes transcription - the
synthesis of RNA using one strand of DNA (the gene) as a template. RNA, like DNA, is composed of four nucleotides – adenine,
guanine, cytosine and uracil. Note that uracil (U) replaces thymine (T). The same base-pairing rules apply to transcription but now A in
the gene codes for U in the transcript RNA. As only one strand of DNA serves as the template, RNA is single stranded, and the gene is
reused.
After transcription, the RNA is modified and shipped out of the nucleus. In the cytoplasm, ribosomes catalyze translation – the
synthesis of protein using RNA as the template. The ribosome will read three RNA nucleotides at a time. Each set of three nucleotides
is referred to as a codon and provides information for a specific amino acid. Since there are four nucleotides, there are 64 different
codons (4 x 4 x 4 = 64). Since there are only 20 amino acids, more than one codon can code for the same amino acid. In other words,
the genetic code is redundant.

Mutations can cause a change in the structure and function of a protein. Since the genetic code is redundant, not all mutations will
alter proteins. If not, it is referred to as a silent mutation.

Biology from Openstax College (2013) from Rice University retrieved from http://cnx.org/contents/185cbf87-c72e-48f5-b51e-
[email protected]:1
 Reading Assignment

This week's reading is Chapter 12.1 – 12.3 (Mendel’s Experiments and Heredity), 13.1 (Modern Understanding of Inheritance), 14 (DNA
Structure and Function), and 15 (Genes and Proteins) of the course textbook, which is accessible through the Syllabus or through the
course's "Textbooks" page.

Video Resources

If you are having difficulties grasping particular concepts from the textbook or if you want to explore them more in detail, watch these
videos about biology from Khan Academy.

Khan Academy. (2009, September 30). Introduction to heredity [Video]. YouTube. 

Introduction to Heredity

Khan Academy. (2009, September 30). Molecular structure of DNA | Macromolecules | Biology | Khan Academy [Video]. YouTube.

Molecular structure of DNA | Macromo…

Macromo…
 Discussion Assignment

In your assigned readings, you learned DNA is used as a template to synthesize new DNA. This process is referred to as replication.
Discuss the similarities and differences in DNA replication between eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Are the changes in eukaryotes
adaptations? Explain.

Be sure to use in text citation and provide references for your sources. While not required for this discussion, you may use outside
resources. Any materials cited in this course should be referenced using the APA style guidelines  Purdue University’s Online Writing
LAB (OWL) is a free website that provides excellent information and resources for understanding and using the APA format and style.
The OWL website can be accessed here: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

After posting your discussion on the forum, briefly comment in a constructive manner to at least three of your peer's
postings. In your comments, you may for instance refer to how your own experience supports/contradicts the opinions developed by
your peers. You may also ask for more detailed examples supporting these opinions, if you think they are too general or not rooted
enough in personal experience. In particular, make sure that the examples provided are properly referenced and that you are able to
access them. Overall, your comments should contribute positively to the conversation by broadening or clarifying it.

Discussion Forum Rating Guidelines:

10 (A) - Excellent, substantial, relevant, insightful, enriching, and stimulating contribution to the discussion. Also, uses external
resources to support position where required and/or applicable.

8 - 9 (B) - Good, quite substantial and insightful, but missing minor details which would have otherwise characterized it as an
excellent response.
6 - 7 (C) - Satisfactory insight and relevance, but required some more information and effort to have warranted a better rating.
4 - 5 (D) - Limited insight and relevance of the material; more effort and reflection needed to have warranted a satisfactory grading.

0 - 3 (F) - Unsatisfactory insight/relevance or failure to answer the question, reflecting a poor or limited understanding of the subject
matter and/or the guidelines of the question.
 Learning Journal

Testing the Hypothesis of Independent Assortment

A monohybrid cross considers the inheritance of a single trait. To better appreciate the amount of labor and ingenuity that went into
Mendel’s experiments, proceed through one of Mendel’s dihybrid crosses. 
Background: Consider that pea plants mature in one growing season, and you have access to a large garden in which you can
cultivate thousands of pea plants. There are several true-breeding plants with the following pairs of traits: tall plants with inflated
pods, and dwarf plants with constricted pods. Before the plants have matured, you remove the pollen-producing organs from the
tall/inflated plants in your crosses to prevent self-fertilization. Upon plant maturation, the plants are manually crossed by transferring
pollen from the dwarf/constricted plants to the stigmata of the tall/inflated plants. 

Hypothesis: Both trait pairs will sort independently according to Mendelian laws. When the true-breeding parents are crossed, all of
the F1 offspring are tall and have inflated pods, which suggests that the tall and inflated traits are dominant while the dwarf and
constricted traits are recessive. A self-cross of the F1 heterozygotes results in 2,000 F2 progeny. 

Test the hypothesis: Because each trait pair sorts independently, the ratios of tall:dwarf and inflated:constricted are each expected to
be 3:1. The tall/dwarf trait pair is called T/t, and the inflated/constricted trait pair is designated I/i. Each member of the F1 generation
therefore has a genotype of TtIi. Construct a grid analogous to Figure 12.16 found in the textbook, in which you cross two TtIi
individuals. Each individual can donate four combinations of two traits: TI, Ti, tI, or ti, meaning that there are 16 possibilities of
offspring genotypes. Because the T and I alleles are dominant, any individual having one or two of those alleles will express the tall or
inflated phenotypes, respectively, regardless if they also have a t or i allele. Only individuals that are tt or ii will express the dwarf and
constricted alleles, respectively. As shown in Figure 12.19 in your textbook, you predict that you will observe the following offspring
proportions: 

tall/inflated: tall/constricted: dwarf/inflated: dwarf/constricted in a 9:3:3:1 ratio. 

Notice from the grid that when considering the tall/dwarf and inflated/constricted trait pairs in isolation, they are each inherited in 3:1
ratios as expected with a monohybrid cross. 

Figure 12.19 in your textbook shows all possible combinations of offspring resulting from a dihybrid cross of pea plants that are
heterozygous for the tall/dwarf and inflated/constricted alleles. 

Compose a response to the following questions. Explain your answer using, and fully explaining, the genetic terms and concepts
discussed in this week’s Learning Guide. Use headers to label each part of your experiment and/or use sentences to introduce each
section.  

Test the hypothesis: You cross the dwarf and tall plants and then self-cross the offspring. For best results, this is repeated with
hundreds or even thousands of pea plants. What special precautions should be taken in the crosses and in growing the plants? 
Analyze your data: You observe the following plant phenotypes in the F2 generation: 2706 tall/inflated, 930 tall/constricted, 888
dwarf/inflated, and 300 dwarf/constricted. Reduce these findings to a ratio and determine if they are consistent with Mendelian laws. 

Form a conclusion: Were the results close to the expected 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio? Do the results support the prediction? What
might be observed if far fewer plants were used, given that alleles segregate randomly into gametes? Try to imagine growing that
many pea plants, and consider the potential for experimental error. For instance, what would happen if it was extremely windy one
day? 
 Self-Quiz

The Self-Quiz gives you an opportunity to self-assess your knowledge of what you have learned so far.

The results of the Self-Quiz do not count towards your final grade, but the quiz is an important part of the University’s learning
process and it is expected that you will take it to ensure understanding of the materials presented. Reviewing and analyzing your
results will help you perform better on future Graded Quizzes and the Final Exam.

Please access the Self-Quiz on the main course homepage; it will be listed inside the Unit.
 Checklist

Read through the Learning Guide and the Reading Assignment

Complete the Discussion Assignment by posting in the Discussion Forum

Respond to three of your fellow classmates’ posts in the Discussion Forum

Complete and submit the Learning Journal Assignment

Take and submit the Self-Quiz