JSS MAHAVIDYAPEETHA

PHYSICS LABORATORY MANUAL

B.TECH I YEAR
Semester-I/II

Academic Year 2021-22

Name
Admission No.
Group/Branch/Section

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS
JSS ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION
C-20/1, SECTOR-62, NOIDA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 1

 JSS ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, NOIDA
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

VISION OF THE INSTITUTE

JSS Academy of Technical Education Noida aims to become an Institution

of excellence in imparting quality Outcome Based Education that empowers
the young generation with Knowledge, Skills, Research, Aptitude and
Ethical values to solve Contemporary Challenging Problems.

MISSION OF THE INSTITUTE

a. Develop a platform for achieving globally acceptable level of intellectual

acumen and technological competence.
b. Create an inspiring ambience that raises the motivation level for
conducting quality research.
c. Provide an environment for acquiring ethical values and positive
attitude.

VISION OF THE DEPARTMENT

To be a centre of excellence for teaching and interdisciplinary research to

develop innovative and high caliber scientific and technological manpower
with world class understanding of applied physics.

MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

• To impart knowledge in applied physics through well equipped physical

& virtual Laboratory.
• To promote collaborative research with other engineering disciplines
thereby contributing to enhancement of knowledge.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 2

 PHYSICS LABORATORY

COURSE OBJECTIVE (KAS151P/KAS251P)

The experiments in the physics lab are aimed to verifying a principle, calculating a

parameter or observing a phenomenon.

The expected results are already known, hence the student is not being trained to be

an original investigator, but he/she is merely taught the skills and techniques of scientific

investigation.

COURSE OUTCOME

CO1 Examine different parameters of semiconductors using four probes method.

CO2 Interpret black body radiation, electrochemical equivalent, variation of magnetic

field along a current carrying circular coil and specific resistance measurement
using electrical method.

CO3 Implement the concept of Interference using Newton’s rings experiment,

Diffraction using Grating and Polarization through determination of Optical activity
by Half shade Polarimeter.

CO4 Relate Physical optics with nodal slide assembly and optical fibre setup.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 3

 PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

Engineering Graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,

engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering
problems and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs
with appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge
and research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of
data, and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources,
and modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of the engineering practice.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 4

 9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a
member or leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities
with the engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to
comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective
presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding
of the engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as
a member and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary
environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability
to engage in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of
technological change.

CO-PO mapping
Cos PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

CO1 3 2 1 1 3 2

CO2 3 2 1 1 3 2

CO3 3 2 1 1 3 2

CO4 3 2 1 1 3 2

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 5

 JSS ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, NOIDA
PHYSICS LABORATORY
List of Experiments
Paper Code-KAS151P/KAS251P
S. No. Experiment Corresponding
CO
1. To determine the energy band gap of a given CO1
semiconductor material.
2. To study the variation of magnetic field along the axis of CO2
current carrying coil and then to estimate the radius of coil.
3. To verify the Stefan’s law by electrical method. CO2
4. To determine the specific resistance of a given wire using CO2
Carey foster’s bridge.
5. To determine the wavelength of monochromatic light by CO3
Newton’s ring.
6. To determine the focal length of two lenses by nodal slide CO4
and locate the position of cardinal points.
7. To determine the specific rotation of cane sugar solution CO3
using Polarimeter.
8. To determine the Electro Chemical Equivalent of copper CO2
using a Tangent Galvanometer (TG).
9. To determine the wavelength of spectral lines using plane CO3
transmission grating.
10. To determine the numerical aperture of an optical fibre. CO4

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 6

 JSS ACADEMY OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION, NOIDA
PHYSICS LABORATORY

INTRODUCTION

There is a symbiotic relationship between Physics and Engineering. The

present day technological developments have been result of joint efforts of
Physicists and Engineers. A proper study along with experimental skill of
Physics is therefore indispensable for an engineering student to excel in this
field.
The department of Physics is providing a sound Physics background,
which is required for all engineering disciplines. The department has a well
equipped laboratory for B.Tech. Students, where experiments are designed
to broaden experimental skill related to various branches of engineering and
technology. If this manual can serve its purpose, we would consider our
efforts to be worthwhile.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 7

 PREFACE

This manual of Physics laboratory has been specifically designed for the
B.Tech. I year students with the objective to provide the students brief
guidelines on the experiment to be performed in laboratory. Detailed
instructions for carrying out each experiment along with relevant theory has
been presented. We hope that the students will find this manual helpful in
performing the experiment in Physics Laboratory.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 8

 Specific Instructions for students
1. Laboratory work is an important part of the course. Satisfactory completion of it is
required. Your performance in the laboratory is taken into account in evaluating the
performance in the course. The laboratory grade is based on your performance in the
weekly session, the reports you write & on your performance in the laboratory work.

2. In the beginning of the semester students will be allotted groups (eg. 1A, 1B,2A etc.) .
According to AKTU curriculum there are ten experiments that have to be performed.
These experiments are to be performed in cyclic orders.

3. Before coming to the lab you should carefully read the instruction given for
performing the experiment. Students have to come prepared to the lab with the following
items:
i) Lab manual, lab report file, graph sheets if necessary.
ii) Calculated result and graphs for the previously performed experiment and complete
lab record file for evaluation.
iii) Stationary items, calculator, specially torch for the dark room experiment.

4. After the completion of your data recording, switch off any power supply etc. used and
put back the components of the apparatus in their proper places. Please handle the
instruments with care and maintain utmost discipline and decorum in the lab. Complete
the rest of the relevant calculations.

5. All work must be done in pen (except circuit diagram & graph). You should complete
all experimental work during the lab. No rough record is allowed. Before you leave the
lab you must get the faculty signature on your report sheet.

6. Format for extra lab is given. To perform experiment in extra lab students have to fill
that form and submit it in Physics Lab.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 9

 The format of a lab report/file
(a) The first sheet will contain your name, branch name; roll number, date and title of the
experiment. The subsequent sheets will contain the followings in that order.
(b) The objective of the experiment, apparatus needed, and a brief theory with working
formulas and figures or diagrams whenever necessary.
(c) Experimental observations. Data from experimental observations should be recorded
in proper tabular format with well documented headings for the columns. The data tables
should be preceded by the least counts of the instruments used to take the data and
numerical value of any constant, if any, used in the table.
(d) Graphs whenever applicable.
(e) Relevant calculations, error analyses.
(f) Final results along with error estimates.
(g) Remarks if any.
(h) Please DO NOT write the procedure of experiment anywhere.

L.H.S of Laboratory Record R.H.S of Laboratory Record

First LHS page: AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT
SCHEMATIC/CIRCUIT APPARATUES USED (with
DIAGRAM specifications)
FORMULA USED
Following LHS pages: RESULTS
OBSERVATIONS PERCENTAGE ERROR
CALCULATIONS PRECUATIONS
GRAPH

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 10

 Evaluation Scheme

Total Marks - 50 Marks

Internal - 25 Marks
External - 25 Marks

Internal lab Assessment Components

AC1: Written Work (Marks of experiment) (5)

AC2: Fundamental Knowledge to conduct Experiment (5)

AC3: Questions Answered (Viva) (5)

AC4: Interaction during conduction of Experiment (5)

AC5: Punctuality (5)

Marking scheme for Assessment Components:

0 : Absent
1 : Very Weak
2 : Weak
3 : Moderate
4 : Strong
5 : Very Strong

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 11

 DETAILS OF EXPERIMENT CONDUCTED IN PRACTICAL CLASS

S.NO. DATE EXP. TITLE PAGE MARKS REMARKS OF

NO. NO. AWARDED FACULTY MEMBER
WITH SIGNATURE

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 12

 How To Construct a Line Graph

Step What To Do How To Do It

a. Independent Variable -
(controlled by the experimenter)
• Goes on the X axis (horizontal)
• Should be on the left side of a data table.
1 Identify the variables b. Dependent Variable -
(changes with the independent variable)
• Goes on the Y axis (vertical)
• Should be on the right side of a data table.

a. Subtract the lowest data value from the highest data

Determine the variable value.
2
range. b. Do each variable separately.

a. Determine a scale,
(the numerical value for each square),
Determine the scale of that best fits the range of each variable.
3
the graph. b. Spread the graph to use MOST of the available
space.

a. This tells what data the lines on your graph

Number and label each
4 represent.
axis.

a. Plot each data value on the graph with a dot.

b. You can put the data number by the dot, if it does
5 Plot the data points. not clutter your graph.

a. Draw a curve or a line that best fits the data points.

b. Most graphs of experimental data are not drawn as
6 Draw the graph. "connect-the-dots".

a. Your title should clearly tell what the graph is

about.
7 Title the graph. b. If your graph has more than one set of data, provide
a "key" to identify the different lines.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 13

How to find Percentage Error:
Students often assume that each measurement that they make in the laboratory is true and
accurate. Likewise, they often assume that the values that they derive through
experimentation are very accurate. However, sources of error often prevent students
from being as accurate as they would like. Percent error calculations are used to
determine how close to the theoretical values, or how accurate, their experimental values
really are.
The value that the student comes up with is usually called the experimental value.
A value that can be found in reference tables is usually called the standard value, or the
accepted value. The percent error can be determined when the standard value is
compared to the experimental value according to the equation below:

Standard value − Experiment al value

Percentage error = 100
Standard value

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 14

 How to calculate least count

Least count is the highest degree of accuracy of measurement that can be achieved. For
example the least count of a voltmeter is the minimum change that can be discerned.
The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring instrument is called its least
count.

Procedure to determine least count:

It is measures by dividing the least count of the main scale (value of one MSD) by the
total number of divisions on the vernier scale. Vernier is a secondary scale used along
with a main scale (circular scale) for measuring length (diameter)accurately to any
desired fraction of the smallest division on the main scale.
In the vernier shown, the length of the vernier is 9 main scale divisions and is divided
into 10 equal parts. Therefore each division on the vernier i.e. 1 VSD= ( 9/10) MSD

The difference between 1MSD & 1 VSD is the smallest distance that can be measured
with the help of varnier and is called the least count of the vernier.

Least Count (L.C.) = 1MSD-1VSD = 1-(9/10) MSD

=1/10 MSD

Value of 1MSD
Or L.C. =
No.of division on VS

The total reading of any instrument is calculated using the formula

TR = MSR +( CVD × LC)

Where MSR is the main scale reading (reading on the main scale just before the vernier
zero), CVD is the coinciding vernier division on main scale and LC is the least count.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 15

For eg. For given vernier calipers-

Value of 1MSD 1mm

L.C.= = =0.1mm=0.01cm
No.of division on VS 10

MSR= 17.0mm, CVD= 4

Therfore TR= 17.0+(4x0.1) mm

= 17.4 mm

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 16

In the case of circular scales like Screw Gauge

Pitch
L.C.=
No.of division on CS

Zero error: If the zero of the main scale does not coincide with zero of vernier then the
instrument has zero error. In case of screw gauge when the anvil and spindle end are
brought in contact, the edge of the circular scale should be at the zero of the sleeve (linear
scale) and the zero of the circular scale should be opposite to the datum line of the sleeve.
If the zero is not coinciding with the datum line, there will be a positive or negative zero
error as shown in figure below. For when the anvil and spindle end are brought in
contact, the edge of the circular scale should be at the zero of the sleeve (linear scale) and
the zero of the circular scale should be opposite to the datum line of the sleeve. If the zero
is not coinciding with the datum line, there will be a positive or negative zero error as
shown in figure below. For positive zero error the correction is negative & for negative
zero error the correction is positive.

No Zero error

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 17

 EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM- To determine the energy band gap of a given semiconductor material by four probe
method.
APPARATUS –Probes arrangement, sample, oven and four Probes setup
BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE APPARATUS
1. PROBES ARRANGEMENT - The 4-point probe set up (Fig.1) consists of four
equally spaced tungsten metal tips with finite radius. Each tip is supported by springs on
the end to minimize sample damage during probing. The four metal tips are part of an
auto-mechanical stage which travels up and down during measurements. A high
impedance current source is used to supply current through the outer two probes
(red/black) and a voltmeter measures the voltage across the inner two
probes(green/yellow) to determine the sample resistivity.

Figure 1 Four probe method of measuring resistivity of sample.

2. SAMPLE – Ge. Crystal in the form of chip.

3. OVEN – It is a small oven for the variation of temperature of the crystal from
room temperature to about 2000C. This oven contains RTD (resistance
temperature detectors) sensor. RTDs are sensors used to measure temperature by
correlating the resistance of the RTD element with temperature. Most RTD elements
consist of a length of fine coiled wire wrapped around a ceramic or glass core. The
element is usually quite fragile, so it is often placed inside a sheathed probe to protect it.
The RTD element is made from a pure material, typically platinum, nickel or copper. The
material has a predictable change in resistance as the temperature changes and it is this
predictable change that is used to determine temperature.

4. FOUR PROBES SET UP (Measuring Unit ) – It has three subunits all enclosed
in one cabinet.
i)Oven Controller
ii)Multirange Digital Voltmeter
iii) Constant current generator

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 18

 Figure 2 Experimental set up

Theory and Formula Used-

In solids if a current I passes through a sample of a solid material, of uniform cross

section a ,then the resistance of the sample R may be measured by finding the potential
difference across it.

(1)
The resistance R is propotional to the length l of the sample and inversely propotional to
its area of cross section.

Where the ρ is the resistivity of the sample.

In semiconductors the total electrical conductivity is the sum of the conductivities of the
valence and conduction band carriers and can be expressed as

 = e(ne e + nh h ) (2)
Where ne, µe are the electron’s concentration and mobility and nh, µh are holes
concentration and mobility respectively. As in intrinsic region number of electrons is
equal to number of holes, so equ.(2) implies that,

(3)

Also, (4)

Where N is a constant, ni is concentration of charge carriers in intrinsic region, K is

Boltzmann’s constant and T is the temperature.

Putting (4) in (3),

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 19

 (5)
Since resistivity is reciprocal of conductivity. For intrinsic semiconductor,

(6)
Temperature dependence of the mobility in the intrinsic semiconducting region is
expressed as:

(7)
Therefore equation.(6) can be written as

(8)
where A is some constant. Taking logarithm we get;

(9)

Above equation suggest the method of determining the energy band gap. Thus a graph
between log of resistivity and reciprocal of temperature should be a straight line. We will
get curve for lower temperature range.

Slope= Eg/ 2K
Eg= 2K× Slope×103 , Where K is Boltzmann’s constant, K=8.6×10-5eVK-1

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 20

 PROCEDURE –
1. Put the sample on the base plate of the four probe arrangement Unscrew the pipe holding
the four probes and let the four probes rest in the middle of the sample . Apply a very
little pressure on the probes and tighten the pipe in this position. Check the continuity
between the probes for proper electrical contacts.
2. Connect the outer pair of probes(red/black) to the constant current power supply and the
inner pair (green/yellow ) to the probe voltage terminals.
3. Place the four probe arrangement in the oven and connect the sensor lead to the RTD
connector on the panel .
4. Switch on ac mains of Four Probe setup and put the digital panel meter in the current
measuring mode through the selector switch. In this position LED facing mA would
glow. Adjust the current to a desired value (say 5mA).
5. Now put the digital panel meter in voltage measuring mode .In this position LED facing
mV would glow and the meter would read the voltage between. the probes
6. Switch ON the temperature controller and approx adjust the set –temperature The
green LED would light up indicating the oven is ON and the temperature would start
rising Temperature of the oven in K would be indicated by the DPM
7. The controller of the oven would switch off the power corresponding to set temperature.In
case,it is less than the desired temperature ,the set temperature would be increased till the power
is OFF at the desired temperature .If the setting of the set temperature is higher than the desired
value ,theset temperature knob would be moved back so that the LED is off at the desired
temperature.
8. Because of thermal inertia of oven ,there would be some over shoot and undershoot
before a steady set temperature is attained and may take 10 minutes for each reading.
9. To save time ,it is recommended to under adjust the set temperature. Example say it is
desired to set at 330K. Set the temperature set knob so that the LED is off at 325K. The
temperature due to thermal inertia would rise. At 330K adjust the set temperature so that
the LED is ON. It would automatically be OFF when temperature is above 330K.It
may go upto 1 or 2 degree but would quickly settle down at 330K . Since the change in
temperature at this stage is very slow and response time of RTD sensor and
semiconductor is comparitively fast. The reading can also be taken at any temperature
without waiting for an steady state.
10. For each temperature, calculate the resistivity by using the reltion

11. Compute Logeρ and 103/T and plot a graph between them which is a straight line and then
find slope on the straight line.
12. Calculate the bandgap using formula Eg = 2K× Slope×103.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 21

 OBSERVATIONS :

Current (I) = mA (Constant)

Spacing between the probes, S=0.2cm
Thickness of the sample, W=0.05cm
Semiconductor chip material=……………….

S.NO. TEMPERATURE VOLTAGE V 0 T-1X 103 Logeρ

0 = ( 2S ) =
( T in K) (mV) I W
G7 ( )
S
(ohm.cm.)
01.
02.

03.

04.

05.

06.

07.

08.

09.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 22

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

CALCULATION –
1. For given sample W/S=………….
 W  2S
2. The correction factor G 7  = log e 2
S W
0 V
3. = , where  0 = ( 2S )
W I
G7 ( )
S
4. Plot a graph between Logeρ and 103/T and find slope

5. Band gap Eg = 2K× Slope×103.

STANDARD RESULT – Eg = 0.68 eV

PERCENTAGE ERROR –

PRECAUTION –1. The sample should be placed with non- conducting surface towards
the bottom.
2. The current through the sample should not be large enough to cause heating.
3. The surface of the semiconductor should be flat.
4. All the probes should be colinear.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 23

 Lab Assessment Components
AC1: Written Work (Marks of experiment) (5)

AC2: Fundamental Knowledge to conduct Experiment (5)

AC3: Questions Answered (Viva) (5)

AC4: Interaction during conduction of Experiment (5)

AC5: Punctuality (5)

Stamp

Total(25)

Signature of Faculty
Date:

Note: - All the students are required to update their marks in the Lab records after
complete evaluation by the respective teachers.

For Office Records

Date of Updating the Lab
records
/ /

Signature of Instructor

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 24

VIVA QUESTIONS -
1. What is Band Gap in a good conductor ?
2. How does resistivity changes with change in temperature in semiconductors ?
3. What is the order of thickness of depletion layer ?
4. What is PN Junction ?
5. What is the advantage of Four Probe Method ?
6. Is this method of measurement of resistivity also applicable to silicon ?
7.What is four probe method?
8. What are the factor that control the resistivity of a semiconductor?
9. What is resistivity?
10. What is energy band gap?

ANSWERS:
1. There is no band gap as the conduction and the valance bands overlap in good
conductors.
2. Resistivity decreases with the increase in temperature.
3. The thickness of the depletion layer is of the order of 10-6m.
4. A p type semiconductor in contact with an n type semiconductor constitutes a pn
junction.
5. It permits measurements of resistivity in samples having a wide variety of shapes. In
this manner the resistivity of both sides of PN junction can be determined with good
accuracy before the material is cut into bars for making devices.
6. Yes, this method of measurement is also applicable to silicon also.
7. In four probes method there is a set of four probes. Outer pair is used for passing
current through the semiconductor and the inner pair is used for measuring potential
difference by using suitable relationship we can measure the resistivity of given
semiconductor.
8. Temperature and band-gap.
9. The resistance offered by a conductor of unit cross-sectional area and of unit length is
called resistivity. It is the property of the material of the conductor (unit: ohm-cm).
10. It is the energy difference between top of valance band and bottom of conduction
band.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 25

 SPACE FOR STUDENTS WORK AREA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 26

 Experiment No. 2
VARIATION OF MAGNETIC FIELD

AIM : To study the variation of magnetic field with distance along the axis of current carrying
coil and then to estimate the radius of the coil.
APPARATUS: Stewart and Gee type tangent galvanometer, storage battery, commutator,
ammeter, rheostat, one way plug key and connecting wires.
THEORY :
Let I be current flowing through a wire of length l bent into an arc of the radius ‘r’, then the
magnetic field intensity (F) at the centre of the arc is given by.

-7
where, µ0 = 4 x 10 weber/ampere-meter and is known as the permeability of free space.
If the wire forms one complete circle, Then l =2r

For a circular coil carrying n turns

Hence F  n I
In order to study the effect of number of turns and current on the magnetic field intensity
F, the coil is placed in the magnetic meridian, then the magnetic field due to the current ‘I’
flowing through the coil is perpendicular to H (horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field)
and the magnetic needle is acted upon by two uniform magnetic fields F and H which are at right
angles to each other.
Therefore, the field F along the axis of a coil is given by

Where, x is the distance of the point from the centre of the coil. When x=0 i.e., at the centre

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 27

 Let the magnetic needle make an angle ()
with H in the equilibrium position.
According to tangent law :
F  tan 
then F =H tan  ............(2)

on equating (1) & (2).

2 nI
H tan  = …….(3)
rx107
Here H is constant at the place of
experiment.
Hence, the variation of magnetic field along
the axis of current carrying circular coil
involves the plotting of a graph between x
and tan 

Fig.3. Experimental Setup

PROCEDURE :

1. First of all the magnetometer compass box is placed on the bench such that its magnetic
needle lies at the centre of the coil. Rotate the instrument in the horizontal plane till the
plane of the coil lies roughly in the magnetic meridian or bench in the East-West direction.
Now without disturbing the setting of the apparatus rotate the compass box till pointer read
0-0 on the circular scale. This adjustment of the instrument remains unchanged throughout
the experiment.
2. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make electric connections as
explained in Fig. 2
3. Insert the plug in the key K so that the current flow in the coil. Adjust the value of current
with the help of rheostat Rh such that the deflection in the galvanometer lies between700-
750. Note this value at both ends of the pointer. Reverse the direction of the current in the
coil with the help of commutator and again note the reading of both the pointers. If the
mean deflections in the two cases are very nearly equal, then plane of the coil is exactly in
the magnetic meridian. If it is not so, then slightly turn the instrument in the horizontal
direction towards greater deflection side till the mean deflection with direct & reverse
current become nearly equal. Now slide the magnetometer box along the axis to get
maximum deflection. In this situation (that is, at x=0) the centre of the needle coincides

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 28

 with the centre of the coil. Note this position of magnetometer box on the meter scale.
5. Now shift the position of compass needle box along the axis in equal step of 1 cm on one
side of the coil along the bench. Note this distance and also the reading of both ends of the
pointer for direct as well as reversed current. This process of shifting of compass in small
step of 1 cm and taking the observation of ends of the pointer for direct and reversed
0
current is continued till the pointer is reduced to 30 . Note all these reading in Table. It
should be remembered that during each observation the current in the circuit always remain
constant (Check it by and ammeter connected in the circuit).
6. Now repeat the process of taking observation on other side of the coil keeping current
always constant. (The measurement of deflection along with distance can also be measured
from one end of the bench in the following manner): Shift the compass box towards the
either end of bench till the deflection falls to about 300. At this position, note down the
distance of the compass needle from one end of the bench and also record the deflections at
the two ends of the pointer before and after reversing the current through the coil and find
the mean deflection. Now shift the compass box towards the coil by 1cm. and note down
this distance from the same end. Also note down the deflections at the two ends of pointer
before and after reversing the current through the coil and find the mean deflection. Go on
moving the compass box in regular steps of 1cm. each time recording its distance from the
same end and determining the mean deflection, till the compass box after crossing the coil
reaches the other end of the bench.
7. Plot a graph between the distance X of the compass needle box from the centre of the coil
or from the one end of the bench and tangent of deflection of magnetic needle that is tan.
The resulting curve shall be symmetrical and its maximum value shall correspond to the
position of the needle at the centre of the coil itself.
8. Find out the points of inflection (The point at which the curve changes its sign that is, from
concave to convex) A and B on the curve by drawing common tangent at the place where
the curve is practically a straight line for a short length and measure the distance between
them to get the radius of the coil.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 29

OBSERVATIONS :
The circumference of the coil measured by the thread and meter scale =__________cm.

Table: 2.1 Observation for variation of magnetic field with distance x

S. Distance Deflection on the left Deflection on the right

 =( 1+ 2+ 3+ 4)/4

No of the side of the coil in side of the coil in

 =( 1+ 2+ 3+ 4)/4

. needle degree degree
from the

Mean
Direct Reversed Direct Reversed

tan 

tan 
center of
current current current current
the bench
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Mean
No

(x) cm

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 30

 Plot a graph taking the distance X of the needle
from the centre of the coil towards one end of the
bench on X-axis by choosing a suitable scale and
corresponding value of tan on y axis. The resulting
curve as shown in Fig. 3 has two symmetric
branches. Find out the points of inflection A and B
on the curve by drawing tangents on the curve. The
tangent just above and just below the points of
inflection lies on opposite side of the curve. This
situation will not occur for any other point on the
curve.

RESULT:
1. The radius of the coil (AB) as measured from X-tan graph=________cm.

2. The radius of the coil from the measurement of the circumference

=circumference/2 = ________ cm

3. The attached graph shows the variation of the magnetic field along the axis of a circular
coil carrying current.

PERCENTAGE ERROR:

PRECAUTION –1. All the magnetic materials and current carrying conductors should
be at considerable distance from the apparatus.
2. The coil should be carefully adjusted in magnetic meridian.
3. Parallax should be removed while reading the position of pointer.
4. Connections should be clean and tight.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 31

 Lab Assessment Components
AC1: Written Work (Marks of experiment) (5)

AC2: Fundamental Knowledge to conduct Experiment (5)

AC3: Questions Answered (Viva) (5)

AC4: Interaction during conduction of Experiment (5)

AC5: Punctuality (5)

Stamp

Total(25)

Signature of Faculty
Date:

Note: - All the students are required to update their marks in the Lab records after
complete evaluation by the respective teachers.

For Office Records

Date of Updating the Lab
records
/ /

Signature of Instructor

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 32

VIVA QUESTIONS

1. What is the aim of the experiment?

2. What is the basic concept of the experiment?
3. State the principle on which this experiment is based.
4. Write in short how you set the apparatus in magnetic meridian?
5. Why is a long pointer provided in the compass box?
6. Why is mirror provided at the base of the compass box?
7. Which apparatus is used to reverse the direction of current in the circuit?
8. How are points of inflexion found in the graph?
9. Maximum value of curve corresponds to which position of needle?
10. State any one precaution of the experiment?

ANSWERS :

1. Aim of the experiment is to study the variation of magnetic field with distance along
the axis of a circular coil carrying current.
2. The basic concept is that when current flows in a conductor a magnetic field is
produced around it, this is called magnetic effect of current
3. Principle: According to tangent law in two mutually perpendicular uniform magnetic
fields F and H a magnetic needle in equilibrium makes an angle θ with the horizontal
component of earth’s magnetic field H such that F = H tanθ , this is tangent law
4. First set the plane in magnetic meridian (it is a vertical plane passing through the axis
of a magnetic needle suspended freely through its centre of gravity and rest under
earths needle is called the magnetic meridian) because by doing so we make the
magnetic field produced by a circular coil at right angles to the horizontal component
of earth’s magnetic field (or for fulfilling the condition of tangent law) the setting of
the plane of the coil in magnetic meridian.
5. In order to measure a small angular deflection of the needle in two uniform magnetic
fields accurately, the circular scale has to be made large and a long pointer has to be
provided.
6. Mirror at the base of the compass box is provided for measuring correct deflection of
the magnetic needle by removing parallax between the pointer and its image.
7. Commutator key.
8. Points of inflexion on the curve are found by drawing common tangent at the place
where the curve is practically a straight line for a short length and measure the
distance between them to get the radius of the coil.
9. Plot a graph between the distance x of the compass needle box from the centre of the
coil or from one end of the bench and tangent of deflection of magnetic needle that is
tanθ. The resulting curve shall be symmetrical and its maximum value shall
correspond to the position of the needle at the centre of the coil
10. There should be no magnetic substance or current carrying conductor in the
neighborhood of the instrument.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 33

 SPACE FOR STUDENTS WORK AREA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 34

 Experiment No. 3
STEFAN’S LAW

AIM: To verify Stefan’s law by electrical method.

APPARATUS USED: Battery, Rheostat, Key, Ammeter, Voltmeter, Bulb, Connecting Wires.

FORMULA: E = σ (T4 - T04),

Where ‘E’ is the radiation emitted per second, per unit area of a black body at temperature ‘T’
surrounded by another body at temperature ‘T0’, and σ is the Stefan’s constant. σ = 5.670 x 10-8w/m2.k4

THEORY : Stefan’s law states that the total radiant energy emitted per second from the unit surface
area of a perfectly black body is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature i.e. E= σT4
If ‘E’ be the radiation emitted per second, per unit area of a black body at temperature ‘T’ surrounded by
another body at temperature ‘T0’, then by Stefan’s law, we have
E = σ (T4 - T04)
where σ is the Stefan’s constant. σ = 5.670 x 10-8w/m2.k4
For bodies other than black body, we have

Fig.(2) Graph between log P & log T

P = C(Tm-T0m)
where ‘P’ is the power emitted by a body at a temperature ‘T’ surrounded by another body at
temperature T0. C is constant depending upon the material and area of the body; m is very near to the
value 4. The above equation can be written as-

Tom
P = CT m (1 − )
Tm

If T>T0 then P=CTm

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 35

Or log10P = mlog10T + log10 C

It is of the form y = mx + c.

PROCEDURE :

1. The circuit is constructed as shown in Fig.1.

2. The bulb with tungsten filament is used as a radiating body having a temperature T.
3. For a very small current, the ratio (V/I) gives the filament resistance including lead resistance.
4. To Calculate R273 or R0, we have to first measure the resistance Rg at about 800K or 5270C, at
temperature which the filament just starts glowing
5. At this temperature the contribution of lead resistance becomes smaller by a factor nearly equal
to 3.9 at 800K compared to that at 273 K.
6. The current is increased each time gradually different times till the bulb just glows.
7. Similarly reading of V and I are found with decreasing currents.
8. The ratio (V/I) is found out for each readings and finally the mean value of these gives Rg at
5270C.
9. Now find R0 value using the relation.

R527 R g
Ro = =
3.9 3.9

10. Now the values of V and I are again taken by increasing the filament current from above
the glowing stage to a high value giving dazzling white light.
11. The ratio (V/I) is again found out for each reading which gives Rt. Using Rt and R0, the
temperature T of the filament is deduced using the relation. Rt = Ro (1 + αT + βT2)
where α and β are constants
12. From the product of V and I, we get the value of power (P). A graph is then plotted
between log P and log T, which gives a straight line. This verifies Stefan’s law in the
form P=CTm.
14. The slope of straight line gives ‘m’ and to be nearly equal to 4. Thus it is called the fourth
power law also.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 36

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS :

(1) To determine R0:

Current Increasing Current Decreasing
Trial V I Rg=V/I in Ω V I Rg=V/I in Ω Mean
No. in in when bulb just in in when bulb Rg
volts amps glows volts amps just glows

Mean Ro=……………

(2) To determine ‘T’ and ‘P’:

Here  = 51  10 −4 / 0 c
V I Rt=V/I in P = V.I
Sl.
in in Ω in watts Log10 P Log10 T
No.
volts amps

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 37

RESULT:

The graph of log P verses log T comes out to be a straight line.

Hence, P = CTm law is verified.
Further, the slope of the line m=............and therefore, the law verified as a fourth power law.

PERCENTAGE ERROR:

(Standard Value- Observed Value/ Standard Value) x 100

PRECAUTIONS :-
1. Value of α and β for the filament material should be taken from the tables.
2. Current should not be increased much otherwise the bulb filament will fuse.
3. To get accurate resistance at a particular temperature the filament voltage ‘V’ and filament current ‘I’
should be read every time after achieving a steady state and the time difference between each
observations should be about 3 or 4 minutes.
4. The slope of the straight line should be determined as accurate as possible.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 38

 Lab Assessment Components
AC1: Written Work (Marks of experiment) (5)

AC2: Fundamental Knowledge to conduct Experiment (5)

AC3: Questions Answered (Viva) (5)

AC4: Interaction during conduction of Experiment (5)

AC5: Punctuality (5)

Stamp

Total(25)

Signature of Faculty
Date:

Note: - All the students are required to update their marks in the Lab records after complete evaluation
by the respective teachers.

For Office Records

Date of Updating the Lab
records
/ /

Signature of Instructor

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 39

VIVA QUESTIONS :
1. What are meant by ‘black body’ and ‘black body radiation’?

2. State Stefan’s law of radiation?

3. What is the unit of Stefan’s radiation constant?

4. What type of bulb do you use and what is its function?

5. Why do you use a tungsten filament bulb?

6. How does this law differ from Newton’s Law of Cooling?

7. Does the amount of heat radiated depend on the wavelength of radiation?

8. What is Kirchhoff’s law of radiation?

9. Give the formula of Stefan’ Law.

10 which type of curve obtain in graph platted between log P verses log T.

11. What do you mean by emissive and absorptive power?

ANSWERS:

1. A body which absorbs all the incident radiations irrespective of frequency is called a black body.
Blackbody radiation" or "cavity radiation" refers to an object or system which absorbs all radiation
incidents upon it and re-radiates energy which is characteristic of this radiating system only, not
dependent upon the type of radiation which is incident upon it.
2. The total radiant energy emitted E per unit time by a black body of surface A is proportional to the
fourth power of its absolute temperature.
E T4 or E = AT4 = Stefan's constant For body which is not black body
E= AT4 = emmisitivity of Black Body.

3. σ = 5.670373(21)×10−8 W m−2 K−4

4. Tungsten Bulb, because tungsten has the highest melting point (1650 degrees centigrade) of all
metals and it does not melt even when it is glowing.
5. Because tungsten bulb has the highest melting point (1650 degrees centigrade) of all metals and it
does not melt even when it is glowing. It has to be inside an evacuated glass though because
tungsten oxidizes in air.

6. Stefan's law is solidly based on experimental measurements and its relation to other thermodynamic
concepts. It gives the rate of total energy loss (that is, at all wavelengths) by thermal radiation from
the surface of a blackbody of area A and temperature T (in Kelvins) Newton's law (of cooling) is an
empirical law intended to cover the temperature change resulting from convective and conductive
heat loss from a body, particularly at moderate temperatures and where the temperature difference
(T - T0) is relatively small. Under these conditions, the radiative contribution may often be
neglected.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 40

7. Yes.

8. It states that any temperature, the ratio of emissive power to the absorptive power for a given
wavelength is same for all bodies.

9. E= σT4

10. Straight Line

11. Emissive power is defined as the radiant energy emitted per unit time per unit surface area of the
body within a unit wavelength range. Absorptive power is defined as the ratio of the radiant energy
absorbed per second per unit surface area of the body to the total energy falling per unit time on the
same area.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 41

 SPACE FOR STUDENTS WORK AREA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 42

 Experiment No. 4
CAREY FOSTER’S BRIDGE

AIM: To determine the specific resistance of a given wire by Carey Foster’s Bridge and evaluates the end
correction ‘S1’ and ‘S2’.

APPARATUS: Carey Foster’s Bridge, Leclanche Cell, Plug Key, Resistance Boxes. Specimen Wire,
Screw Gauge, Galvanometer, Jockey (slider), Connecting Wires.

THEORY : The resistance X of conductor is directly proportional to its length ‘ l ’ and inversely
proportional to its cross sectional area ‘a’ Hence,

If ‘r’ is radius of the wire, then a=r2

Where ‘’ depends upon the nature of the material of the conductor and is known as resistivity or
specific resistance. Its unit is Ohm-m. If ‘X’ ‘l’ and ‘a’ are known, then ‘ ’ can be calculated. Carey
Foster’s bridge works on the principle of Wheat Stone Bridge, as shown in Fig. 1.
PROCEDURE :

(1) END CORRECTION: At the ends ‘E’ and ‘F’, bridge wire is soldered to metal strips having
appreciable resistance which should be accounted for accurate work. The resistance of the ends
may therefore be determined. Suppose the two inner gaps have ‘P’ and ‘Q’ known unequal
resistance and balancing point is at distance ‘ l1’ from ‘E’

By interchanging ‘P’ and ‘Q’ values, let balancing point obtained is ‘ l1’ from ‘E’, then

Outer gaps of the bridge are closed by short, clean & thick copper strips of negligible resistance,
and in the inner gaps by two unequal resistance, say 10  & 1 . Let the balance be obtained at ‘
l1’ cm from ‘E’. The 10  & 1  resistance are interchanged and a second balance is obtained at
new ‘l1’ cm. By solving equations (1) and (2), calculate S1 and S2. The process is repeated for
different values of ‘P’and ‘Q’.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 43

(2) Resistance per unit length :
To find ‘’, P & Q are made approximately equal.
Made X as some fraction of Ohm, say ‘X’ ’ and
keep R = 0 , Obtain balancing Length d1 from the
point ‘E’. To find d2 interchange R & X’ positions
and obtain balancing length d2 from point E. Since
R= 0 

Fig.4 Experimental Setup

Fig.3 Specific resistance

(3) Specific Resistance of Wire: - Make clean and tight connection according to circuit shown in Fig.
3. Resistance boxes ‘P’ and ‘Q’ are made approximately equal to the values of ‘R’ and ‘X’. A
Leclanche cell is connected across the wire through a key. A sensitive galvanometer ‘G’ is
connected between central strip and the jockey. The key is closed after making the necessary
connections. By trial, a suitable resistance is included in ‘R’ such that there is null deflection in
Galvanometer on pressing the jockey near the middle of the wire. Let ‘D’ be the position of the
jockey for which the deflection in the Galvanometer is zero. The length ED=L1’ cm and FD= L2’
cm are measured. Now the resistance ‘R’ and ‘X’ together with resistance P, Q, L1’ & L2’ form the
four arms of the Wheatstone Bridge network. When ‘R’ is connected in the right gap, then

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 44

 When ‘R’ is connected in the left gap, then

where ’ is the resistance per cm of bridge wire

By substituting P,Q,R,S1, S2 , L1’, L2’ & ’ values in equation (3) & (4), find ‘X’ value, for right &
left gaps respectively, Using screw gauge find the diameter of the given specimen wire, Note down the
length of the wire. Now it is possible to find the specific resistance of the wire using the relation

Where ‘r’ is the radius, X is the resistance and l is length of the wire.

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATIONS :

(1) For End Correction

Sl. P Q l1 (cm) l2( cm) S1(cm) S2(cm)

1 10 1
2 1 10
3 5 2
4 2 5
Mean S1=------------------------ & S2=---------------------------------

For resistance per Centimeter of bridge wire:

No Sl. in  P in  Q X’ indcm
1(cm) d2( cm) X'
' =
d1 − d 2

1 1 1 0.3
2 1 1 0.6
3 1 1 0.9
Mean  ' =……………….

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 45

No in  in  in  in cm
ohm
 (2) For Resistance of Specimen Wire
S. Resistance R Position of Null point or distance (l2-l1) X=R+  ' (l2-l1)
No introduced in of balance point from left end A (cm) ( ohm)
decimal resistance of the bridge wire when RB is in
box RB (ohm) Left Gap l1 (cm) Right Gap l2
(cm)
1
2
3
4
5

(3) Radius of wire using screw gauge

Zero error =__________________

Least count of screw gauge =M/N = ___________

Sl. Main Scale Circular Scale Total Reading d(mm)

Reading(mm) Reading(mm)

1
2
d
r = / =_____ mm = _______ m
2
Length of the given wire (l) , = __________cm = __________m

=____________ -m
RESULT : Specific resistance of wire =_________________________Ohm-m
End correction = S1 =___________cm. S2 = _____________cm.

No = MSR+(CSR*Least Count)
PERCENTAGE ERROR MSR : CSR
(Standard Value – Observed Value)/ Standard Value x 100 =

PRECAUTIONS :
1 Disconnect the circuit just after taking each reading otherwise resistance of the bridge wire will
increase because of heat.
2. Note down the balancing length accurately.
3. Radius of the wire should be very much accurately measured.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 46

 Lab Assessment Components
AC1: Written Work (Marks of experiment) (5)

AC2: Fundamental Knowledge to conduct Experiment (5)

AC3: Questions Answered (Viva) (5)

AC4: Interaction during conduction of Experiment (5)

AC5: Punctuality (5)

Stamp

Total(25)

Signature of Faculty
Date:

Note: - All the students are required to update their marks in the Lab records after complete evaluation by
the respective teachers.

For Office Records

Date of Updating the Lab
records
/ /

Signature of Instructor

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 47

VIVA QUESTIONS :
1. What is Resistance?
2. State “Ohm’s law”?
3. This experiment is based on which principle?
4. Why end correction is applied to the balancing length?
5. What is the difference between a cell and a battery?
6. Name the electrolyte in a Leclanche Cell.
7. If temperature increases, then what happens to specific resistance?
8. What is the difference between a Meter bridge and Carey Foster’s bridge?
9. What is the bridge wire made of?
10. What is the Specimen wire made of?
11. What type of galvanometer are you using?
12. What do you mean by end correction?
13. What is the unit of specific resistance?

ANSWERS :

1. It’s the obstruction provided by the conductor in the flow of current.

2. If the Physical conditions of the conductor such as length , area , temperature and material will
remain same then the current flowing in the conductor is directly proportional to the potential
difference across it.

3. Wheat Stone Bridge Principal.

4. Due to the additional length of the wire and the resistance of the copper strips.

5. A battery is a combination of multiple cells.

6. NH4Cl

7. Specific resistance increases with temperature.

8. Carey Foster’s bridge has four gaps where as meter bridge has only two gaps.

9. Magnin

10. Nicrome.

11. Weston Type Galvanometer

12. Modification required in the balancing length for incorporating addition wire on both sides as well
as the resistance of the copper strips.

13. ohm-meter

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 48

 SPACE FOR STUDENTS WORK AREA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 49

 Experiment No. 5

NEWTON’S RINGS

AIM: To determine the wavelength of monochromatic sodium light by using Newton’s Rings.

APPARATUS: A traveling microscope, a plane glass plate. a sodium vapor lamp with
transformer, optical arrangement for Newton’s Rings ,a convex lens, magnifying lens.

FORMULA: The wavelength of sodium light is given by

where, Dn+m and Dn are the diameters of (n + m)th ring and nth ring respectively. ‘R’ is the radius
of curvature of the curved surface of the lens which is in contact with glass plate.

THEORY: In Newton’s Rings apparatus, interference pattern is obtained due to reflection at two
surface of a circularly- shaped air film of variable thickness. The air film is formed between the
curved surface of a plano-convex lens of large focal length and a plane glass surface. The
thickness of the film is zero at the point of contact of the lens and glass plate. The interference
rings, alternatively dark and bright are known as Newton’s Rings. The width of the rings goes on
decreasing as we move away from the centre.
The central ring is dark. This is because of the fact that when light is reflected at a dense
medium, a phase change of π or a path difference of ( /2) is introduced. If ‘R’ is the radius of
curvature of the curved surface of the lens and  is the wavelength of light used, then it can be
shown that

..............................................(1)
where Dn is the diameter of the nth dark ring
If Dn+m is the diameter of (n + m)th ring, then

..................................................(2)
Equations (2)-(1) is

or,

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 50

PROCEDURE :

The experimental arrangement is shown in fig.

1. Clean the glass plate ‘G1’ and the lens ‘L’

Place both of them in the circular frame, so
that curved surface of the lens is in contact
with the plate.
2. Clean the glass plate ‘G’ and set this with
the inclination of apparatus as shown in
Fig.1

Fig 1. Newton’s Ring Experimental

arrangement
3. Place the whole arrangement near a sodium
lamp and adjust the slit of the lamp so that
the slit and the centre of the plate ‘G’ are at
the same height.
4. Insert a convex lens in between slit and the
plate ‘G’, so that the slit is at focus of the
lens and the rays are incident on the plate
parallel to each other. Set the plate G’ so
that it is inclined at an angle of 450 and the
rays after reflection from ‘G’ fall normally
on the lens ‘L’.
5. After finding vernier constant of Figure 2. Ring formed between glass plate
microscope, focus it to the alternate dark and plano convex lens
and bright rings. Adjust the position of the
microscope, till the point of intersection of
the cross wires lies at the centre of the rings
system.

Fig. 3. Newtons Ring Apparatus with dark

box and transformer
6. Slide the microscope on one side, say left, till the cross-wire lies tangentially at the centre
of a certain dark ring (say 20th). Note the reading of the microscope.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 51

7. Slide the microscope with the slow motion screw and take readings, when the crosswire
lied tangentially at the outer surface of 16th, 12th, 8th and 4th dark rings
8. Keep on sliding the microscope in the same direction, till cross-wire lies tangentially at the
outer surface of the 4th dark ring on the right side. Note the microscope reading; continue
moving the microscope and take reading at the outer surface of 8th, 12th, 16th & 20th dark
ring of the other side.
OBSERVATIONS:
Measurement of Diameter of rings
Value of 1 MSD of traveling microscope = M = ___________cm.
No. of divisions on the vernier scale = N = ___________
Least count of traveling microscope = M/N = ___________cm.

Table: 1.1 : Observation for Ring Diameter

Sl. No of Traveling Microscope Reading Diameter D2
rings Left hand side R1 Right hand side R2 (D)
MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR
1 20

2 16

3 12

4 8

5 4
No
D
in cm in cm in cm in
Table1.2: Measurement of diameter of rings
Sl. Dark Ring Number D2n+m D2n D2n+m-cmD2 n Mean D2n+m- D2n

n+m n
1 20 16

2 16 12

3 12 8

4 8 4

No in in in in

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 52

 CALCULATIONS:

By Graph :- Draw a graph between ‘n’ along X-

axis and corresponding D2n along y axis (Refer Fig
4) Join the points by a straight line passing
through origin so that most of the points lie on it.
From Graph

λ= slope/4R

Fig.4

RESULT:
The wavelength of sodium light = ...................................Å

PERCENTAGE ERROR:
Standard value- 5893Ao
Percentage Error % =

PRECAUTIONS :

1. The lens and glass plates should be cleaned before using.

2. The crosswire should be set along the diameter of the rings and not about any chord.
3. Use only dark ring so that crosswise may be set easily on each ring.
4. First three or four rings should be left out for measurement as they are not well defined.
5. Micrometer screw should be moved only in one direction throughout the experiment in
order to avoid any error due to back lash of the screw.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 53

 Lab Assessment Components
AC1: Written Work (Marks of experiment) (5)

AC2: Fundamental Knowledge to conduct Experiment (5)

AC3: Questions Answered (Viva) (5)

AC4: Interaction during conduction of Experiment (5)

AC5: Punctuality (5)

Stamp

Total(25)

Signature of Faculty
Date:

Note: - All the students are required to update their marks in the Lab records after complete
evaluation by the respective teachers.

For Office Records

Date of Updating the Lab
records
/ /

Signature of Instructor

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 54

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are Newton’s rings?

2. Why these fringes are circular?
3. Why we are using the plano-convex lens of large focal length?
4. Why the 45o glass plate is employed?
5. What will happen if the light is incident obliquely?
6. Why is the centre of the rings dark?
7. On what factors does the diameter of the rings depend?
8. What will happen if few drops of a transparent liquid are introduced between the lens and
the glass plate?
9. What will happen when the glass plate is silvered on its front surface?
10. Sometimes the centre is bright. Why?
11. Do you get rings in the transmitted light?
12. Why do you use an extended source of light?
13. Why do the rings get closer as the order of the rings increases?
14. What are the two nearby wavelengths produced by the sodium light?
15. What will happen if the film is illuminated by white light instead of sodium light?

ANSWERS:

1. When a monochromatic light falls normally on a wedge air film developed between the lower
surface of the plano-convex lens and upper surface of the plane glass plate, after the interference,
we get an inner dark spot surrounded by the alternate bright and dark rings. These rings are
called Newton’s ring.

2. These rings are circular because the air film formed between the plano-convex lens and the
plane glass plate is wedge shaped and loci of the points of equal thickness are circles concentric
with the point of contact.

3. There are two reasons: The angle enclosing the air film (or angle of wedge) becomes very
small and the rings observed have then a large diameter and hence the error in the measurements
of their diameters is minimized.

4. The transparent glass plate at 45o turns the light rays coming from an extended source to 90o
so that they fall normally on the plano-convex lens placed on the horizontal glass plate.

5. If the light is incident obliquely on the plano-convex lens, then the diameters of rings become
large.

6. At the point of contact of the plano-convex lens and the glass plate the thickness of the film is
zero but the effective path difference is λ/2. So at the centre the condition of minimum
intensity is satisfied. Hence the central spot of the rings is dark.

7. The diameter of ring is directly proportional to the wavelength of light used and radius of
curvature of the convex surface of the plano-convex lens in contact with the glass plate, and
also it is inversely proportional to the reflective index of the enclosed film.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 55

 8. The diameter of fringes is reduced by a factor μ.
9. In this case, the transmitted system of the fringes will be reflected and due to superposition of
reflected and transmitted systems there will be uniform illumination.

10. This happens when a dust particle comes b/w the two surfaces at the point of contact.

11. Yes, in this case the color of the rings is complimentary of the reflected light.

12. To view the whole air film, an extended source is necessary.

13. This is due to fact that the radii of dark rings are proportional to square root of natural numbers
while those of bright rings are proportional to square root of odd natural number.

14. 5890Å and 5896Å.

15. A series of concentric colored rings with a dark centre will be observed around the point of
contact.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 56

 SPACE FOR STUDENTS WORK AREA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 57

 EXPERIMENT NO. 6
NODAL SLIDE
AIM: To determine the focal length of the combination of two thin convergent lenses separated by a
distance with the help of a Nodal – Slide and verify the formula
1 1 1 x
= + −
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2
where, F = focal length of the combination
f1,f2 = focal length of the two lenses
And x = Distance between the two lenses.
And also locate the cardinal points.
APPARATUS: Nodal – Slide Assembly (consisting of an optical bench, plane mirror, cross slit and
lamp) and the two given lenses.

THEORY: The focal length of a lens system is the distance between its principal point and the
corresponding focal point. The principal points coincide with the corresponding nodal points when the
media are the same on both the sides of the system (here, air). Thus the focal length of the system can
be determined by locating a nodal point and the corresponding focal point. The second nodal point can
be located by using the fact that in case of parallel beam of light incident on a convergent lens system,
thus forming an image on a screen in its second focal plane, the image does not shift laterally when the
system is rotated about a vertical axis passing through its second nodal point. The distance between
the uprights carrying the screen (or –cross- slit) and the nodal slide (which gives the position of the
axis of rotation) will, therefore, give the focal length of the lens system.
Any system of lenses, simple or complicated, is characterized by 6 cardinal points:
2 focal points: F1, F2 ;
2 principal points: P1, P2 ;
2 nodal points: N1,N2

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 58

F, P, N are in object space; F′, P′, N′ are in image space.
The relationship between any object and its image (their positions and sizes) is known once the
positions of these cardinal points are known. Hence the paraxial imaging of complex optical systems
is no more difficult a subject than the imaging of a simple lens.
Every lens system has an optical axis, often called the principal axis. Component lenses are mounted
concentric with the optical axis of the device. The cardinal points are located on the principal axis.
The next diagram defines F1, F2, P1 and P2.

The diagram represents a lens system in the middle and the object plane on the left, perpendicular to
the principal axis, and the image plane on the right, also perpendicular to the principal axis. Consider a
ray in object space, parallel to the axis of a lens system in the diagram above. This ray will pass
through the lens system and emerge in final image space as the conjugate ray, where it cuts the
principal axis is called the rear focal point F2, by definition. Some point on ray has the same height
above the principal axis as the conjugate ray in object space.
Magnification :
By definition, magnification m = Image Size/ Object Size
If h is opposite in sign to h, the magnification (m) is -ve, showing that the image is inverted. If an
object is placed on the first principal plane, the image will be the same size on the second principal
plane and hence the principal planes are sometimes defined as the conjugate planes of unit
magnification.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 59

Principal Points :
Consider two thin lenses L1 and L2 of focal lengths f1 and f2 placed on a common axis separated by a
distance d, as shown in the figure given below. Consider a ray PA parallel to the axis incident at A on
the lens L1 at a height C1A = h1.

It suffers deviation through a small angle at the first lens and proceeds towards the principal focus F1.
It meets the second lens at a point B at a height h+ from the axis. On refraction it is further deviated
through a small angle and meets finally the axis at F2. As the incident parallel ray PA after refraction
through both the lenses meets the axis at F2, the point F2 must be the second principal focus of the
combination. The ray F2B produced backward meets the ray PA produced forward at M2.Therefore
M2H2 is the principal plane and H2 the principal point. Hence F2H2 = F is the required focal length of
the combination. To find the position of first and second principal point we have to first find the
position of first and second focal point.
Position of focal points: In the above figure, triangles M2H2F2 and BC2F2 are similar
C2 F2 BC 2 h
= = 2
H 2 F2 M 2 H 2 h1

h2
Or C 2 F2 = H 2 F2
h1
But H2F2 = focal length of combination = F

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 60

 h2
Therefore, C 2 F2 = F
h1

h2 d
Also = 1−
h1 f1

d
Thus, C 2 F2 = F (1 − )
f1

Thus C2F2 gives the position of second focal point. Similarly the position of the first focal point will
be given by

d
C1 F1 = − F (1 − )
f2
Position of principal points:

The position of the first and second principal point is given by

d
C1 H 1 = F
f2

d
C2 H 2 = −F
f1

Nodal Points :
It can be located using nodal slide, which is a special type of lens mount that allows the system to be
rotated about a vertical axis passing through any point along the optical axis. If the lens on the nodal
slide is placed in a collimated beam, the beam will be focused in the back focal plane of the lens. If the
lens is rotated about a vertical axis, the image will move across the back focal plane. However, there is
one position of the axis of rotation where the image will be stationary and that is when axis passes
through the back nodal point of the lens. If the lens rotates about any other point, the image will also
move. The lens is moved backward and forward along the nodal slide and rotated in both directions by
a small amount at each position. By trial and error the back nodal point can be located.

The last two cardinal points, N and N’ concern the angles that rays make to the principal axis in object

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 61

and image space. The two nodal points are conjugate to each other. A ray passing through the first
nodal point (in object space) emerges through the second nodal point (in image space) making the
same angle to the principal axis.

PROCEDURE :
1. First the focal length f1 and f2 of the two given lenses are determined. For this one of the lenses
is mounted on the nodal – slide such that its optical center lies on the axis of rotation of nodal
slide. The source of light, screen having the cross slit and plane- mirror are mounted on the
proper uprights and the heights of uprights are adjusted in such a manner that the line joining
the center of each part is parallel to the bed of the bench.
2. The cross- slit is illuminated and the plane of the mirror is adjusted till the image of the cross
slit is formed close to the cross slit itself. If the image is blurred and not well defined then the
upright carrying the nodal slides moved towards or away from the slit till the image becomes
sharp and well defined. (In this position light diverging from the cross-slit emerges as a
parallel beam of light after passing through the lens. This parallel beam of light is reflected as a
parallel beam from the plane–mirror and brought to focus on the plane of the cross- slit by the
lens. In other words, the screen having the cross -slit serves as the second focal plane for the
parallel beam of light coming from the plane mirror.)
3. The slide is rotated slightly about the vertical axis and lateral shift of the image is observed. If
there is any shift, the position of the axis of rotation with respect to the lens is slightly changed
by moving the nodal slide on the upright by means of the screw provided for this purpose. The
sharpness of the image is disturbed. The image is refocused by moving the upright (carrying
the nodal slide) on the optical bench. Lateral shift of the image is again observed. The same
process is repeated till the image of the slit is in sharp focus and does not show any lateral shift
when the nodal slide is slightly rotated about its vertical axis. The distance between the plane
of the cross slit and the axis of rotation now gives the focal length of the lens.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 62

4. The lens is rotated through 1800 and the whole process is repeated. The mean of the two
distances, thus obtained, will give the exact focal length “f” of the lens.
5. The first lens is removed and the second lens is mounted on the nodal- side. Its focal length “f”
is determined in the same manner as described.
6. To determine the focal length of the combination, the two lenses are mounted on the nodal
slide at some distance apart (the lenses are being placed equidistance and on opposite sides of
the axis of rotation). By adjusting the inclination of the plane mirror and the position of the
nodal slide the image of the cross slit are made to lie on the side of the slit itself. The shift in
the image due to a slight rotation of the nodal slide is observed. If there is any lateral shift,
with the simultaneous focusing of image a suitable position of the nodal slide is determined for
which no lateral shift of the image occurs due to a slight rotation of the nodal slide. The
distance between the plane of the screen and the axis of the rotation of the nodal slide now
gives the focal length of the combination.
7. Different sets of reading are to be taken by turning the faces of the lens through 1800 and inter–
changing the position of the component lenses.
8. The experiment is repeated for different values of x- the distance between the lenses (say 4,6,8
cms)
9. The focal length of the combination is also obtained theoretically for each value of d by the
1 1 1 d
formula = + −
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2

f1 f 2
a. F =
f1 + f 2 − d
b. It will be found that the experimental and theoretically values of the focal length of the
combination for given separation agree fairy well thus verifying the truth of the
formula.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 63

OBSERVATION;
(A) Observation for the focal length of the first lens:
S. Light Position Of The Position of The Axis Focal Length Mean
No. Incident On Cross- Slit (a) of Rotation of The f1 = (a-b) cm Focal
cm. Nodal-Slide (b) cm. Length f1
1. One face
Other face
2. One face
Other face

(B) Observation for the focal length of the second lens:

S. Light Position Of The Position of The Axis Focal Length Mean

No. Incident On Cross- Slit (a) of Rotation of The f2 = (a-b) cm Focal
cm. Nodal-Slide (b) cm. Length f2
1. One face
Other face
2. One face
Other face

(c) Observations for the focal length of the combination:

S.No. Distance Light Incident Position of Position of The Focal Length of
Between on Cross Slit (a) Axis of Rotation The System
lenses d cm. cm. of The Nodal F
Slide (b) (a-b) Mean
cm. cm. cm.
1. First face F1=
Second face
2. First face F2=
Second face

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 64

RESULT:
1 1 1 d
= + −
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2

f1 f 2
F=
f1 + f 2 − d
(a) For d = ----------------------cm. F1 = ---------------------cm.

(b) For d = ----------------------cm. F2 = ---------------------cm.

f1 = -----------------------------cm f2 = -----------------------------cm.

d
First principal point C1 H 1 = F
f2

d
Second principal point C 2 H 2 = − F
f1

d
First focal point C1 F1 = − F (1 − )
f2

d
Second focal point C 2 F2 = F (1 − )
f1
From the above it is obvious that the experimental and theoretical values of the focal length of the
1 1 1 d
system are nearly the same for each value of d separately. Hence the formula = + − is
F f1 f 2 f1 f 2
verified.

PRECAUTIONS :
1. False images formed by partial reflection from the faces of the lenses should not be confused with
the true image of the cross-slit.
2. While determining the focal length of a single lens, its optical centre must lie on the axis of
rotation of the nodal slide. (for easy and quick setting)
3. Bench-error should also be taken into account.
4. The nodal slide should be rotated slightly about the axis of rotation.
5. In order to get a bright image of the slit the plane mirror should be placed as close to the
combination as possible.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 65

 Lab Assessment Components
AC1: Written Work (Marks of experiment) (5)

AC2: Fundamental Knowledge to conduct Experiment (5)

AC3: Questions Answered (Viva) (5)

AC4: Interaction during conduction of Experiment (5)

AC5: Punctuality (5)

Stamp

Total(25)

Signature of Faculty
Date:

Note: - All the students are required to update their marks in the Lab records after complete evaluation
by the respective teachers.

For Office Records

Date of Updating the Lab
records
/ /

Signature of Instructor

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 66

VIVA QUESTIONS :
1. Name the points which gives unit angular magnification.
2. How many cardinal points there in optical systems?
3. Write down the formula for lateral magnification?
4. What do you mean by coaxial lens system?
5. What is angular magnification?
6. What are nodal points?
7. What are principal points?
8. On what factors focal length of a thin lens depends?
9. Name the points which gives unit linear magnification?
10. What is the use of plane mirror in nodal slide experiment?

ANSWERS
1. nodal points
2. two nodal points, two focal points, two principal points
3. M= length of the image/length of the object
4. A system of two or more lenses having common principal axis called coaxial lens system.
5. Ratio of tangent of the angles, if incident ray and conjugate emergent ray makes angle with
principal axis
6. pair of conjugate points in such a way if light ray incident one of these points after refraction it
emerges from other point parallel to original direction
7. Pair of conjugate points on principal axis having unit positive linear or lateral magnification
8. Refractive index of material, radii of curvature
9. principal points
10. Simply to reflect the light ray

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 67

 SPACE FOR STUDENTS WORK AREA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 68

 Experiment No.7

POLARIMETER

AIM: To determine the specific rotation of an optically active (cane sugar) solution by
Polarimeter.

APPARATUS: Polarimeter, Sodium Vapor Lamp, Cane Sugar, Thermometer, Graduated Jar
and Distilled Water.

FORMULA: At a given temperature, specific rotation of an optically active (cane sugar)

solution is given by

where
 = rotation of the plane of polarization
l = length of the tube (in cm)
C = percentage strength of the cane sugar solution (in g/CC)

DESCRIPTION: Figure (1) shows the Polarimeter arrangement. The tube T1 contains a slit
which is placed at the focal plane of a convex lens L thus providing a parallel beam of light
which falls on the polarizing Nicol Prism P and becomes plane polarized. After passing through
the half-shade or biquartz H there is a tube T containing the liquid under investigation and it is
closed on both sides by plane glass plates. The analyzing Nicol prism A is fixed to the tube T2,
so that on rotation of the tube the Vernier scale rotates on a fixed circular scale S. The position of
the tube is obtained from the Vernier reading on the scale. Equality of brightness of the two
halves can be observed for two positions (V1 and V2) of vernier, which are 1800 apart. The axis
of all the tubes lies in the horizontal line.

Fig. 1 Polarimeter

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 69

THEORY: According to Biot’s Law of rotatory polarization the angle of rotation () of the
plane of polarization when light passes through an optically active substance depends.
(i) Directly on the thickness (l cm or l/10 decimeters) of substance traversed by light.
(ii) Directly on the concentration (C) of the substance in solution or density (d) of the
substance.
(iii) Inversely as the square of the wavelength of light i.e.

Where A and B are constant.

At a given temperature, specific rotation is defined as
rotation of plane polarization per decimeter length of
solution having concentration of 1 g/CC.

where
 = rotation of the plane of polarization.
l = length of the tube (in cm) Fig.2. Experimental Setup
C = percentage strength of the cane sugar solution (in g/CC)

PROCEDURE:
1. 100 cubic centimeter solution of highest concentration C1 percentage (say 12%,10%,8%) is
to be prepared.
2. The length ‘l’ of the Tube ‘T’ between the inner surfaces of end plates is measured thrice by
a meter scale and its mean value is taken. In addition, the Vernier constant of the vernier is
determined.
3. The slit S is illuminated by sodium light if the device is half shade or by white light if the
device is biquartz. The tube T is completely filled with distilled water without letting any air
bubble in the tube. After wiping the tube clean, it is placed in the given groove of the
polarimeter. The tube T2 is rotated till the two halves of the field are equally bright for
sodium light with half shade or appear grayish violet (tint of passage) for white light with
biquartz. The reading of the Vernier is noted at V1 and the tube T2 is rotated through 180o to
obtain the same condition of the field of view and the reading of the field of view and the
reading of the Vernier is noted at V2. Mean values R0 for first position of Vernier V1 and R10
for second position of Vernier V2 are determined.
4. Distilled water is removed from the tube T and the tube is washed with a little quantity of
the prepared solution (C1% strength) and then finally it is filled completely with this solution
so that there is no air bubble in the tube. It is replaced in the groove of the polarimeter. It is
seen that the previous setting is disturbed due to the rotation of the plane-polarized light by
the solution. Again the tube T is rotated till two halves of the field become equally bright for
half shade or appear greyish violet in biquartz. As before the reading are taken and mean
1
value of R1 for first position and R 1 for second position are found out. Thus the angle of
1 1
rotation obtained from the second position of Vernier is 2 = R 1-R 0 and from the first

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 70

 position of vernier is 1 =R1-R0. The mean gives the rotation of the plane of polarization due
to the solution of strength C1%

5. Prepare solution of different lower strength and follow above procedures, mean rotation are
determined. For each concentration, the specific rotation is calculated and mean value of the
specific rotation is found out.

A graph is plotted between the strength of the

solution C along X-axis and the corresponding
rotation along y-axis. The slope is obtained
from the graph. Put this in the relation (2) from
which the values of α is calculated. The mean
of α is obtained by calculation and the other
form the graph by finding the concentration of
the unknown solution.

OBSERVATIONS :
(A) Vernier constants

1MSD = ________________________,No. of VSD=_______________________

Least constant =_________________________________________________

Length of the tube between the inner surface of two end plates = 20cm

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 71

 (B) Observation with distilled water in the tube

CALCULATIONS:

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 72

RESULT:

PERCENTAGE ERROR:
Standard value :66.67 deg/dm/g/m3

PRECAUTIONS :
1. There should be no air bubble in the tube otherwise the path of light is obstructed.
2. The eye-piece of the telescope should be focused on the half shade.
3. The cap of the tube should not be screwed so tightly that the end glass pieces may be
strained, if they are strained the light may become elliptically polarized.
4. The temperature of the solution should be recorded and mentioned with the result.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 73

 Lab Assessment Components
AC1: Written Work (Marks of experiment) (5)

AC2: Fundamental Knowledge to conduct Experiment (5)

AC3: Questions Answered (Viva) (5)

AC4: Interaction during conduction of Experiment (5)

AC5: Punctuality (5)

Stamp

Total(25)

Signature of Faculty
Date:

Note: - All the students are required to update their marks in the Lab records after complete
evaluation by the respective teachers.

For Office Records

Date of Updating the Lab
records
/ /

Signature of Instructor

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 74

VIVA QUESTIONS :

1. What do you mean by optically active substance?

2. What is specific rotation?
3. What will be the resultant rotation if a number of optically active substances are present in a
solution?
4. What is the construction of half shade device?
5. What is the unit of specific rotation?
6. What is saccharimeter?
7. Cane sugar solution is dextro-rotatory or lavo- rotator?
8. How will you get polarized light in your laboratory?
9. What is the principle plane?
10. Is there any device which can work with white light?
11. Name two different devices used in polarimeter? What is the difference in their
construction?
12. Why do you use sodium light with half shade device?
13. Do you know any practical application of measurement of specific rotation?
14. Can we find unknown concentrations of sugar solution using polarimeter?
15. Can the direction of optical rotation be known?

ANSWERS:

1. Certain substances have a tendency to rotate the plane of polarization of a plane

polarized light when propagated through it. Such substances are called optically
active substances.

2. The specific rotation of an optically active substance at a given temperature for a given
wavelength of light is defined as the rotation of plane of polarization of incident polarized
beam produced by one decimeter length of the substance of unit density.

3. In that case, the net rotation will be equal to the algebraic sum of rotations produced
separately.

4. It consists of two semi circular pates. One semi circular plate is of ordinary glass,
whereas the other is of quartz. Both are cemented together along the diameter. The quartz
is a half plate it introduces a path difference of λ/2.

5. That is degree/decimeter/gm/cc or degree/decimeter/kg/m3

6. Saccharimeter is the name of polarimeter used for the analysis of sugar.

7. Cane sugar is a dextro-rotatory substancs.

8. In the laboratory, the polarized light can be produced by reflection, by refraction or by

double refraction.

9. The plane containing optic axis and ordinary ray is called principle plane of the
ordinary ray.

10. Yes, bi-quartz device.

11. i) Half shade ii) Biquartz polarimeter. In Half shade one semicircular plate is made
up of glass whereas another is made up of quartz working as a half shade device. In

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 75

biquartz two semicircular plates made up of right handed and left handed quartz with
thickness for which angle of rotation for yellow color is 900

12. The half shade device introduces path difference λ/2 between ordinary ray and
extraordinary ray for a particular wavelength λ for which it is designed. Generally this
wavelength is that of sodium D line. So sodium light is essential one.

13. Its extensive application is in estimating the percentage of sugar in given solution in
sugar factories.

14. Yes. Using standared value of S, C may be found by the same procedure.

15. No.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 76

 SPACE FOR STUDENTS WORK AREA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 77

 Experiment No. 8
ECE OF COPPER

AIM : To determine the Electro Chemical Equivalent of copper using a Tangent Galvanometer
(TG).

APPARATUS: Copper Voltameter, Storage Cell, Plug Key, Rheostat, Stop Watch,
Commutator, Spirit level and TG.

m
FORMULA: ECE of copper Z = ,
It
Where ‘m’ is the mass of copper deposited in‘t’ seconds by ‘I’ ampere current.

THEORY:

The basic principle of this experiment is that when a steady current is passed for a known
interval of time through a copper voltammeter and the TG, connected in series. By
measuring the mass of copper deposited & knowing the constant of TG, the ECE of
copper can be calculated. Let us first understand about copper voltammeter and Tangent
galvanometer.
Copper Voltammeter:
It consists of a cylindrical glass vessel filled with copper sulphate solution with few drops
of sulphuric acid. Vessel is covered with a circular ebonite lid from the top of which anode
and cathode copper plates are suspended. The anode is a pair of two identical parallel
copper plates held at a small distance apart and joined together by a metallic strip with the
help of binding terminals at their upper ends. The cathode is also a copper plate suspended
symmetrically in between two anode plates through central hole of the lid by means of
binding terminal at upper end. When an electric current is passes through copper sulphate
solution, copper deposited on the cathode and dissolves from the anode into the solution
keeping the concentration of solution constant. Schematic is shown below in diagram.

Figure 1. Copper Voltameter

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 78
Tangent Galvanometer:
It is an instrument which is used for detection and measurement of low electric currents. It
is based on tangent law in magnetism. It consists of circular frame of a non magnetic
material like wood, connate or brass. It is mounted vertically on a horizontal base called
turn table provided with three leveling screws at the base. The frame can be rotated about
a vertical axis. Three coils of fine insulated copper wire having 2, 50 and 500 number of
turns are wound on the circular frame. The coils are well insulated from one another. One
end of each of the three coils is connected to a common terminal C and their other ends are
connected to terminal son the turn table. A circular magnetometer box of non-magnetic
material is held at the centre of circular frame. This box has a small magnetic needle ns
pivoted at its centre on a vertical axis with a long thin aluminum pointer fixed at 90 to the
needle. Both are free to move as one body. The ends of the pointer lie over a horizontal
circular scale graduated in degrees and divided into four quadrants of 0 – 90 each. A small
plane mirror is fixed at the base under the pointer. This would remove error due to parallax
in reading the position of the pointer on the scale. For setting it adjust the leveling screws
so that the turn table is horizontal and the frame is exactly vertical. Rotate the vertical
frame so that the plane of the frame lies exactly over the magnetic needle in the box. This
sets the frame in magnetic meridian. Hold the vertical frame firmly with hand and turn the
magnetometer box so that ends of the aluminum pointer lie on zero line, on the scale. The
schematic of TG is shown below in the diagram.

Figure 2. Tangent Galvanometer

The ECE of a substance is the mass of the substance liberated during electrolysis by one
coulomb of electricity. When a current is passed through copper sulphate solution taken in
a copper voltammeter, electrolysis takes place. Copper ions move towards the cathode and
get deposited on it. If ‘m’ is the mass of copper deposited in‘t’ seconds by ‘I’ ampere
current then.
mQ
m  It
or m = Z.I.t where ‘Z’ is ECE of copper

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 79

 m
Therefore, Z=
It
If this current is also passed through a TG set in the magnetic field, it produces a
deflection in galvanometer which is related with I as
I=K tan
2rH
where K = and is known as the reduction factor.
0 n
When =450, tan =1 and K=I
K is numerically equal to the current required to produce a deflection of 450 in the
galvanometer.
So, Z = (K tan ) t KgC-1

Figure 3. Circuit Diagram

PROCEDURE :

The TG is set so that the coil lies in the magnetic meridian by making the following
adjustments:
1. Using the spirit level, the instrument is leveled so that the base board is horizontal
and the plane of the coil is vertical.
2. The compass box is turned so that the line joining 900-900 is parallel to the plane of
the coil.
3. The coil as whole is turned so that the pioneer reads 00 -00. Connections are made
as shown is the circuit diagram. The Voltmeter is connected in series with a storage
cell, rheostat, key and a TG through a Commutator ‘C’. The rheostat is adjusted so
that the deflection in the TG is 450. The circuit is broken and cathode plate (Plate
connected to the -ve of the cell) is removed. It is rubbed with sandpaper, washed
with the distilled water and dried. It is weighed in mg, by the electronic balance.
4. It is replaced in the voltmeter and reconnected. The circuit is completed and
simultaneously a stop watch is started.
5. The deflections of the TG ( & ) are noted, current is passed for seconds, then
the current through TG is reversed with the help of commutator. Keep the watch on
deflection if it changes make it again constant by means of rheostat then the
deflections ( 3 & ) of the pointer are noted. If the two deflections are same then

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 80

 coils are in magnetic meridian otherwise rotate slightly the coils til the two
deflections are the same.
6. Now note down the deflections after a regular interval of 5 minutes for both
forward and reverse direction and keep it constant with the help of rheostat. This
process is continued for 40 to 50 minutes & then the circuit is broken. The cathode
is disconnected. It is dipped in dilute sulphuric acid and washed in a thin stream of
distilled water. It is then dried and weighed.
7. Care is taken to see that the current remains steady throughout the experiment.

OBSERVATIONS:

Horizontal Component of the earth magnetic field BH = 0.345 X 10-4T(in Delhi)

Number of turns in each coil (n) = ___________________________________
Circumference of the coil, (C) = ____________________________________cm.

Radius of the coil, r = = _________________cm = _____________________m.

Mass of the copper plate before deposition of copper = (m1) = ___________g.

Mass of the copper plate after deposition of copper = (m2) = ___________g.
Mass of copper deposited = m = (m2-m1) = _______________g.
Total time ‘t’ taken = _______________________________sec.

K=Reduction factor of T.G = = ___________________A.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Deflection of pointer Deflection of pointer
for direct current for reverse current
Time Mean I = K tan
Left Right Left Right
(min) (degree) (Amp)
pointer pointer pointer pointer

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 81

 Mean I = ………. A
CALCULATIONS :

Z= = _________________g/C = __________________Kg/C

RESULT:

Electro Chemical Equivalent of copper (Z) = _________________________Kg/C

PERCENTAGE ERROR:
Original value of ECE of Copper is 3.210-7 Kg/C

PRECAUTIONS :

1. Magnetic field of the rheostat may influence the deflections of the magnetic needle at
the centre of the TG. So it must be placed far away from the TG.
2. The point of pivot of the magnetic needle may not coincide with the centre of the
circular scale hence both ends of the pointer are read to obtain the deflections & .
3. The plane of TG may not lie exactly in the magnetic meridian. Hence the current
through the TG is reversed using the commutator. Reading 3 & 4 of the pointer is
noted.
4. The current must be steady throughout the experiment.
5. As the mass of copper deposited is very small, it must be determined accurately by the
method of oscillations.
6. It is preferable to use a copper voltameter with three copper plates, the end
plates being connected. The middle plate must be used as cathode.
7. The cathode plate must be properly cleaned, otherwise deposition of the copper
may not be firm.
8.High current should not be passed; current should not be more than one ampere for 50
sq. cm areas of the cathode plate.
9. The accumulator used must be fully charged so that the current is constant
throughout the experiment, if there is decrease in current, it must be maintained
steadily by adjusting the rheostat.
10. The plate is dried to remove the moisture before weighing.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 82

 Lab Assessment Components
AC1: Written Work (Marks of experiment) (5)

AC2: Fundamental Knowledge to conduct Experiment (5)

AC3: Questions Answered (Viva) (5)

AC4: Interaction during conduction of Experiment (5)

AC5: Punctuality (5)

Stamp

Total(25)

Signature of Faculty
Date:

Note: - All the students are required to update their marks in the Lab records after
complete evaluation by the respective teachers.

For Office Records

Date of Updating the
Lab records
/ /

Signature of Instructor

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 83

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is Faraday’s Ist law of electrolysis?
2. What do you mean by ECE of an element?
3. What is an electrolyte?
4. What do you mean by electrolysis?
5. Which solution is used in Copper Voltammeter?
6. Why do we add a few drops of sulphuric acid to copper sulphate solution?
7. Why do we use two anodes in voltammeter?
8. Why do we make deflection nearly 450?
9. What is the use of commutator in this experiment?
10. Why do you take observations with direct and reverse currents?
11. What is the practical utility of electrolysis?
12. What is reduction factor?
13. Why the Stewart and Gee type galvanometer is called Tangent Galvanometer?
14. What is tangent law?
15. Why is it necessary to set the plane of the coil in magnetic meridian?
ANSWERS

1. The mass of ions liberated at any electrode during electrolysis is directly

proportional to the charge flowing through the electrolyte.
2. ECE is defined as the mass of its ions liberated at an electrode when charge of one
coulomb is passed through its electrolyte.
3. The liquid or salt solution which undergoes decomposition on passing current
through it is called electrolyte.
4. The process of decomposition of a liquid or a salt solution by passing current
through it is called electrolysis.
5. Copper Sulphate.
6. Sulphuric acid is added to increase the conductivity of the copper sulphate
solution, as it produces additional ions.
7. Two anodes are used on either sides of the cathode to deposit copper on both sides
of the cathode plate.
8. Because value of tan  does not change much near the angle 450.
9. It is used to reverse the direction of current.
10. By taking observations with direct and reverse current any errors in the
measurement of deflection arise due to coil of galvanometer not exactly in
magnetic meridian is removed.
11. It is used in electroplating of metals.
12. It is a factor which when multiplied by tangent of the angle of deflection gives
current through the coil.
13. Because its working is based on Tangent law.
14. F=H tan .
15. To make the magnetic field produced by circular coil at right angles to the
horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field.
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 84
 SPACE FOR STUDENTS WORK AREA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 85

 Experiment No. 9
DIFFRACTION GRATING
AIM : To determine the wavelength of spectral lines using plane transmission grating.

APPARATUS: Diffraction grating, Spectrometer, mercury vapor lamp, condensing lens,

spirit level & reading lens.

FORMULA USED: The wavelength λ of any spectral line can be calculated by the
formula
(a + b) sin  = n

(a + b) sin 
=
n
Where (a+b) = grating element
θ = angle of diffraction
n = order of the spectrum

THEORY : A diffraction grating consists of a number of equidistant parallel slits of equal

width. It is obtained by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a glass plate by means of a fine
diamond point. When white light is incident on a grating, it diffracts into its constituent
wavelengths. Hence we obtain a spectrum consisting of series of spectral lines. Several
such sets of known different orders of the spectrum are obtained.

PROCEDURE:

Preliminary adjustments of the Spectrometer.

1. Adjusting the Telescope: The Telescope is turned towards distant object. The eye
piece is pulled out or pushed in until the cross wires are clearly seen. The rack
and pinion screw of the telescope is adjusted until a clear and well defined image
of the object is seen without parallax between the image and the cross wires.
2. Leveling the prism table: The prism table is made horizontal by means of its
leveling screws using a spirit level.
3. Adjusting the collimator: The slit of the spectrometer is illuminated with the
given source of light. Light is focused on the slit using a condensing lens.
Looking through the telescope, which is kept in line with the collimator, the slit
is made narrow. The rack and pinion screw of the collimator is adjusted so that a
clear and well-defined image of the slit is formed.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 86

Adjustment of Grating
1.Collimator and telescope are arranged in a line and the image of the slit is focused on
the vertical crosswire. The reading is noted on both the verniers.
2.The telescope is now rotated through 90o
3.Mount the grating on the prism table and rotate the prism table so that the reflected
image is seen on the vertical crosswire.Take the reading of the vernier.
4.Turn the prism table from this position through 45o or 135o. In this position the grating
is normal to the incident beam.
Procedure for the determination of angles of diffraction
1 Rotate the telescope to the left side of direct image and adjust the different spectral lines
(violet, green and red) turn by turn on the vertical crosswire for first order and note the
readings for both the verniers.
2.Rotate the telescope further to obtain the second order spectrum and again the spectral
lines on the vertical crosswire and note the reading.
3 Now rotate the telescope to the right of the direct image and repeat the above
procedure for first order as well as for second order.
4. Find out the difference of the same kind of verniers (V1 from V1 and V2 from V2) for
each spectral line in the first order and then in the second.
5. The angle is twice the angle of diffraction for that particular colour. Half of it will be
angle of diffraction.
6. Find out the angle of diffraction for other colors in first and second order.

Fig.1. Experimental Setup

OBSERVATIONS :
The least count of the spectrometer is found using the relation

No. of rulings per inch on the grating,N=

Reading of telescope for direct image=
Reading of telescope after rotating through 900 =
Reading of circular scale when reflected image is obtained on the crosswire=

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 87

 Fig.2 Spectral Lines

Determination of angles of diffraction

Order of Colour Reading of telescope 2θ= θ Sin θ

Spectrum of Light
Spectrum on right Spectrum on left (A-B) (deg) (deg)
side side deg
MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR
(A) (B)
First Violet
Blue
Blue
Green
Green
Yellow
1
Yellow2
Red

CALCULATIONS:
Grating element
= per cm.
where N is number of rulings per inch on the grating.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 88

 The wavelength of various spectral lines in the first order (n=1) can be calculated by

RESULT:
Wavelength of some emission lines for mercury (discharge) lamp:-
Colour Observed Standard % error
Wavelength in Wavelength in
Å Å
Violet 4078 Å
Blue 4339-4348 Å
Blue Green 4358-4916 Å
Green 5461 Å
Yellow 1 5770 Å

Yellow2 5791 Å

Red 6300-7000 Å

PRECAUTIONS :

1. Grating should be held from its edges and not to be touched by fingers.
2. The grating must be adjusted for minimum deviation carefully.
3. The prism table, telescope and the collimator of the spectrometer are first adjusted.
4. The grating is mounted at the centre of the prism table with its face normal to the
incident light and the rules surface facing the telescope.
5. The lines of the grating are kept parallel to axis of the prism table.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 89

 Lab Assessment Components
AC1: Written Work (Marks of experiment) (5)

AC2: Fundamental Knowledge to conduct Experiment (5)

AC3: Questions Answered (Viva) (5)

AC4: Interaction during conduction of Experiment (5)

AC5: Punctuality (5)

Stamp

Total(25)

Signature of Faculty
Date:

Note: - All the students are required to update their marks in the Lab records after
complete evaluation by the respective teachers.

For Office Records

Date of Updating the
Lab records
/ /

Signature of Instructor

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 90

VIVA QUESTIONS
1. What is a diffraction grating?
2. What is grating constant?
3. What is an ideal grating?
4. What are the essential parts of a spectrometer?
5. Which eye-piece is used in the telescope of spectrometer?
6. Which gas is used to produce initial discharge in mercury lamp?
7. Define Resolving power of a grating?
8. What is the difference between grating and prism spectra?
9. Give any two precautions in this experiment?
10. Why we read both the verniers?
ANSWERS

1 A diffraction grating is the arrangement of large number of equidistant narrow

rectangular slits of equal width placed side by side parallel to one another.
2 If the width of the transparency and opacity be a’ and b respectively then the
distance (a+b) is called grating constant or grating element .
3 An ideal grating is one having grooves which are straight and parallel, equally
spaced and have identical form.
4 The essential parts of the spectrometer are the collimator ,prismtable and the
telescope.
5 Generally, Ramdsens eye-piece is used.Some telescopes have Gauss eye-piece.
6 Argon gas is used to produce initial discharge in Hg discharge lamp.
7 The resolving power of a diffraction grating is defined as its ability to show two
neighbouring lines in a spectrum as separate.
8 The spectra produced by two prisms are neither similar nor regular but spectrum
produced by grating is exactly similar.There is only one spectrum for prism but
there are a number of spectra on either side of central maximum.
9 The slit should be as narrow as permissible and the optical adjustment of the
spectrometre must be made correctly.
10 It is to eliminate any error due to non-coincidence of the centre of the divided
circle with the axis of rotation of the telescope or the table.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 91

 SPACE FOR STUDENTS WORK AREA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 92

 Experiment No. 10
NUMERICAL APERTURE OF OPTICAL FIBER

AIM: Measurement of Numerical Aperture (NA) of an optical fiber

APPARAUTUS:

1. ST2501 Techbook with power supply cord

2. Optical Fibre cable
3. Numerical Aperture measurement Jig

FORMULA USED :

W
Numerical Aperture N.A. =
4 L2 + W 2

W is diameter of the spot in mm

L is distance between fiber and screen in cm

THEORY:

1 The numerical aperture (NA) of an optical system is a dimensionless number that

characterizes the range of angles over which the system can accept or emit light.
Numerical Aperture refers to the maximum angle at which the light incident on
the fiber and is totally internally reflected and it can be transmitted properly along
the fiber.

2. Consider an optical fiber having a core of refractive index n1 and cladding of

refractive index n2 .
3 Let the incident light makes an angle α with the core axis as shown in figure (3 )
4 Then the light gets refracted at an angle Ө and fall on the core cladding interface
at an angle where,
Ө c = ( 90 - Ө)………………………………………(1)
By Snell’s law at the point of entrance of light in to the optical fiber we get ,
n3 sin α = n 1 sin Ө …………………………………(2)
where n3 is refractive index of medium outside the fiber .For air n3= 1 .
5 When light travels from core to cladding it moves from denser to rarer medium
and so it may be totally reflected back to the core medium if Ө c exceeds the
critical angle .The critical angle is that angle of incidence in denser medium ( n1 )
for which angle of refraction becomes 90° .

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 93

 Using Snell’s law at core cladding interface ,
n1 sin Ө c == n2 sin 900
Sin Ө c = n2/n1

Figure 1. Optical Fibre

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 94

 6 Therefore, for light to be propagated within the core of optical fiber as guided
wave , the angle of incidence at core cladding interface should be greater than Ө c
.There is maximum value of angle of incidence beyond which , it does not
propagate rather it is refracted in to the cladding medium .The maximum value of
α say α m is called maximum angle of acceptance and n3 sin α m is termed as
numerical aperture

7 In terms of refractive index , it can be given as N.A.= =√ n1 2 – n2 2

8 The significance of NA is that light entering in the cone of semi vertical angle α m
only propagate through the fiber. The higher the value of α m or NA ,more is the
light collected for propagation in the fiber. Numerical aperture is thus considered
as a light gathering capacity of an optical fiber.
Numerical aperture is thus defined as the sine of half of the angle of fiber’s light
acceptance cone i.e. NA =Sin α m .
9. Let the spot size of the beam be at a distance L(distance between the fiber end
and detector) and the radius of the spot (W) .Then ,

W
Numerical Aperture N.A. =
4 L2 + W 2

PROCEDURE:

1 Connect the Power supply cord to mains supply and to the Techbook ST2501.

2. Connect the Frequency Generator 1 KHz sine wave output to input of emitter
circuit. Adjust its amplitude at 5Vp-p.

3. Connect one end of fiber cable to the output socket of emitter circuit and the
other end to the numerical aperture measurement jig. Hold the white screen
facing the fiber such that its cut face is perpendicular to the axis of the fiber.

4. Hold the white screen with 4 concentric circles (10, 15, 20 & 25 mm diameter)
vertically at a suitable distance to make the red spot from the fiber coincide with
10 mm circle.

5. Record the distances of screen from the fiber end L and note the diameter W of
the spot.

6. Compute the numerical aperture from the formula-

W
N.A. =
4 L2 + W 2

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 95

7. Vary the distance between in screen and fiber optic cable and make it coincide with
one of the concentric circles. Note its distance.

8. Tabulate the various distances and diameter of the circles made on the white screen
and computer the numerical aperture from the formula given below

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S. No Distance between Fiber and Diameter of the spot W

N.A. =
Screen (L) in cm (W) in mm
4 L2 + W 2

1
2
3

Mean=………………

CALCULATIONS:

N.A.=

RESULT :

PERCENTAGE ERROR:
Numerical Aperture of optical fiber is 0.5 (Standard Value )

PRECAUTIONS:

1. Optical fiber cable should be tightly connected to the emitter LED point on the
board .
2 Gain should be adjusted to maximum value otherwise input spot from LED is not
visible.
3 There should not be any bend in the optical fiber cable.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 96

 Lab Assessment Components
AC1: Written Work (Marks of experiment) (5)

AC2: Fundamental Knowledge to conduct Experiment (5)

AC3: Questions Answered (Viva) (5)

AC4: Interaction during conduction of Experiment (5)

AC5: Punctuality (5)

Stamp

Total(25)

Signature of Faculty
Date:

Note: - All the students are required to update their marks in the Lab records after
complete evaluation by the respective teachers.

For Office Records

Date of Updating the
Lab records
/ /

Signature of Instructor

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 97

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1: What do you mean by Numerical Aperture?

2. On what factors the numerical aperture depends?
3. What do you mean by acceptance angle?
4. What do you mean by acceptance cone of a fibre?
5. What is working principle of optical fibre?
6. A fibre with high numerical aperture is preferable or not?
7. What is the importance of acceptance cone?
8. What do you mean by mode?
9. What are buffer and jacket in optical fibre?
10. How is an optical fibre fabricated?
ANSWERS:
1. Numerical aperture of a fibre is a number which defines the light
acceptance or light gathering capacity of a fibre.
2. The numerical aperture of a fibre depends on the refractive indices of the
core and cladding.
3. The maximum entrance angle subtended by a ray on the fibre axis at the
entry point of the fibre for which the ray suffers total internal reflection on
striking the core-cladding boundary, is called the acceptance angle.
4. The cone of light described at the entry end of the fibre with semi-angle
less than or equal to the acceptance angle of the fibre is called acceptance
cone.
5. Total internal reflection.
6. No, a fibre with low numerical aperture is desirable.
7. Not all the rays entering the fibre core will continue to be propagated. All
the rays falling within the cone formed with acceptance angle as vertex
angle would be transmitted down the fibre.
8. Mode is path for light to follow in a fibre.
9. Buffer is the protective layer deposited on the cladding of the fibre,
whereas jacket is the outer protective layer in a fibre cable.
10. To fabricated fibre, one can use either different glasses with different
refractive indices for core and cladding or use fused silica (quartz glass)
whose refractive index is modified by doping. The type of glass used will
also vary with application, but the purity must also be kept very high.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 98

 SPACE FOR STUDENTS WORK AREA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 99

 APPENDIX

SOME PHYSICAL CONSTANTS

1. Speed of light ‘c’ = 2.99793 x 108 m/s

2. Acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ = 9.80665 m./s2
3. Gravitational constant ‘G’ = 6.670 x 10 -11 Nm2/Kg2
4. Avogadro’s number ‘N’ = 6.02486 x 1026mol-1
5. Mass energy conversion factor
l a.m.u. = 931.14 MeV
lg = 5.61 x 1026 MeV
le V = 0.51 098 MeV
6. 1 Cal. = 5.185 Joules
7. Refractive Index (µ)of substance
Crown glass = 1.48 to 1.64
Flint Glass = 1.58 to 1.72
Soda Glass = 1.5
Ice = 1.31
Calcite o-ray = 1.66
E-ray = 1.48
Quartz o-ray = 1.544
E-ray = 1.553
Diamond = 2.419
8. Density of some substance in g/cc
Brass = 8.6
Steel = 7.7 to 7.9
Copper = 9.93
9. Specific Heat Capacities of some substance (in Cal.-1gk-1) :
Aluminium = 0.02096
Brass = 0.0890
Copper = 0.0909
Iron = 0.1045
Carbon (graphite) = 0.160
Water = 1.0 (at 150C)
Note : To get specific Heat Capacity in SI units (JKg-1 K-1), multiply above values by
4.184 x 103
10. Specific rotation (ά) for wavelength 5893 A0 at 200 C.
Substance Solvent (ά) deg/dm/g/m3
Cane Sugar Water +66.67
Glucose Water +52.67
Fructose Water -91.5
Turpentine Pure liquid -37.0

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 100

11. Specific resistance (resistivity) and temperature coefficient of substance
Substance Specific resistance (Ωm) Temperature Coefficient (0c-1)
Aluminum 2.45 x 10-8 45 x 10-4
Copper 1.78 x 10-8 43 x 10-4
Platinum 9.81 x 10-8 39.2 x 10-4
Nichrome 110 x 10-8 1.7 x 10-4
Steel 19.9 x 10-8 16.42 x 10-4
Tungsten 6.6 x 10-8 51 x 10-4

12. emf of cell

Daniel cell 1.08 volts
Leclanche cell 1.5 volts
Voltaic cell 1.01 volts
Lead Acid accumulator 1.9-2.2 volts
13. Energy gap for Semiconductors
Germanium 0.76e V
Silicon 1.12eV

14. Universal gas Constant ‘R’ = 8.344 J Mol-1 K-1

15. Boltzmann’s Constant ‘K’ = R/N01 = 1.381 x 10-23 K-1
16. Permittivity of free space (ε0) = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m
17. Rest mass of electron ‘me’ = 9.109 x 10-31 Kg
18. Rest mass of proton ‘mp’ = 1.67264 x 10-27 Kg
19. Rest mass of neutron ‘mn’ = 1.67495 x 10-27 Kg
20. Elementary Charge ‘e’ = 1.602 x 10-19 C
21. Plank’s Constant ‘h’ = 6.626 x 10-34 JS
22. Stefan’s Constant ‘σ’ = 5.670 x 10-8 w/m2.k4
23. Viscosity of liquids and gases :-
Substance Temp. in0C Viscosity in Centipoise
or 10-3 N Sm-2
Water 0 1.786
5 1.514
20 1.002
30 0.798
Alcohol (ethyl) 30 1.192
Castor Oil 20 0.968
Glycerine 20 0.836
Turpentine 20 1.487

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 101

24. Wavelength of some emission lines in Angstrom units.
Substance Wavelength A0 Substance Wavelength in A0
Sodium Mercury 4024
D1 5896 Discharge 4358
D2 5890 Lamp 4959
5461
5770
5791
6152
6232
25. Electro Chemical Equivalent
Substance ECE in g/C
Copper 0.0003293
Hydrogen 0.0000104
Sliver 0.0011182
26. Permeability of free space (µ0)-4πx 10-7 H/m
27. Horizontal Component of earth’s magnetic field - 0.345 x 10-4T (In Delhi)

28. Permeability of magnetic materials

Substance Permeability (H/m)

Nickel 1.26x10-4 - 7.54x10-4 at 0.002 T

Hard Steel(Carbon steel) 1.26x10-4 at 0.002 T
Hard Iron(Cobalt iron ferrite) 2.3x10-2
Soft Iron (Nickel zinc ferrite) 2.0x10-5 - 8.0x10-4
(Magnese zinc ferrite) > 8.0x10-4

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 102

 Extra Lab Schedule Form

Name :
Section :
Adm.No./Roll No. :
Branch :

Details of Extra lab Schedule

Group No. :
Name of Experiment :
Name of Faculty :
Date of allotted experiment:
Date of Extra lab :
Reason for absence in
regular lab :
Signature of student :

Signature of Faculty Signature of Lab Incharge

Note: Only one experiment should be performed in one extra lab. This form
will be submitted in Physics Laboratory.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS, JSSATE, NOIDA Page 103