AMB Design Spreadsheet Equations

Ari Meles-Braverman

Version 1.3
Contents
1 General Motor Equations 2

2 Mechanism Gear Ratio Calculator 3

3 Gear Options Calculator 5

4 Chain/Belt C-C Calculator 5

5 Drivetrain Calculator 6

6 Projectile Trajectory Calculator 7

7 Pneumatics Calculator 9

8 Pneumatic Linkage Calculator 10

9 Lead Screw Calculator 11

10 Beam Bend Calculator 12

Appendix A Maximum Efficiency Derivation 16

Appendix B Chain Length Derivation 17

Appendix C Optimal Shifting Speed Derivation 18

Appendix D Projectile Equation Derivations 19

Appendix E Pneumatics Simulation Derivation 20

Appendix F Equivalent Radius/Load Derivation 21

1
1 General Motor Equations
1.1 Motor System Equations
x̃ denotes the property of a system of equivalent motors connected 1:1 in a gearbox
 
V
ω˜f = ωf · (1)
Vspec
 
V
τ˜s = τs · ηn (2)
Vspec
 
V
i˜f = if · n (3)
Vspec
 
V
i˜s = is · n (4)
Vspec
2πωf · τs
P = (5)
4
 2
2π ω˜f · τ˜s V
P̃ = = P · ηn (6)
4 Vspec
τ˜s
KT = (7)
i˜s − i˜f
ωf = Motor Free Speed
ω˜f = Adjusted Free Speed
τs = Motor Stall Torque
τ˜s = Adjusted Stall Torque
if = Motor Free Current
i˜f = Adjusted Free Current
is = Motor Stall Current
i˜s = Adjusted Stall Current
P = Motor Power
P̃ = Adjusted Motor Power
n = # of Motors
η = Gearbox Efficiency
V = Applied Voltage
Vspec = Specification Voltage (Almost Always 12)
KT = Motor Torque Constant

1.2 Instantaneous Motor Equations

τ
ω = ω˜f · (1 − ) (8)
τ˜s
τ
i = (i˜s − i˜f ) + i˜f (9)
τ˜s
Wout τ · ω(τ ) τ (τ˜s − τ )ω˜f
ηmotor = = = (10)
Win V · i(τ ) V (i˜s τ + i˜f (τ˜s − τ ))
ω = Instantaneous Motor Speed
τ = Instantaneous Motor Torque
i = Instantaneous Motor Current
ηmotor = Instantaneous Motor Efficiency

2
2 Mechanism Gear Ratio Calculator
2.1 General Equations
ω˜f
ωf ree = (11)
G
τ˜s G
Fs = (12)
r
F
ωload = ωf ree · (1 − ) (13)
Fs
vf ree = ωf ree · 2πr (14)
vload = ωload · 2πr (15)
rF i˜f
i= + (16)
KT Gn n
rF
Vs = Vspec (17)
τ˜s ηnG
G = Gear Ratio
η = Gearbox Efficiency
n = # of Motors
F = Load Applied
r = Load Radius
ωf ree = Output Rotational Free Speed
ωload = Output Rotational Loaded Speed
vf ree = Output Linear Free Speed
vload = Output Linear Loaded Speed
i = Current Per Motor
Fs = Stall Load
Vs = Stall Voltage

2.2 Gear Ratio Calculations

2.2.1 Maximum Power
Fs = 2F (18)
Substituting into (12) and solving for G gives:

2rF
G= (19)
τ˜s

2.2.2 Maximum Efficiency

s !
rF i˜s
G= 1+ (20)
τ˜s i˜f
For derivation, see Appendix A

3
2.2.3 At Stall
Fs = F (21)
Substituting into (12) and solving for G gives:

rF
G= (22)
τ˜s

2.2.4 By Rotational Speed (ωload )

We can substitute (8) and (9) into (10):

ω˜f F
ωload = · (1 − τ˜s G ) (23)
G r

Solving for G, we get:

 
ω˜f ωload
r
G= 1 + 1 − 4rF (24)
2ωload τ˜s ω˜f

2.2.5 By Linear Speed (vload )

We can solve (15) for ωload :
vload
ωload = (25)
2πr
Now knowing ωload we can use (24) to calculate G

2.2.6 By Per-Motor Current (i)

Solving (16) for G, we get:
rF
G= (26)
KT (ni − i˜f )

2.2.7 By Stall Load (Fs )

We can solve (12) for G:
rFs
G= (27)
τ˜s

2.2.8 By Stall Voltage (Vs )

Solving (17) for G, we get:
rF
G = 12 (28)
τs ηnVs

4
3 Gear Options Calculator
This calculator uses a brute-force search algorithm to find combinations of gears that
meet the set criteria. All gears in the list must have dp = 20. The formulas used to
check the criteria are:
nx + 2
ODx = [in] (29)
20
nx + ny
C-Cxy = [in] (30)
40

clearancexyz = C-Cxy − 12 ODz (31)

nx = Number of teeth of gear x ∈ [1, 2, 3, 4]
G = Total gear ratio
ODx = Outer diameter of gear x
C-Cxy = Center-to-center distance between gears x and y
clearancexyz = Clearance distance of gear x shaft

4 Chain/Belt C-C Calculator

This method of solving for D is inspired by and based on the formulas used in Clem1640’s
Chain/Belt Calculator. The language in this section will only reference chain, sprockets,
and chain links; but all equations also apply to belts, pulleys, and belt teeth, respectively.

First we start with basic equations for chain and sprockets:

2πri = ni p (32)
L = lp (33)
C = D − (r1 + r2 ) (34)
We can construct an equation to represent the path length of the chain relative to the
center-to-center distance. A derivation of this equation can be found in Appendix B.
 
−1 r1 − r2
p
2 2
L = 2 D − (r1 − r2 ) + 2(r1 − r2 ) cos + 2πr2 (35)
D
Unfortunately we cannot solve this equation analytically to get D, even with the help of
a computer. So we solve the function numerically using the Newton-Raphson Method.
For the forward calculation our initial guess for D is L2 , which would be the case if both
sprockets had diameters of 0. For the reverse calculation, we use the estimated value of
D as the initial guess. The Newton-Raphson Method then improves the accuracy of D
to the correct solution until the error is less than 10−12 .

L = Chain Length
l = # of Links
D = Center to Center Distance
ni = # of Teeth on Sprocket i ∈ [1, 2]
ri = Radius of Sprocket i ∈ [1, 2]
p = Chain Pitch
C = Clearance

5
5 Drivetrain Calculator
5.1 Forward Calculation
Equations taken from JVN’s Mechanical Design Calculator.
ω˜f · πd
vf ree = (36)
G
vadj = vf ree · kSL (37)
W̃ µd i˜f
islip = + (38)
2KT · nG n

5.2 Reverse Calculation

Vbatt − Vmin
itot = (39)
Rbatt + Rmain + n1 Rbr
µdW̃
Gslip = (40)
2KT itot − i˜f

Formulas for vf ree and vadj are the same as for the Forward Calculation – (36) and (37)
respectively

vf ree = Free Speed

vadj = Adjusted Speed
islip = Wheel Slip Current
itot = Maximum Total Current Draw
Gslip = Maximum Gear Ratio to Slip Wheels above Vmin
KT = Motor Torque Constant
ωf = Motor Free Speed
if = Motor Free Current
d = Wheel Diameter
µ = Wheel Coefficient of Friction
W̃ = Adjusted Robot Weight (i.e. weight resting on driven wheels)
G = Total Gear Ratio
kSL = Speed Loss Constant
Vbatt = Battery Resting Voltage
Vmin = Minimum Allowable System Voltage
Rbatt = Battery Internal Resistance
Rmain = Resistance of Main Power Wiring
Rbr = Resistance of Each Branch Circuit

6
6 Projectile Trajectory Calculator
6.1 Forward Calculation
The Forward Calculation uses equations taken from this paper by the University of
Illinois. Three forces can be identified as acting on the ball: gravity, Fg , air drag, FD ,
and lift, FL . The acceleration from these forces is applied at each timestep until the ball
reaches the target or hits the ground.

Fg = mg (−ŷ) (41)

1 π
FD = ρ|v̄|2 Ac CD (−v̂) = ρr2 v 2 CD (−v̂) (42)
2 2
1 π
FL = ρ|v̄|2 Ac CL (ω̂ × v̂) = ρr2 v 2 CL (ω̂ × v̂) (43)
2 2
Combining these gives
X
Fx = max = −FL sin θv − FD cos θv
π
= − ρr2 v 2 (CL sin θv + CD cos θv ) (44)
2
π 2
= − ρr v(CL vy + CD vx )
2
X
Fy = may = FL cos θv − FD sin θv − Fg
π
= ρr2 v 2 (CL cos θv − CD sin θv ) − mg (45)
2
π 2
= ρr v(CL vx − CD vy ) − mg
2

To find the drag coefficient we use an empirically determined graph correlating the drag
coefficient with the Reynolds number, Re = ρvDµ−1 . Since this is a strongly non-linear
correlation, we will use an estimated average velocity to calculate an approximate drag
coefficient to be used throughout the trajectory.

To find the lift coefficient we use the spin factor, S = rωv −1 . The Illinois paper finds a
strong correlation between S and CL , with CL = 1.6S for S < 0.1 and CL = 0.6S + 0.1
for S > 0.1. At every timestep, S and therefore CL are recalculated based on the up-
dated velocity v.

CD = Drag Coefficient
CL = Lift Coefficient
ρ = Air Density
r = Ball Radius
v = Ball Velocity
ω = Ball Rotational Velocity
m = Ball Mass
g = Gravity Constant
θv = Velocity Angle (from +x̂)

7
These equations are good approximations of drag and lift for spherical rotating balls.
For any object in flight you can use the following traditional trajectory equations to
calculate the object’s path with negligible air drag and lift. These will give the same
outputs as the simulation equations above when CD and ω are set to 0.

g · d2
hf = hi + d tan θi − (46)
2vi2 cos2 θi
 
−1 hf − hi
θf = tan 2 − tan θi (47)
d

6.2 Reverse Calculation

 
−1 hf − hi
θi = tan 2 − tan θf (48)
d
s
g·d
vi = sec θi · (49)
|tan θi − tan θf |
hi = Release (Initial) Height
hf = Target (Final) Height
θi = Release (Initial) Angle
θf = Target (Final) Angle
vi = Release (Initial) Velocity
d = Horizontal Distance to Target
g = Acceleration Due to Gravity

For derivation see Appendix D.

8
7 Pneumatics Calculator
The ”simulation” is run at timesteps of dt = 1 second for a duration of 150 seconds.

The pressure at the current step of the simulation can be calculated by:
P
Wcomp − Wcyl
Pn+1 = Pn + (50)
V

Wcomp = V̇comp (P ) · dt · 1atm (51)

πD2 π(D2 − d2 )
 
Wcyl = Ppush + Ppull L · m (52)
4 4
V̇comp (P ) is the compressor flow-rate as a function of the output pressure, taken from
a fourth-degree polynomial interpolation of the data provided online. The volume of
air is measured at atmospheric pressure, not at system pressure. m is the number of
actuations per second (can be 0 when not firing, 1 when firing, or m > 1 if firing more
than once per second).

Derivations of these equations can be found in Appendix E.

We can also calculate the pushing and pulling force of each cylinder using the formulas:

πD2
Fpush = Ppush (53)
4
π(D2 − d2 )
Fpull = Ppull (54)
4
Pn = System Pressure at Step n
V = System Volume
Wcomp = Work Done by the Compressor
Wcyl = Work Done by Each Cylinder
D = Cylinder Diameter
d = Cylinder Rod Diameter
L = Cylinder Length
Ppush = Pushing Pressure
Ppull = Pulling Pressure
Fpush = Pushing Force
Fpull = Pulling Force

9
8 Pneumatic Linkage Calculator

Let θ1 and α1 represent the system when the cylinder is retracted, and θ2 and α2 rep-
resent it when extended.

In the horizontal direction we have:

A + X cos θ1 − Y sin θ1 = L cos α1 (55)

A + X cos θ2 − Y sin θ2 = (L + ∆L) cos α2 (56)

And in the vertical direction we have:

X sin θ1 + Y cos θ1 = B − L sin α1 (57)

X sin θ2 + Y cos θ2 = B − (L + ∆L) sin α2 (58)

We can combine (55) and (57) to remove α1 and get:

L2 = A2 + B 2 + X 2 + Y 2 + 2(AX − BY ) cos θ1 − 2(BX + AY ) sin θ1 (59)

And combine (56) and (58) to remove α2 and get:

(L + ∆L)2 = A2 + B 2 + X 2 + Y 2 + 2(AX − BY ) cos θ2 − 2(BX + AY ) sin θ2 (60)

To derive the forward formulas, you can solve (59) and (60) separately to get expressions
for θ1 and θ2 . To derive the reverse formulas, you can solve (59) and (60) as a system
of equations to get expressions for A and B. I will not include these expressions in this
document, because they are extremely long.

10
9 Lead Screw Calculator
The basic transformation between rotational and linear motion is given by:

v = ω · np (61)

Force & torque equations are taken from Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering §8-2
p
dm = d − (62)
2
 
F dm πµdp + np cos(α)
TR = (63)
2 πdp cos(α) − µnp
 
F dm πµdp − np cos(α)
TL = (64)
2 πdp cos(α) + µnp
Backdrive-able if TL < 0.
TR |µ=0 np πdp cos(α) − µnp
η= = · (65)
TR πdp πµdp + np cos(α)
Equivalent radius/load formulas are designed to allow for lead screws as outputs in the
Mechanism Gear Ratio Calculator. Derivations can be found in Appendix F.
np
req = (66)
2π
TR
LR,eq = (67)
req
TL
LL,eq = (68)
req

d = Screw Diameter
p = Screw Pitch
n = # of Starts
α = Half Thread Angle (i.e. thread2 angle )
µ = Coefficient of Friction of Screw
F = Applied Force
v = Instantaneous Linear Speed
ω = Instantaneous Rotational Speed
dm = Mean (Average) Diameter
TR = Raise Torque
TL = Lower Torque
η = Efficiency
req = Equivalent Radius
LR,eq = Equivalent Raise Load
LL,eq = Equivalent Lower Load
vf ree = Free Speed
vadj = Adjusted Speed
islip = Wheel Slip Current
itot = Maximum Total Current Draw
Gslip = Maximum Gear Ratio to Slip Wheels above Vmin

11
KT = Motor Torque Constant
ωf = Motor Free Speed
if = Motor Free Current
d = Wheel Diameter
µ = Wheel Coefficient of Friction
W̃ = Adjusted Robot Weight (i.e. weight resting on driven wheels)
G = Total Gear Ratio
kSL = Speed Loss Constant
v1 v2
vshif t = (69)
v1 + v2
vshif t = Optimal Shifting Speed
v2 = Gear 1 Free Speed
v2 = Gear 2 Free Speed

For derivation see Appendix C.

9.1 Reverse Calculation

Vbatt − Vmin
itot = (70)
Rbatt + Rmain + n1 Rbr
µdW̃
Gslip = (71)
2KT itot − i˜f

Formulas for vf ree and vadj are the same as for the Forward Calculation – (36) and (37)
respectively

Vbatt = Battery Resting Voltage

Vmin = Minimum Allowable System Voltage
Rbatt = Battery Internal Resistance
Rmain = Resistance of Main Power Wiring
Rbr = Resistance of Each Branch Circuit

10 Beam Bend Calculator

10.1 Geometrical Deformation Resistance
Formulas for deformation resistance constants of different cross-sectional geometries are
taken from StructX.

I = Area (Second) Moment of Inertia

J = Torsion Constant

10.1.1 Hex
I = 0.0601a4 (72)
4
J = 0.1154a (73)
a = Distance Between Flats

12
10.1.2 Round
π 4
I= d (74)
64
π
J = d4 (75)
32
d = Diameter

10.1.3 Round Tube

π 3
I= d h (76)
8
π
J = d3 h (77)
4
d = Diameter
h = Wall Thickness

10.1.4 Square
a4
I= (78)
12
9 4
J= a (79)
64
a = Side Length

10.1.5 Rectangular Tube

1
I = x2 yh (80)
3
2h (x − h)2 (y − h)2
2
J= (81)
h(x + y − h)
x = Length Parallel to Force
y = Length Perpendicular to Force
h = Wall Thickness

10.2 Displacement Equations

Displacement formulas are taken from Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering Appendix A-9

10.2.1 Force Between Supports

13
 F x2 b2
y= [3al − x(3a + b)] (82)
6EIl3
Substitute b = l − a to get:

F x2 (a − l)2
y= [3al − x(2a + l)] (83)
6EIl3
Take the derivative, set equal to zero, and solve for x:

∂y F x(l − a)2
0= = (2a(l − x) − lx) (84)
∂x 2EIl3
2al
x= (85)
2a + l
Substitute (85) into (83) to get:

2F a3 (l − a)2
ymax = (86)
3EI(2a + l)2

y = Vertical Displacement
F = Load Force
a = Distance to Closer Support
l = Distance Between Supports
E = Modulus of Elasticity
I = Area Moment of Inertia

10.2.2 Cantilevered Force

F a2
ymax = (a − 3l) (87)
6EI
ymax = Largest Displacement
F = Load Force
a = Distance to Support
l = Total Length
E = Modulus of Elasticity
I = Area Moment of Inertia

14
10.3 Buckling Force
This formula is taken from the Wikipedia page on Euler’s Critical Load

π 2 EI
Fmax = (88)
(KL)2

Fmax = Maximum Force

E = Modulus of Elasticity
I = Area Moment of Inertia
K = End Condition Constant
L = Column Length

10.4 Twisting Torque

This formula is taken from Shigley’s Mechanical Engineering §3-12
TL
θmax = (89)
GJ
θmax = Largest Angular Displacement
T = Applied Torque
L = Distance Between Torque and Support
G = Shear Modulus
J = Torsion Constant

15
Derivations
A Maximum Efficiency Derivation
To find the maximum efficiency, we take the derivative of (10) and set it equal to 0:

∂η (i˜f (τ − τ˜s )2 − i˜s τ 2 )ω˜f

0= = (90)
∂τ V (i˜s τ + i˜f (τ˜s − τ ))2

Solving for the value of τ at which η is maximized:

q
τ˜s i˜f
τηmax = q p (91)
i˜f + i˜s

We know that τmanip = G · τmotor , so we can substitute τηmax for τmotor :

τmanip r·F r·F

G= = = √ (92)
τmotor τηmax τ˜s i˜f
√ √
i˜f + i˜s

And simplifying gives: s !

rF i˜s
G= 1+ (20)
τ˜s i˜f

16
B Chain Length Derivation

It is clear that:
L = 2X + r1 · 2β + r2 · (2π − 2β) (93)
Looking at the right triangle in the center of the image, we can see that:
p
D2 = X 2 + (r2 − r1 )2 =⇒ X = D2 − (r1 − r2 )2 (94)
   
−1 r2 − r1 −1 r1 − r2
β = cos = cos (95)
D D
Substituting (94) and (95) into (93) gives:
    
−1 r1 − r2 −1 r1 − r2
p
2 2
L = 2 D − (r1 − r2 ) + r1 · 2 cos + r2 · 2π − 2 cos (96)
D D

And rearranging gives:

 
r1 − r2
L = 2 D2 − (r1 − r2 )2 + 2(r1 − r2 ) cos−1
p
+ 2πr2 (35)
D

17
C Optimal Shifting Speed Derivation
The optimal shifting speed is the speed where both high and low gears produce the same
force at the wheel surface.

We will start with the definition of instantaneous motor speed from (8). This can be
solved for the motor torque τ
 
ω
τ = τs 1 − (97)
ωf
Using the equations,
ωr
vw = (98)
G
τG
Fw = (99)
r
we can transform the rotational speed and torque at the motor into the linear speed and
force at the wheel
 
τs G vw G
Fw = 1− (100)
r rωf
To find the optimal shifting speed, we will set the wheel forces at both gear ratios, G1
and G2 , and both wheel radii, r1 and r2 , equal at the shifting speed vshif t
   
τs G1 vshif t · G1 τs G2 vshif t · G2
1− = 1− (101)
r1 r1 ωf r2 r2 ωf
This can then be simplified to
r1 r2 ωf
vshif t = (102)
G2 r1 + G1 r2
Plugging in ω = ωf into (98) gives the free speeds v1 and v2 for each gear ratio

ωf r1
v1 =
G1
ωf r2 (103)
v2 =
G2
Then it is easy to see that
1 v1 v2
vshif t = 1 1 = = v1 k v2 (69)
v1 + v2
v1 + v2

18
D Projectile Equation Derivations
Starting with basic projectile motion equations:

∆x = vi cos θi · t (104)

∆y = vi sin θi · t − 12 gt2 (105)

   
−1 vf,y −1 vi sin θi − gt
θf = tan = tan (106)
vf,x vi cos θi
Solving (104) for t and substituting into (105) gives:

g · (∆x)2
∆y = ∆x tan θi − (107)
2vi2 cos2 θi

We can then substitute in ∆x = d and ∆y = hf − hi :

g · d2
hf = hi + d tan θi − (46)
2vi2 cos2 θi

Solving (104) for t and substituting into (106) gives:

∆x
!
v sin θ − g ·
 
−1 i i vi cos θi −1 g·d
θf = tan = tan tan θi − 2 (108)
vi cos θi vi cos2 θi

Further substituting in (46) into (108) gives:

 
−1 2
θf = tan tan θi − (d tan θi − (hf − hi )) (109)
d

And by simplifying we get:

 
−1 hf − hi
θf = tan 2 − tan θi (47)
d

To calculate the reverse equations, we can solve (109) for θi :

 
−1 hf − hi
θi = tan 2 − tan θf (48)
d

Then substitute (46) into (48):

g · d2
 
2
tan θi + tan θf = d tan θi − (110)
d 2vi2 cos2 θi

And solve that for vi : s

g·d
vi = sec θi · (49)
|tan θi − tan θf |

19
E Pneumatics Simulation Derivation
We know that the energy of the system at any point can be represented by:

E =P ·V (111)

We can find the energy of the system at any timestep by adding the total work done on
the system in that time to the energy of the system at the previous step:

En+1 = En + Wtot (112)

Substituting (111) into (112) gives:

X
(P V )n+1 = (P V )n + Wcomp − Wcyl (113)

Since the volume of the system remains constant, we can divide by V to get:
P
Wcomp − Wcyl
Pn+1 = Pn + (50)
V
Basic thermodynamics says that the work done by compression/expansion of gas at
constant pressure can be represented by W = P · ∆V . In each actuation of a cylinder
gas is compressed twice, once for extension and once for retraction. So for each timestep,
the work done on the cylinder can be expressed as:

Wcyl = ((P AL)push + (P AL)pull ) · m (114)

L is constant, so it can be factored out. We can also substitute A for the effective piston
areas, giving:
πD2 π(D2 − d2 )
 
Wcyl = Ppush + Ppull L · m (52)
4 4
Similarly, we can represent the work done by the compressor as:

Wcomp = V̇comp (P ) · dt · 1atm (51)

Note: since V̇comp is measured at atmospheric pressure, P must be 1 atm and not the
system pressure

20
F Equivalent Radius/Load Derivation
To find the equivalent radius, we equate the rotational → linear motion transformation
equations for both a wheel (15) and lead screw (61)

2πr · ω = v = ω · np (115)

We can then solve for r = req to find the radius that will provide the same rotational
→ linear motion transformation as the given lead screw
np
req = (66)
2π
We want to conserve the work done by a lead screw and equivalent wheel across one
rotation (where x can be L or R).

W = 2πreq · Lx,eq = 2πTx (116)

Solving for Lx,eq , we get:

Tx
Lx,eq = (117)
req

21