Structural Mapping

Tools and Techniques

 Structural Mapping
Some Basic Principles
•  Where do I
start?
•  What do I
map?
•  What tools
do I have?
 So what is structural mapping?
•  Determining the geometry (ie, orientation +
shape) of rock units, fabrics, discontinuities
–  mapping contacts, patterns, relationships are the key
•  Determining movement sense and displacement
on structures
•  Determining the patterns and history of
structures (damage zones)
–  mapping in 4D!

•  Then place mineralisation and rock quality

distribution within this context
 What do we map?
Not just primary rock types
•  Why is >90% of the effort in most geological
maps devoted to primary rock identification and
mapping, when mineralisation is generally
related to alteration and structure?
•  Faults / shear zones are rock bodies, so map
them as such.
 What tools do we have?
•  Stratigraphy
–  was originally horizontal and laid down in a particular
order
–  younging, or “way-up” indicators
•  Structural fabrics and deformation
–  know how to recognise them
–  know what processes they represent
•  Geochronology
–  cross cutting relationships, structural overprinting
radiometric dating
•  Geometrical principles
–  Pattern recognition
–  structural balancing
 What digital tools do we have?
2D and 3D modelling packages – to assess drilling and
regional to local data sets (geology, geochemistry and
geophysics + regolith) ……….in Australia common software
(excluding geochemistry software such as ioglobal)

3D – regional to camp scale

e.g., GoCad, Geomodeller, Leapfrog, Vulcan, FracSIS

2D
e.g. Mapinfo, Arc-GIS

Mine scale
e.g., Vulcan, Datamine, Surpac, Micromine, Minesight,
Leapfrog, GoCad, FracSIS
 Using these
tools is how
we go from
this…

To this –
a map
attributed in
“4D”
The Importance of Getting Timing Right
•  A key conclusion is therefore that application of
structural control principles requires that the timing
of mineralisation must be carefully matched with
the history of activity on the fault system
Golden Mile

Regional cleavage cuts high-grade mineralisation

Structure active during
mineralisation
HOW DO YOU KNOW THIS IS RELATED TO GOLD??
 CRITICAL POINT
•  LINKING the alteration with the structural evolution
(and by inference to the gold-bearing fluids)
•  Remember 20 Sydney Harbours to make 5 mOz!
•  Understanding alteration is VERY important for
understanding ore shoot controls and the timing of
gold mineralisation
 How do you link veins to Au?
Gold related wall rock alteration a good start

Revenge Complex – from Nguyen, 1997

NW SE

•  Extension veins photo

Wallaby
 Extension vein (gold
related alteration) with
inferred SYN GOLD σ3
direction

σ3

σ3
En Echelon Gold Veins
Timing of gold with respect to veining can
be a big problem & sometimes not !
NW SE

Gold lode

NW SE
 Gold-related
alteration around vein
 Gold-related
alteration around vein
 Classic 440 Ma gold structure in
Victoria
W E
•  What’s the gold
Fault related to in this case?
•  Let’s have a close look
at the quartz veins

Extension
vein
 Problem?
Au and sphalerite along late (V4) fractures in quartz.
 V4

V1
S N
V1

V4
Au at dip change – S plunge!

S/s 1.5 m wide

 Gold is related to small
Small scale
scale over print
Quartz is just a host!
 Linking gold to striation data on faults

•  Much harder to do than with vein analysis

•  Major problem is later reactivation of faults
i.e. is it just a late over print being mapped?
•  If using striation data best approach is to
validate with other methods. e.g., if the data
suggests it’s a thrust does the gold sit in
areas typical of thrusts i.e. lower angle
dipping segments of the faults?
 Kinematic Analysis
Is the gold over printed ?

If veins reflect oblique slip on an inherited fault in a compression

setting (=vertical σ3) veins may not reflect regional σ3 (i.e. be flat-
dipping) they may just give the incremental stretch linked to fault-
slip (and veins could be inclined).
Gold striation
 Linking gold to S-C fabrics

•  Need to identify ore-related mineralogy

•  Is the lineation associated with the S-C fabric
defined by minerals coeval with gold?
 C

S
Gold related alteration
along C plane
Gold
 Kinematics are critical to predictive
capabilities of structural models
•  to build 4D architecture to
•  predict the location, shape and plunge of zones of
maximum damage / dilation.
•  to determine location of orebody/oreshoot offsets

Zone of dilation associated with

subtle left bend on sinistral fault
 •  We need to know
which structures
were active during
mineralisation

•  We must code
structural timings
into our geological
interpretations
 To this –
a map
attributed in
“4D”

Courtesy Geoinformatics
Example of using different data
sets at different scales right
down to targeting within a camp

Geochemistry/ geochronology
St Ives
Nguyen 1997
Relative fault size should be apparent in mapping and able
to be queried in database
 What is structural mapping?
•  Structural mapping is simply good geological
mapping (3D) with a strong dynamic focus (4D)
–  i.e., what does the geology look like now and, most
importantly, how did it get that way?

•  It is this understanding that leads to predictive

capacity!

•  ...some aspects of geological mapping to keep in

mind...
Work in plan and section
 Keys to geological mapping
•  Collect the data you need, not data for data’s sake
–  maintain context of what you are trying to achieve
•  Chase contacts
•  Work in plan and section at the same time
•  Work in 4D
•  Follow geometrical principles - geology is fractal in
nature, pattern recognition is key
•  Start interpreting right from the start!
–  Mapping is iterative, and geological maps should constantly
evolve
•  Stretch the data and make decisions about relationships
Structural geology sketch map linked
to 3D model showing shoot controls
Isotropic Leapfrog Au draped onto 360 mid point – looking down to east

Plunge = strike-slip?
N

Sealed below
agc

22 RL

350 lode
intersection
Lamprophyre
385 lode
intersection intersection

Fault blank McClarty agd

Lamprophyre intersection
 Collect the data you need
•  The relative size and importance of features
should be reflected in your map
•  Maintain context…why are you mapping in
the first place?
•  Don’t just map “data”- map relationships.

•  In the map opposite from an underground

crosscut, mineralised veins are red and
faults are blue. Which faults are likely to be
HG
the main controls on grade distribution?
CS
•  Younger faults are:
–  Often puggy or cause broken
ground
–  Carbonate-epidote-clay altered,
with bleached haloes
–  May re-activate old faults

Core logging dominated by •  Older faults are:

more obvious younger faults.
–  Healed, sometimes hard to see
Many old, syn-mineral faults
were missed or mis-logged as –  Seldom noted in core logging
primary breccias –  Qz-mt-bi altered, the same as the
mineralisation
–  Active at the time of
mineralisation
 CRITICAL POINT
•  LINKING the alteration with the structural
evolution
•  Major draw back with most studies (i.e. too
structural or too geochemically focussed)
•  VERY important for understanding ore
shoot controls – will highlight some
examples later in the course via a practical
 Importance of paragenesis

McCuaig 2006
Deposit Scale Paragenesis (outcrop by outcrop)
360 lode vs. 350 lode
 Regional Scale Paragenesis (orebody by orebody)

Wallaby - Sunrise Dam correlation

 Keys to geological mapping
•  Collect the data you need, not data for data’s sake
–  maintain context of what you are trying to achieve
•  Map contacts
•  Work in plan and section at the same time
•  Work in 4D
•  Follow geometrical principles - geology is fractal in
nature, pattern recognition is key
•  Start interpreting right from the start!
–  Mapping is iterative, and geological maps should constantly
evolve
•  Stretch the data and make decisions about relationships
What about using 3D software?
•  This is very relevant at the mine scale where high
density 3D data exists

Q. How can the key aspects of a system at the mine

scale be unravelled quickly (<3 months)?
A.  Need to target mapping within a 3D search space
using 3D software to minimise mapping of non
critical areas
Work in plan and section
 PRACTICALS
•  Marie Kathelyn prac